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D A I R Y L I N K — E S T A B L I S H I N G P A S T U R ES

Pasture species

Annual grass crops

MaizeMilletOatsPrairie grassRyegrass—annualSorghum—hybrid forageSorghum—sweetSudan grass

Perennial grasses

CocksfootKikuyuPaspalumRhodes grassRyegrass—perennialPerennial ryegrass – white clover pasturesSetariaTall fescue

Annual legumes

Balansa cloverBerseem cloverCowpeaLablabPersian cloverSoybeanHigh density legumes

Perennial legumes

Kenya white cloverLotusLucernePinto peanutRed cloverStrawberry cloverSubterranean cloverWhite clover

Other pasture species

ChicoryMost of the drawings in this section have beenreproduced with the kind permission of WestpacBanking Corporation. © Westpac 1961

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Annual grass crops

ANNUAL RYEGRASS—SeeRyegrass

MAIZE (Zea mays)

High yielding fodder crop producing highquality roughage with a metabolisableenergy (ME) > 10 MJ/kg. Can be storedlong-term as silage for supplementationwhen paddock feed is low. Can also beused to increase stocking rates and thus toincrease pasture use efficiency.

Strengths: High potential yields—up to25 t/ha dry matter. Useful cleaning crop ina pasture rotation to break disease andinsect cycle. Maize silage in storage isusually much cheaper than purchasedroughage of similar quality.

Weaknesses: Costly to grow; failure isexpensive. A large capital infrastructure isrequired to plant, harvest, store and feedout the crop. With machinery in place,production is cost-effective. Low inprotein; high protein supplementationrequired. Cannot be grazed.

Seasonality: Can be planted from lateOctober to January, depending on thedistrict and the maturity of the varietysown. Highly susceptible to frosts; choosesowing date and variety combinations toavoid frosts before the crop is ready toharvest.

Persistence: 100–150 days from plantingto harvest.

Varieties: Early: 75–95 days Mid season:110–120 days Late: 120–130 days.

Sowing: Sow into a weed-free, wellprepared seedbed. Use precision sowing toensure a density of 60–90 000 plants perhectare in rows 75–90cm apart.

Feed quality: Silage made from maizeharvested when the milk line in the grainis half-way across the kernel will have an

ME content of 9.5–10.5MJ/kg. Proteincontent, however, is very low: 5%–7%.Use protein feed supplements when maizeforms a high proportion of the diet.

Diseases: Leaf diseases and stalk rots.Use resistant varieties.

Pests: Cutworms, black beetle andwireworms can seriously limit yield.

Grazing management: Not suitable forgrazing. Feed as green-chop or silageinstead.

Companion species: Legumes have beengrown with maize to increase total proteincontent, but the maize yield suffers.Sunflowers have also been grown withmaize to increase energy concentration,but these combinations are difficult tomanage. The aim should be to get thehighest yielding maize crop possible.

Special factors: Weeds can compete withmaize crops and substantially reduceyields if not controlled. Use a combinationof pre- and post-emergence herbicides.

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MILLET

There are two distinct types of milletsown as summer fodder crops—Japaneseand pearl.

Strengths: Produces feed during summerand early autumn. Growth is rapid. Drymatter yields can be high. Suitable for hayor silage. Useful because cultivation forestablishment cleans up summer-growingweeds.

Weaknesses: Pearl millet can be difficultto establish—needs a clean seedbed. Feedquality declines rapidly with advancingmaturity—plants should be grazed whenyoung. Rapid growth rate makesmanagement for best feed quality difficult.

Japanese millet (Echinochloa utilis)

Strengths: Germinates under the coolersoil temperatures of spring (14°C) betterthan other millets and sorghums. Valuableas a short-term rotation crop for spring –early summer grazing, before the groundis prepared for the next crop or pasture.Rapid early growth can fill feed shortfallsin early summer after floods or drought.Good grazing is available 6–7 weeks aftersowing. Gives two good grazings innorthern NSW and repeated grazings inthe cooler southern areas.

Weaknesses: Runs quickly to head underhot and dry conditions.

Varieties: Shirohie.

Sowing: Sow at 15–20 kg/ha into cleanseedbed, late September onwards.

Feed quality: Fair if grazed whenyoung—ME 8.5–9.5 MJ/kg. Proteincontent can decline from 25% to 6% withadvancing maturity.

Diseases: None significant.

Pests: None significant.

Grazing management: Grazing beforegrowth becomes too advanced aidsrecovery and lengthens the grazing life.

Introduce stock when plants are 15–22 cmhigh.

Companion species: Millets are normallysown without any companion species, aslegumes grow too slowly to be useful incombination.

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Requires higher soil temperatures (18°C)than Japanese millet for germination.Maximum growth during summer andearly autumn.

Strengths: Higher digestibility throughoutits growth cycle than forage sorghums.

Weaknesses: Often will not germinateand establish effectively. Extreme care isrequired in seedbed preparation, sowingdepth and avoiding compaction at sowing.

Varieties: Nutrifeed, Feedmill, Supermill,Katherine, Ingrid, Tamworth.

Sowing: Sow at 5–15kg/ha into a cleanseedbed, mid November – mid December.

Feed quality: High, but declines quicklywith advancing maturity—ME is in therange 8.5–9.5MJ/kg. Protein content candecline from 25% to 6% with advancingmaturity.

Grazing management: Introduce stockwhen plants are 45–90cm high. If leftungrazed, plants can reach 3m, and theirrapid growth can cause managementproblems in maintaining high feed quality.

OATS (Avena sativa)

Although largely replaced by annualryegrass, oats can be a useful winterforage crop.

Strengths: Large seed well suited tooversowing or direct-drilling into existingsummer-growing pastures. Can be sown inmixtures with ryegrass to supply extrafeed in late autumn – early winter.Produces vigorous seedlings. Two weeksquicker to first grazing than annual andItalian ryegrass. Produces high quality

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feed in late winter – spring. With repeatedgrazings, oats thin out and are gone byearly spring, leaving the ryegrass tocontinue without competition for anotherfew months into late spring – earlysummer. N fertiliser can producesignificant increases in feed whenrequired. Excess growth can be conservedas medium to high quality hay or silage.Growth rhythm complementary tosummer-growing species such as kikuyu.

Weaknesses: Overall, oats do not producethe yield of forage over the extendedperiod that ryegrass does. The forage isalso less digestible and lower in feedvalue. Feed supply will not extend intolate spring – early summer. Susceptible tograzing mismanagement: grazing off thegrowing points at the wrong time canseriously impair regrowth and feedproduction. The high rates of nitrogenrequired for high production could pollutestreams and ground water.

Varieties: Wide range of varietiesincluding Saia, Enterprise, Yarran, Bimbil,Condamine, Culgoa, Cleanleaf, Blackbutt,Amby, Graza, Panorama, Camellia. Sownin mixtures, Saia is still the preferredcultivar. Enterprise has shown up well inearly season production. Others withpromise include Yarran, Bimbil,Condamine and Culgoa.

Sowing: Sow early autumn – early winterat 100–130kg/ha. Rates will be lowerwith smaller-seeded oats such as Saia.Reduce rate when sowing with annualryegrass. Drill or broadcast into a cleanseedbed. Direct-drill early sowings aftersuppression of summer pasture withherbicides. Later sowings willsuccessfully establish after control ofsummer pasture by slashing or mulching.

Diseases: Most cultivars are affected byrust and yellow dwarf virus, which reduceyield and crop life.


Grazing management: Graze whenplants are 20–30cm high. After grazing,topdressing with nitrogen at 30–60kg Nper hectare will promote good regrowth.Up to four grazings are possible beforeoats thin out. Grazing to a height abovethe plants’ growing point will maintain thedensity of the crop and prolong itsproductive life.

PRAIRIE GRASS (Bromusunioloides)

Often naturalised in coastal dairy pastures.Produces high-quality feed in early spring.The naturalised strains mature rapidly andseed early, losing their quality.Commercial strains are later maturing andmore useful for quality feed production inlate spring and summer. Some of theimproved strains are more perennial.

Strengths: Produces high-quality feed inearly spring and high autumn growth rates.

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Weaknesses: Weakly perennial. Candecline rapidly if grazing is notrotationally managed.

Seasonality: Perennial types produceautumn, winter and spring feed. Winterproduction can be higher than from othergrasses. Sow early for best winter growth.

Varieties: Grasslands Matua

Sowing: Large seed; 120000 seeds/kg.Sow 15–30kg/ha alone or 5–8kg/ha withother grasses and clovers. De-awned andfungicide-coated seed (see 2.4) isavailable and flows more easily throughmachinery. Sow de-awned seed at half thenormal rate. Sow in autumn.

Feed quality: High-quality feed. Highlypalatable, making it prone to overgrazing.Feed quality declines near flowering andmaturity.

Diseases: Seed must be treated withfungicide before sowing.


Grazing management: Because of itshigh palatability, prairie grass must begrazed strictly rotationally. Can be usedfor hay crops, especially when combinedwith legumes such as red or berseemclover.

Companion species: Perennial ryegrass,white clover, red clover, berseem clover.

RYEGRASS —Annual ryegrass(Lolium rigidum, L. multiflorum)

Annual ryegrasses have become a majorsource of winter–spring forage over thelast 20 years. They have replaced oats andother forage crops, mainly because oftheir longer growing season and betterfeed quality.

Strengths: Large seed well suited tooversowing or direct-drilling into existingsummer-growing pastures. Producesvigorous seedlings. Provides forage May–December, around two months later than

oats. Produces high quality feed in latewinter – spring. Mixture of annualryegrasses and oats allows the strengths ofone to cover the weaknesses of the other,and gives a more even distribution offorage throughout the season. Nitrogenfertiliser can produce significant increasesin feed when feed is required. Excessgrowth can be conserved as medium tohigh quality hay or silage. Growth rhythmcomplementary to summer-growingspecies such as kikuyu.

Weaknesses: Being annuals, plants willseed down in late spring, but regenerationfrom seed in the following autumn canoften be poor. For best results, sow annualryegrasses each year. No production inautumn – early winter.

Varieties: Concord, Conquest, Corvette,Eclipse, Midmar, Aristocrat, Surrey,Noble, Tetila. Leading varieties in recentyears have been Concord, Tetila,Aristocrat, Eclipse, Midmar, Southern Starand Surrey.

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Sowing: For maximum production, sow inearly autumn at 10–25 kg/ha. Use thehigher rate for early production and thelower rates with clover and perennialryegrass. Broadcast or drill into cleanseedbeds. Direct-drill into clean seedbedsor after suppression of summer pasturegrowth with herbicides. For later sowingsin late autumn – early winter, slashing isoften sufficient to both cover the seed andremove competition.

Feed quality: High at the early grazingsand then declines with maturity in spring.Late-flowering varieties (for example,Concord) provide better quality forage inspring than early-flowering varieties.

Diseases: Rusts, such as leaf and crownrust, can be a major problem in areaswhere hay is made from ryegrass inspring. Grazing management and nitrogentopdressing can reduce rust incidence.Most varieties have a rust rating of light tomoderate. Eclipse is very light to light andTetila is moderate to heavy. Host forannual ryegrass toxicity syndrome.


Grazing management: Begin grazingwhen plants have reached the 3-leaf stage,at 6–8 weeks after sowing. Repeat at 3–4weeks after each grazing. Annualryegrasses respond well to nitrogenapplication after grazing. Apply 30–50 kgN/ha after each grazing; higher rates canbe used during winter in colder areas.

Companion species: Besides oats, whiteand red clover can be sown with annualryegrass to increase forage yield andquality later in the season.

SORGHUM—Hybrid foragesorghum (Sorghum bicolor × S.sudanense)

Summer-growing fodder crop. Can be cutor grazed up to 3 times. More suited tohay or silage because of potential to

mature quickly.

Strengths: Rapid growth produces a largebulk of feed quickly in summer – earlyautumn. Good dry weather performance.Dry matter yields can be high. Can beused to build up depleted feed stocksquickly. Can be conserved as hay or silagefor reserve feed. Useful becausecultivation for establishment cleans upsummer-growing weeds.

Weaknesses: Quality declines rapidlywith advancing maturity if not harvestedearly for forage. Should be grazed whenyoung, but can cause prussic acid(cyanide) poisoning if grazed when veryyoung or stressed. Requires clean seedbedfor effective establishment. Rapid growthrate makes management for best feedquality difficult.

Seasonality: Summer-growing foddercrop. Frost-susceptible. Soil temperaturedictates sowing time in early summer.

Varieties: Speed Feed, Super Sudax,Cowpow, Jumbo. Late-maturing varietiesthat require shortening days to stimulateflowering are available; for example,Jumbo. These varieties are easier tomanage and do not decline as rapidly inquality as other varieties.

Sowing: Sow into a clean seedbedNovember–January at 5–10kg/ha underdryland conditions and up to 15kg/haunder high rainfall or irrigation. Minimumsoil temperature 18°C.

Feed quality: Best when plants areharvested at 1–1.5m tall. Digestibility atthis stage is 65%; ME 9.5MJ/kg. Qualitydeclines rapidly with maturity and can beas low as 50% digestibility and 6.5–7MJ/kg ME. More highly digestible, brown-midrib varieties are now available. Proteincontent can decline from 25% to 6% withadvancing maturity.


Pests: Armyworms can cause severe

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damage to seedlings and to leaves ofgrowing plants. Black beetle.

Grazing management: Probably best touse for hay or silage production. If usedfor grazing, it is important to start grazingas soon as plants are more than 50cmhigh and safe from prussic acid poisoningas they will be growing very quickly anddeclining in quality. Best to strip-grazeand back-fence to allow plants to recoverquickly.

Companion species: Best in pure stands.

Special factors: Stock require sodium andsulphur supplements with sorghum.

SORGHUM—Sweet sorghum(Sorghum bicolor)

Summer-growing forage crop thatproduces high yields of moderate qualityfeed. Not grown as extensively in recentyears as in the past, when it provided avaluable bridge between summer andwinter pastures for late autumn – earlywinter feed.

Sowing hybrid cultivars in mid spring canoften provide two silage cuts during theseason, whereas open-pollinated cultivarswill generally give only one silage cut andsome grazing on the regrowth in autumn.

Strengths: Versatile and cheap source ofenergy—can be grazed, green-chopped,ensiled or left in the paddock untilrequired. Rapid growth produces a largebulk of feed quickly in summer – earlyautumn. Dry matter yields can be high.Can be used to build up depleted feedstocks quickly. Can be conserved as hayor silage for reserve feed. Useful becausecultivation for establishment cleans upsummer-growing weeds.

Weaknesses: The decline in use of sweetsorghum comes largely from the need forquick rotation of crops between summerand winter. Sweet sorghum can lock upproductive land for too long in autumn

and delay the sowing of winter pasturesand forage crops, thus reducing yield.Quality declines rapidly with advancingmaturity if the sorghum is not harvestedearly for forage. Should be grazed whenyoung, but can cause prussic acidpoisoning if grazed when very young orstressed. Often poor regrowth aftergrazing. Requires clean seedbed foreffective establishment. Rapid growth ratemakes management for best feed qualitydifficult. Highest yield as standalone cropfor silage and grazing.

Varieties: Sugargraze, Sugarsweet,Saccaline (open pollinated), FS26.Sugargraze and FS26 are preferred.

Sowing: Sow November–January into aclean seedbed at 10–20kg/ha. Eitherbroadcast or drill into rows 35–55cmapart. Don’t sow too late in frost-pronedistricts.

Feed quality: ME 7.7–8.6MJ/kg, crudeprotein 5.6%–8.6%, digestibility 51%–57%.

Diseases: In coastal districts, sweetsorghum can suffer damage from leafblight, rust, root and stalk rot, andseedling blights. Control measures dependlargely on good management and croprotation.

Pests: Cutworms, armyworms, wire-worms and black beetle can reduce yields.

Grazing management: If the sorghum isto be used for grazing, avoid stressedplants and young plants below 50cmhigh, which can contain potentially highamounts of prussic acid. In someinstances, sweet sorghum plants mayratoon and grow again in the next year,but plant density declines to about halfthat of the original population, and it isnot usually economic to leave such cropsfor a second year.

Special factors: Stock require sodium andsulphur supplements with sorghum.

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SUDAN GRASS (Sorghumsudanense)

Summer-growing fodder crop. Can be cutor grazed up to 3 times or used for hay orsilage. Open pollinated and hybrid typesavailable. Sweet sudan grass hybrids havebeen developed.

Strengths: Rapid growth produces a largebulk of feed quickly in summer – earlyautumn. Dry matter yields can be high.Thinner stems and higher leaf contentallow for higher quality forage than hybridforage sorghums, but yields are lower.Rapid growth more manageable thanhybrid forage sorghums. Lower prussicacid poisoning potential than hybridforage sorghums. Can be used to build updepleted feed stocks quickly. Can beconserved as hay or silage for reservefeed. Useful because cultivation forestablishment cleans up summer-growingweeds.

Weaknesses: Quality declines rapidlywith advancing maturity if not harvestedearly for forage. Should be grazed whenyoung, but can cause prussic acid(cyanide) poisoning if grazed when veryyoung or stressed. Requires clean seedbedfor effective establishment.

Seasonality: Summer producer. Can besown when soil temperature reaches 18˚C.

Varieties: Open pollinated: Greenleaf,Piper; Hybrid: Trudan, Superdan, SweetSudan.

Sowing: Sow into clean seedbed earlyNovember – January. Sow at 3–8kg/ha in35cm rows rainfed, 8–10kg/ha in 35cmrows irrigated, 10–15kg/ha broadcast.

Feed quality: Declines rapidly withincreasing age.


Pests: Armyworm and cutworm can causeserious damage to seedlings and matureplants.

Grazing management: Graze whenplants are taller than 45cm to reduce riskof prussic acid poisoning. Don’t delay toolong, though, as quality drops quickly. Cutwell before maturity to obtain effectiveregrowth. Suitable for round bale silagebecause of its thin stems.

Companion species: Best grown alone.

Special factors: Stock require sodium andsulphur supplements with sudan grass.The potential for prussic acid poisoning isretained with haymaking but there havebeen no reported difficulties with silage.

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Perennial grasses

COCKSFOOT (Dactylisglomerata)

Strongly tufted, erect perennial. Purplish-green flowering heads in one-sidedclusters.

Strengths: Better summer growth andmore drought tolerance than perennialryegrass. Greater tolerance to acidic soilsand aluminium than fescue or phalaris.Tolerates poorly fertile soils better thanother perennial grasses. Well suited tocattle grazing in more heavily stockeddry-run situations.

Weaknesses: Requires good drainage.Forms tussocks if not grazed heavilyenough. Poorest quality of all theperennial grasses.

Seasonality: Two distinct types: European(summer-active and winter-dormant) andMediterranean (winter-active andsummer-dormant). Summer-active typeshave filled a useful role in the SouthernHighlands. Persistence is good on well-drained soils with the right grazingmanagement.

Varieties: Porto, Grasslands Kara, Currie.

Sowing: Sow at 2–4kg/ha into a cleanseedbed, no more than 2cm deep. Plant inautumn or spring or mild winter.

Feed quality: 60%–70% digestibility,9.5–10.5MJ/kg ME, 10%–18% crudeprotein. Poorer quality than perennialryegrass.

Diseases: Leaf rust can be a periodicproblem.

Pests: Grass grubs and cockchafers—phalaris and fescue are more tolerant.

Grazing management: Persists bestwhen moderately and rotationally grazed.But grazing pressure must be sufficient toprevent the development of tussocks andshading of associated legumes.

Companion species: Often sown inmixtures with other more nutritiousgrasses such as perennial ryegrass (earlymaturity types), fescue and phalaris. Sownwith white clover or subclover.

FESCUE—See Tall Fescue

KIKUYU (Pennisetumclandestinum)

Vigorous, summer-growing perennialgrass. Responds well to nitrogen fertiliser.Can produce large quantities of medium-quality feed from late spring to autumn.

Strengths: High production from latespring to autumn. Tolerant of dryconditions. Capable of supporting veryhigh stocking rates. Resilient to grazing.High protein content for summer-growing

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grass. Responsive to N fertiliser. Vigorousgrowth excludes weeds.

Weaknesses: Decline in nutritive valuewith advancing age. Apparent seriousdecline in quality in autumn. Susceptibleto frosts. Strong seasonality ofproduction—no winter – early springgrowth. Vigorous growth excludesestablishment of autumn–winter–springspecies such as white clover and ryegrassin autumn. Susceptible to kikuyu yellows.Requires high fertility.

Seasonality: Most rapid growth in latesummer – early autumn. Nitrogenfertiliser can stimulate earlier springproduction. Autumn saving can carryforward medium quality feed to lateautumn – early winter. Highly persistent—difficult to eradicate seeding strains.

Varieties: Common (runners only);Whittet, Noonan.

Sowing: Runners, turf or rotary-hoedpieces (1 runner per square metre). Sowseed at 1–4kg/ha in early autumn, or inspring – early summer with irrigation.Drill or broadcast into a clean seedbed.Slow to establish.

Feed quality: Protein content anddigestibility decline with age and arehigher when N fertiliser is applied. Proteincontent at 3 and 6 weeks is 17% and 14%without N and 23% and 14% with 130kgN/ha. Digestibility at 3 and 6 weeks is73% and 65% with 130kg N/ha. Qualityis best when stolons are removed byslashing and mulching and when thesward is kept leafy.

Diseases: Kikuyu yellows severelyreduces swards north of Taree. Noonan isresistant.

Pests: Armyworms can eat large amountsof kikuyu.

Grazing management: Remove stolonsby slashing early in the season. Graze at3–4 weeks’ regrowth. Remove excessmaterial after grazing with followers, byslashing or mulching, or with acombination of both. Kikuyu is a vigorouscompetitor with high quality pasturespecies such as perennial ryegrass andwhite clover and should be controlled toobtain the best from these species.

Companion species: Late autumn –spring production can be improved by

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direct-drilling annual ryegrasses or oats.With careful management white clovercan be grown in association with kikuyu.

PASPALUM (Paspalum dilatatum)

Summer-growing perennial grass. Usuallysown with legumes, particularly whiteclover. Characterised by vigorous summergrowth, which is often difficult to controleffectively by grazing. Usually has to beslashed or mown during summer tocontrol excess growth and keep availablea fresh supply of young, highly digestiblefeed. Summer-growing pastures based onpaspalum have been replaced by kikuyualong the coast, although paspalum withwhite clover is still used in irrigationareas.

Strengths: Grows quickly and produceswell during summer, but requires goodgrazing management or slashing to restrictseed production and ergot formation.Quality of forage declines rapidly asplants run to head in late summer andautumn. Useful grass in wetlands as it cantolerate waterlogging. Often added toother grasses as it is relatively cheap.Basis for summer-growing pastures inirrigation areas as it combines effectivelywith white clover. Withstands effects ofheavy grazing. Seed heads can be infectedwith ergot, which can poison livestock.

Weaknesses: Persistence appears todepend on soil fertility. If fertilitydeclines, carpet grass comes in to replaceit. As fertility increases, kikuyu oftenbecomes dominant. Only moderatelytolerant of frosts. Rapid decline in feedquality with advancing maturity,particularly as it approaches maturity inlate summer and autumn. Prone toinfection with ergot when allowed to go tohead; livestock poisoning is possible.

Varieties: Common.

Sowing: Sow at 4–10kg/ha in spring –

early autumn. Drill or broadcast withcompanion legumes into a clean seedbedand lightly cover seed.

Feed quality: Feed quality is generallygood for young leafy material, but fallsdrastically when plants run to head.Slashing of the stemmy growth willbenefit white clover and improve the feedvalue of the pasture.

Diseases: Ergot poisoning mostcommonly affects cattle when earlysummer rains, which promote rapidgrowth and maturity of the paspalum, arefollowed by a relatively dry period.

Pests: Occasional problems for paspalumcan arise from attack by black beetles,cutworms, armyworms and scarabs.

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Grazing management: To maintain feedquality, keep plants short to prevent themfrom running to head. Where grazingpressure is insufficient, slash.

Companion species: White clover is themost common companion species sownwith paspalum. Its persistence in thesward can be encouraged by heavygrazing in late summer and fertiliserapplication in autumn.

PERENNIAL RYEGRASS—SeeRyegrass

RHODES GRASS (Chlorisgayana)

Summer-growing perennial. Forms strongbunch-type stools and stolons anchoring atthe nodes to give rapid soil coverage.

Strengths: Establishes well on poorersoils and is an ideal species for soilbinding and erosion control. Thoughprimarily a summer grower, it showsmoderate frost-tolerance and can providegrazing well into late autumn in mostareas. Responds well to improved fertilityfrom associated legumes, but can rundown where fertility is not maintained.Tolerant to salt, more so than paspalum.

Weaknesses: In dairy situations, its use isconfined to northern NSW. Persistenceunder heavy grazing is inferior to that ofkikuyu and other summer grasses.

Varieties: Callide, Katambora, Pioneer.The first two are more productive but areless tolerant to frost than Pioneer.

Sowing: Sow at 1–4kg/ha into a cleanseedbed in spring or late summer – earlyautumn.

Feed quality: As with other tropicalgrasses, feed value decreases as the plantsmature and become rank, stemmy andunpalatable.



Grazing management: Avoid rank,stemmy growth. Slash or burn over-mature pastures.

Companion species: Difficult to maintainin Rhodes grass pastures because of thestoloniferous habit of the plant. Lucerne,phasey bean, siratro and centro have hadsome success in coastal south-easternQueensland.

RYEGRASS—Perennial ryegrass(Lolium perenne)

Densely tufted, multi-tillered perennial.Leaves shiny on undersurface; floweringstalks are erect spikes.

Strengths: Highest yield of quality grassin high rainfall areas (>900mm) or underirrigation. Perfectly suited to rotationalgrazing in dairy systems. Responds wellto nitrogen applied as fertiliser or fixed bylegumes. Easier to establish than other

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perennial grasses. Resistant to frost.Tolerates saline and sodic soils and somewaterlogging. Persists best under highfertility conditions.

Weaknesses: Lacks drought-tolerance,especially late-maturing cultivars.Persistence is limited by competition withsubtropical grasses, especially north ofTaree.

Seasonality: Best growth in autumn andspring. Early maturing cultivars give goodwinter growth. Late maturing cultivarsgive good summer growth underirrigation. Infection with high levels ofendophyte* fungus aids persistence. Oldhigh-endophyte stands in the Shoalhavenand Bega Valley have persisted for 100years.

Varieties: Early maturing: KangarooValley, Roper; late maturing: Yatsyn,Dobson, Ellett, Embassy, Verdette, Banks.New varieties are frequently released.

Sowing: Sow at 10–14kg/ha in autumn(dryland) or spring (irrigated andTablelands). Direct-drill after suppressionof existing growth by herbicide. Drill orbroadcast following mulching or into aclean seedbed. Susceptible to competitionfrom annual ryegrass. Restrict sowing rateof annual ryegrass to no more than 7kg/hawhen sown with perennial ryegrass.

Feed quality: Highest quality grassavailable. Digestibility 65%–80%; ME11–12MJ/kg; crude protein 15%–20%.Soluble carbohydrate levels generallylower than in Italian ryegrass varieties.High-endophyte cultivars can reduce milkproduction by up to 10% compared withlow-endophyte cultivars, but persistenceof stand is reduced without the endophyte.Very few cases of ryegrass staggers havebeen observed in NSW perennial ryegrasspastures.

Diseases: Crown and stem rust are seriousproblems, particularly under irrigation andnorth of Taree. Rhizoctonia can weakenthe root system and allow pulling bystock. Yellow dwarf virus and ryegrassmosaic polyvirus can reduce stand health.

Pests: Susceptible to pasture scarabs,grass grubs, armyworms. Argentine stemweevils have been found in ryegrasspastures in the Bega Valley. High-endophyte cultivars tend to be more

* Endophyte: An intercellular fungus(Acremonium lolii) living entirely within theperennial ryegrass plant.

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maintaining ryegrass and cloverthroughout summer for the next season ofgrowth. Irrigation is essential to ensuresurvival in subtropical dairying districts.

SETARIA (Setaria spp.)

Summer-growing, tufted, perennial grass.Adapted to a wide range of soil types fromlow to high fertility. Usually sown inassociation with legumes, particularlywhite clover. Characterised by vigoroussummer growth, which is often difficult tocontrol effectively by grazing. Withexcellent persistence and greaterproductivity, setaria should replace carpetgrass in the dry-runs of dairy farms alongthe coast.

Strengths: Grows rapidly during summerand into autumn. High dry matter yields.Extremely persistent once established.Does not crowd out companion legumessuch as white clover. Clump-forming habitallows successful regeneration of whiteclover. Responsive to nitrogen fertiliser.Resistant to dry soil conditions.

Weaknesses: Rapid decline in feed

resistant to insect attack than low-endophyte cultivars.

Grazing management: Grazing when thethird leaf is as long as the second leaf(third-leaf stage) provides for maximumuse of perennial ryegrass pasture andallows the plant to build up higheramounts of carbohydrate.

Companion species: White and red clover.

PERENNIAL RYEGRASS – WHITECLOVER PASTURES

Perennial ryegrass sown in associationwith white clover forms the base pasturefor most dairy farms in NSW. This basepasture has the potential to produce highquality feed from autumn to earlysummer. Production is restricted insummer – early autumn and alternativesources of feed have to be sought tosupplement the base pasture. The mainobjective in managing perennial ryegrass– white clover pastures is to ensure thatthe survival and productivity of bothspecies are preserved. Well understoodmanagement strategies are available forthis objective; adopting them cansignificantly increase base pastureproductivity.

Strengths: Both species produce highlydigestible feed. Increasing clover contentcan increase the feed quality and milkproduction potential. Nitrogen fixation bythe clover reduces fertiliser costs. Highproductivity of pasture allows highstocking rates to be sustained in thegrowing period. High quality conservedfeed can be produced from excess springproduction.

Weaknesses: Lack of summer–autumnproductivity. Difficulty in sustaininggrass–clover balance. Potential forinvasion by annual and perennial summer-growing grasses. Short-term survival ofthe pasture (2–5 years). Difficulty in

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quality with advancing maturity.Susceptible to frosts. Potential for oxalicacid poisoning. Requires slashing ormowing to control excess ungrazedmaterial.

Varieties: Newer cultivars such asSolander and Narok have generally showngreater frost tolerance and lower oxalatelevels than the older cultivars Nandi andKazungula.

Sowing: Sow at 1–5kg/ha in February–March or in spring – early summer,particularly with irrigation. Sow into cleanseedbed. Seed is small, so don’t sow toodeep when drilling. Broadcasting,covering and rolling can also be used.

Feed quality: Like many tropical grasses,feed quality of setaria falls rapidly withadvancing maturity. If kept short byrotational grazing and strategic mowing,young leafy growth can have about 12%crude protein, 9.2MJ/kg ME and 61%digestibility. On rare occasions, cattle cansuffer oxalate poisoning from setaria,especially after heavy applications ofpotassium or nitrogen fertilisers.


Pests: In coastal areas, armyworms candamage setaria in summer. Grass seedcrops have been destroyed by the yellowpeach moth grub and the buffel grass seedcaterpillar.

Grazing management: Usually has to beslashed or mown during summer tocontrol excess growth and to keep a freshsupply of young, highly digestible feedavailable. Maintain short leafy growth atabout 25–30cm in height. If growth getsaway, paddocks may be closed for hay orsilage. Use heavy grazing or slashing inearly autumn to open up the sward toallow white clover to grow during winterand spring.

Companion species: Companion specieshave usually been cover crops with an

annual ryegrass, red clover and whiteclover. The lotus cultivar Goldie has alsobeen used. Cowpeas have been asuccessful cover crop for summersowings.

TALL FESCUE (Festucaarundinacea)

A perennial, spring- and summer-growingpasture grass. Reasonably persistent.Adapted to waterlogged sites and areawhere moderate salting occurs.

Strengths: Spring and summer productioncan complement ryegrass-dominantpastures, which lose quality late in theseason when they begin the reproductivegrowth stage.

Weaknesses: Persistence is often poorowing to inappropriate management.Suffers from competition from vigorousperennials like ryegrass. Slow to establish,but once established can become aproductive, persistent pasture. More suitedto dry stock than to milkers.

Seasonality: Spring, summer and autumn.Takes 2 years to establish properly. Afterthat it becomes very persistent.

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Varieties: Demeter, Au Triumph, Cajun,Dovey.

Sowing: Sow 5–15mm deep at 8–10kg/ha dryland and 10–12kg/ha irrigated.Broadcast and harrow or drill into a clean,firm seedbed.

Feed quality: During late spring –summer, quality is superior to that ofryegrass. Under adequate grazingmanagement, it is good enough forfattening stock or milking purposes.

Diseases: Under adverse conditions somecultivars are affected by rust; this can alsoindicate that the crop lacks adequatenutrients.

Pests: Treat soil or seed with miticides toreduce the effect of earth mites duringestablishment.

Grazing management: Do not graze hardduring the first 2 years. After this, it willtolerate heavy grazing.

Companion species: Red clover,strawberry clover, chicory.

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Annual legumes

Annual legumes grown alone as a foragecrop can produce high yields of high-quality feed, particularly in spring andearly summer. Best production is obtainedfrom early sowing in late February – earlyMarch. These early sowings will producesome late autumn – early winter feed.Sowing rates have to be kept high so thatthese crops can establish quickly. Latematuring varieties allow productionintoearly summer. These legumes can beuseful crops grown after a maize silagecrop is harvested.

Advantages: High yields of highlydigestible, high protein feed. Can begrazed or conserved as high quality hay orsilage. Fit well into autumn–winter–springproduction in cropping systems such asmaize cropping.

Disadvantages: Bloat, which can andshould be controlled. Lack of autumn–winter–spring production if not sownearly. Have to be resown annually into aweed-free, cultivated seedbed.

BALANSA CLOVER (Trifoliumbalansae)

Grows predominantly in winter and has anearly spring flush. High seeding abilityhelps in colonising other areas when seedis transferred by livestock. Adapted toareas with at least 500mm of winter -dominant rainfall.

Strengths: Good regeneration inirrigation districts but less so on the coast.Resistance to clover scorch. High seedyield. Can handle mildly acidic soils,waterlogging and mild salinity. Useful forhaymaking. Excellent persistence owingto high seed production. Hard seedcontent is apprimately 70%, which allowssome seed in reserve for dry times. Usefulfodder crop if rainfall is less than 700mm.

Weaknesses: Hollow stems allowinaccurate estimation of hay yield. Growthis slow during autumn. Red-legged earthmites damage plant and cause losses,especially at establishment.

Seasonality: Begins growth at the autumnbreak but is slow. Has relatively goodwinter and spring yield. Not summer-active.

Varieties: Paradana.

Sowing: Autumn (dryland) or earlyautumn (irrigated or with good moistureconditions). Sow into a clean seedbed.

Feed quality: Good, but not as good asPersian clover. Protein content of up to18%.

Diseases: Highly tolerant of all majordiseases.

Pests: The major insect pest is the red-legged earth mite, especially in theestablishment year. Other pests includeblue-green aphids and heliothiscaterpillars.

Grazing management: Do not graze aftersowing till the plant starts to tiller, andthen only lightly in the first year. Afterestablishment, continuous grazing ratherthan rotational grazing will promotepersistence. Remove stock at floweringtime.

Companion species: Subterranean clover,Persian clover, phalaris, cocksfoot, tallfescue, ryegrass.

BERSEEM CLOVER (Trifoliumalexandrinum)

Used as forage crop because of high yields.

Strengths: Grows in wet conditions.Allows multiple grazings or cuttings.Makes good hay. Slightly less bloatingthan other legumes. Good winter andspring yields.

Weaknesses: Requires high fertility andadequate moisture for effective

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production. Frost-sensitive. Needs700mm rainfall. Sensitive to lowmolybdenum. Requires high sowing rate.

Seasonality: Can be sown as early asFebruary. Given a reasonable spread ofrain or irrigation through the growingperiod, can be grazed or cut up to 6 timesthrough to late spring. Will set seed, butthe usual method is to resow each year.

Varieties: Multicut (= Carmel), Bigbee.

Sowing: Sow at 6–10kg/ha late February– early March into a clean seedbed. It isusually sown by itself but can be sownwith other legumes, oats or winter-growing grasses, such as tetraploidryegrasses.

Feed quality: Excellent.

Diseases: In wet spring conditions, leafand stem blight can occur when growth isrank.

Pests: Host to blue-green aphids, butthese usually do not cause a great loss.Red-legged earth mites can devastate acrop, especially with late-sown crops.Heliothis caterpillars occasionally damageleaves at the end of spring.

Grazing management: Begin grazing orcutting when plants reach about 25cm inheight after planting and after eachgrazing. Can be left to grow higher forsilage or hay.

Companion species: Usually sown as amonoculture but can be sown with otherannual species such as annual ryegrass oroats.

Special factors: Responds well tonitrogen, phosphorus, potassium andmolybdenum.

COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)

Summer-growing forage legume crop.Valuable source of protein in subtropicaland tropical dairying districts. Can begrazed or conserved as hay or silage to

supplement low-quality pastures.

Strengths: Early-sown crops are superiorin growth to lablab with early sowings.Digestibility is usually higher than that oflablab. With careful management up totwo regrowths are available for grazing.Relatively high yields. Produces highprotein feed in summer when summergrasses are deficient in protein.

Weaknesses: Susceptible to stem- androot-rot diseases and to insect attack,particularly from bean fly. Will not growas late into autumn as lablab. Dry weatherperformance can be poor. Difficult tograze or harvest for silage in wetsummers. The stem portion of the cropbecomes more indigestible as the cropages and will be rejected by stock.Damaged severely by frosts.

Seasonality: Summer producer. Growth isreduced by low night temperatures inautumn.

Varieties: Poona, Caloona, Red Caloona.

Sowing: Best results when sown into wellprepared seedbed with ample conservedmoisture. Sow seed 4–6cm deep at 10–14kg/ha in dryland districts and at up to20 kg/ha in high rainfall areas. Can bedirect-drilled after controlling competitionwith herbicides.

Feed quality: Better than that of lablaband soybean.

Diseases: Root and stem rots.

Pests: Bean fly can cause serious losses.

Grazing management: Can be grazed 2–3 times during summer. Should be grazedlightly so that the growing points near thestem are not destroyed. Graze or ensilebefore first frost.

Companion species: Can be sown withmaize or sorghum to increase proteincontent of the combined crop, but yieldsare much lower.

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LABLAB (Dolichos lablab)

Twining, summer forage legume crop.Valuable source of protein in subtropicaland tropical dairying districts. Can begrazed or conserved as hay or silage tosupplement grazed pastures low inprotein.

Strengths: Produces high protein feed insummer when summer grasses aredeficient in protein. Suitable for grazing.Will regrow for subsequent grazings withcareful management. Relatively disease-resistant. Will continue to grow and retainfeed quality into late autumn. Valuablegreen manure crop. Can be made intosilage. Produces up to 4t/ha dry matter .

Weaknesses: Difficult to graze or harvestin wet summers. Stems toughen rapidly,become more indigestible as the crop agesand will be rejected by stock. Damagedseverely by frosts.

Seasonality: Susceptible to frost butgrows later into the autumn than othersummer-growing forage legumes. Withoutfrost will survive and grow into the nextsummer.

Varieties: Rongai, Highworth.

Sowing: Sow into a clean seedbed at 15–20kg/ha dryland and 30 kg/ha in highrainfall districts. Drill in 18–35cm rows4–6cm deep. Can be direct-drilled afterchemical control of existing pasture.

Feed quality: Leaves produce highquality, high protein feed and areselectively grazed. Stems lignify and arelow in digestibility. Stems are rejected inhay but are eaten in silage.



Grazing management: Lenient grazingso that growing points are not damaged.Aim for 2–3 grazings. Do not graze duringwet periods. Graze or ensile before firstfrost.

Companion species: Can be sown withmaize or sorghum to increase proteincontent of combined crop, but yields aremuch lower.

PERSIAN CLOVER (Trifoliumresupinatum)

Late-maturing annual clover used as aforage crop. Produces high-quality feedautumn–spring. Used over a wide range ofenvironments. Often used in southernNSW irrigation areas and districts.

Strengths: Non-oestrogenic clover; verypalatable and produces high-quality feed.Late maturity extends the growing seasonlater than subclover varieties. Can begrown on for a hay crop after grazingperiod. Capacity to produce high yields:up to 16t/ha of dry matter .

Weaknesses: Susceptible to rust.

Seasonality: When sown early inirrigation districts (February), can begrazed twice before winter. Later sowingsproduce little autumn–winter growthbecause of low temperatures. Matures 2–4weeks later than subclover.

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Varieties: Maral, Kyambro.

Sowing: Sow at 4–5kg/ha dryland and 6–8kg/ha irrigation. Very small seed(800000/kg); sow not more than 1cmdeep. Sow on the surface of a preparedseedbed and cover with light harrows or asheet of weldmesh. Can be direct-drilledbut seedlings are not very competitive:control all competition.

Feed quality: Highly digestible. Moredigestible than lucerne, red clover andpasture hay. Digestibility 63%–78%. Highprotein content: 16%–21%. Low fibrecontent increases voluntary intake.

Diseases: Subclover rust (Uromycestrifolii-repentis) and clover rot(Sclerotinia trifoliorum) can cause seriousdamage in spring. Effect can be reducedby grazing or mowing to reduce humidityin the sward and reduce inoculumpotential. Kyambro more resistant thanMaral to rust.

Pests: Red-legged earth mite and lucerneflea can attack seedlings and should becontrolled by chemical spray within 1week of germination when the pests arepresent. Sitona weevil and heliothis cancause damage but seldom need control;but careful observation is required. Alsosusceptible to blue-green aphid and peaaphid but resistant to spotted alfalfa aphid.

Grazing management: Can be grazed ortaken for hay production after grazing.

Companion species: Can be sown withoats or annual ryegrass to reduce bloatrisk and spread production. Oats willprovide more early feed and ryegrass willprovide more winter and spring feed.

SOYBEAN (Glycine max)

Forage crop best used for silage. Valuablesource of protein in subtropical andtropical dairying districts. Can be grazedor conserved as hay or silage tosupplement low-protein pastures.

Strengths: Produces relatively high yieldsof high-protein forage. Can be ensiled aseither round bale or precision choppedsilage. Yields of 6–10t/ha dry matter .

Weaknesses: Difficult to harvest in wetsummers. Lignification of stems leads tohigh rejection by stock when conserved asround bale silage. Damaged severely byfrosts.

Seasonality: Summer-growing foragecrop. Whole crop is harvested and area isthen available for sowing with a follow-uppasture or crop.

Varieties: Wide range of varieties to suitdifferent environments. Plant any of thegrain varieties recommended for thedistrict. Use the latest maturing varieties.

Sowing: Sow mid November toDecember.

Feed quality: Valuable source of proteinin subtropical environments where therecould be a protein deficiency in otherfeeds. Yields are highest at the full-sizedgreen bean stage but digestibility of thewhole plants at this stage may be only60%. Lower yields but better whole-plantquality will be obtained with earlierharvests.



Grazing management: Not suitable forrepeated grazing as it doesn’t recover wellafter grazing. Stock select leaves veryheavily. When a mature crop is grazedthere is serious wastage. The mosteffective method for using soybean is toharvest the whole crop for hay or silage.Wastage is greater with hay and round-bale silage than with precision-choppedsilage.

Companion species: Grown as amonoculture.

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HIGH DENSITY LEGUMES

Mixtures of annual and perennial legumesare sown at high sowing rates with the aimof giving a wide seasonal spread ofproduction. Mixtures include Claresubclover, red clover, white clover andPersian clover sown at high rates. Up to40kg/ha of legume seed is sown. Early(March) sowings are most effective. Thesesowings are usually managed as an annualcrop. Nevertheless, high-density, irrigatedclover pastures in subtropical districts canproduce effectively throughout summerand into autumn.

Strengths: Sown instead of annualryegrass pastures, which are heavilyfertilised with nitrogen. They give a muchhigher quality feed for a lower overall costof production. Productivity is maintainedthroughout a much longer season.Production extends through to autumnwith irrigation.

Weaknesses: Bloat is a serious problem.Slower to establish than ryegrass whenplanted in April–May. Weed control ismore difficult than in an annual ryegrasspasture. Some of the legumes are sensitiveto acidic soils and could require lime foreffective growth.

Perennial legumes

KENYA WHITE CLOVER(Trifolium semipilosum)

Stoloniferous perennial similar inappearance to white clover but leaflets andstems are softly hairy.

Strengths: Better summer growth anddrought survival than white clover northof Taree. Grows well on acidic soils and ismore compatible with summer-growinggrasses than white clover.

Weaknesses: Difficult to establish. Not asfrost-tolerant as white clover.

Seasonality: Spring, summer and autumngrowth. Good persistence with correctgrazing management.

Varieties: Safari.

Sowing: Sow in autumn at 2–4kg/ha intoa clean seedbed. Small seeded—don’tplant too deep. Susceptible towaterlogging.

1.5 22


Feed quality: Similar to that of whiteclover. No oestrogens.

Diseases: Big bud MLO (mycoplasma-like-organism) can cause stunting incooler environments. Susceptible to arange of viruses.

Pests: Slugs can be a problem atestablishment. Amnemus and white-fringed weevil larvae can cause damage.

Grazing management: Lightly graze toremove grass competition in the first yearto allow seed set and a seed bank forsubsequent germination to develop.Subsequently tolerates heavier grazingthan white clover. Grazing should besufficent to suppress summer grassgrowth.

Companion species: Kikuyu.

LOTUS (Lotus pedunculatus)

Rhizomatous perennial with 5 leaflets perleaf, 2 at the base and 3 more prominent atthe end. Yellow flowers give rise to longcylindrical pods borne in clustersresembling an inverted bird’s foot.

Strengths: Grows better than otherlegumes in low fertility, acidic soils.Tolerates high amounts of aluminium.Well suited to acid sulphate soils.Tolerates some salinity and sodicity.Contains condensed tannins, whichprovide bypass protein and prevent bloat.More drought-tolerant than white clover.

Weaknesses: Requires lenient grazingmanagement for persistence. Will notpersist under frequent grazing rotations.

Seasonality: Good growth in spring,summer and autumn. Will tolerate frostsbut winter growth is limited. Persistence islimited by summer drought and frequentheavy grazing.

Varieties: Grasslands Maku, Sharnae.

Sowing: Sow at 1–2kg/ha in late winter –early spring or late summer – early

autumn. Sow into clean seedbed and nottoo deep. Can be oversown into shortpasture. Best if a cover crop is also sownwhen planting in a clean seedbed.

Feed quality: Digestibility 60%–75%(lower than white clover). ME 11–12MJ/kg. Protein 15%–20%. Presence ofcondensed tannins lowers digestibility butincreases the availability of the protein tothe animal. Tannin concentrations of lessthan 1% of dry matter in the diet preventbloat. On balance, milk production issimilar to that from white clover as longas tannin concentrations do not exceed6%.


Pests: Old, heavily grazed stands aresusceptible to white-fringed weevil larvae.

Grazing management: Grazeinfrequently in first year afterestablishment to remove grasscompetition. Rotational grazing favourslotus persistence. Twenty-year-old standsin the Illawarra and Highlands prove thatlotus can persist with the right grazingmanagement. A summer spell willencourage seed production, especially

Illustration drawn by María A. Migoya and graci-ously provided by Ana M. Arambarri, Argentina.

1.5 23


south of Taree. An autumn spell willencourage rhizome development. Bettersuited to dry-run areas than to the milkingarea.

Companion species: Fescue, carpet grass,setaria (as long as grass is grazed well).Perennial ryegrass can improve winterproduction from lotus stands, but use onlylow sowing rates (< 15 kg/ha).

Special factors: Responds to phosphorusand potassium fertiliser.

LUCERNE (Medicago sativa)

Deep-rooted, semi-erect to erect plantwith stems arising from a crown. Highlywinter-active and winter-active varietiescan produce grazings from autumn tospring. Stands with these varieties tendnot to last as long as stands with semi-dormant and dormant varieties.

Strengths: Highest yielding legume forwell drained, slightly acidic to alkalinesoils in coastal and inland irrigation areas.Valuable crop for rotational grazing andhay or silage production. Growth is rapidin spring–autumn. Winter activity is usefulfor grazing in autumn–spring but producesonly 20% of summer yield. High proteincontent makes it a valuable proteinsupplement for the milking herd. Nitrogenfixation capacity of lucerne allows forminimal nitrogen fertiliser use. Thegrowth rhythms of ryegrass–cloverpastures and lucerne pastures arecomplementary. In combination, thesepastures can produce a year-round sourceof high-quality feed. Surplus productioncan be sold for cash as hay.

Weaknesses: Does not toleratewaterlogging, salinity or acidic soils highin aluminium. Requires carefulmanagement for best yields. Weeds, pestsand diseases can cause substantial loss inproduction and should be managedeffectively. Bloat can be a serious problem

when the crop is grazed. Risk is highest inwinter: spray bloat oil on the pasture. Feedquality declines with advancing maturity.Severe decline in quality at flowering canlead to fall in milk production.

Seasonality: Predominantly a warm-season species; divided into winter-dormant, semi-winter-dormant, winter-active and highly winter-active categories.Winter-dormant types tend to be morepersistent: they last 3–8 years dependingon drainage and management.

Varieties: Highly winter-active: Aquarius,Pioneer Brand L69, Sceptre, PioneerBrand 5929; Winter-active: WL516,Aurora, Quadrella, Trifecta, Hunterfield;Semi-dormant: Pioneer Brand L52,Pioneer Brand 581, Nova, WL SouthernSpecial; Dormant: Pioneer Brand 545,Prime, WL320.

1.5 24


Sowing: Sow 1–5kg/ha dryland or 8–15kg/ha irrigated in autumn or springwhen the temperature is high enough andthere is enough moisture to ensureestablishment. Sow into a clean seedbed.Drill or broadcast. Cover effectively androll.

Feed quality: 65%–75% digestibility,15%–25% crude protein, 8–11MJ/kg ME.Spray with bloat oil before grazinglucerne-dominant stands. Low in solublecarbohydrate: animals need to be fedcarbohydrate supplements. Feeding maizesilage while grazing lucerne can oftenprovide a well-balanced ration.

Diseases: The most serious arephytophthora root rot, colletotrichumcrown rot and common crown rot. (SeeAgfact P2.5.25 for more details.)

Pests: Blue-green aphid and spottedalfalfa aphid are the major pests. Fullresistance to blue-green aphid is notavailable. Pea aphid is an occasionalproblem. Other pests include red-leggedearth mite in cooler areas, white-fringedweevil larvae, lucerne-leaf roller, luceneflea, cutworms, sitona weevil, heliothusand wingless grasshopper.

Grazing management: Rotationalgrazing with back-fencing and cutting at36–40-day intervals gives the best balancebetween harvesting quality feed andallowing the lucerne plant to storecarbohydrate in the crown for continuedpersistence.

Companion species: Phalaris, fescue,cocksfoot. Most commonly sown asmonoculture on dairies.

PINTO PEANUT (Arachis pintoi)

Mat-forming perennial peanut withpromise for producing high-quality feed inthe tropics and subtropics.

Strengths: Produces high-quality feedfrom October to May in moist humid

environment. Tolerant of heavy grazing.Tolerant of frosts when established butslow growing in winter. Persistent under awide range of conditions but prefers moistconditions on well drained soils. Tolerantof shading from tall-growing grasses.

Weaknesses: Requires specific rhizobiumfor effective nitrogen fixation(Bradyrhizobium spp.). Often the plantremains yellow even after inoculation,which suggests poor nitrogen fixation.There is only one seeded variety; othershave to be planted from runners orcuttings.

Seasonality: Maximum production insummer under higher temperatures. Willgrow for an extended period. Highlypersistent. Develops mat of undergroundrhizomes.

Varieties: Amarillo.

Sowing: Sow between September andMarch to avoid frost damage to youngseedlings. Plant 15–20kg/ha of seeds-in-pods 2–6cm deep, where there isadequate moisture, preferably in a cleanseedbed. Never plant on the surface. Mustbe inoculated with the correct rhizobia.Plant A. glabrata from runners.

Feed quality: Higher feed quality than thegrasses with which it grows. This can helpto increase the protein intake of stock

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grazing subtropical grass–legumepastures.



Grazing management: Tolerant of heavygrazing. Correct timing of grazing isrequired to allow rhizome developmentand effective spread and persistence in thepasture.

Companion species: Can be grown witheither creeping short grasses or tall grassesbecause of its shade tolerance.

RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense)

Often used as a pure stand for hay andsilage. Suited to well drained, fertile soils,particularly in areas with an annualrainfall of 700mm or where irrigation isavailable.

Strengths: Abundance of quality feedduring spring–summer. Useful componentof mixed pasture swards, although notalways long lived. Supplies quality foragewhen most other legumes grow poorly.

Weaknesses: Often short lived in a mixedpasture sward if inappropriate grazingmanagement allows damage to plantcrowns. Some cultivars are oestrogenicand can cause fertility problems in stock.Poor winter growth.

Seasonality: Most production in spring–summer.

Varieties: Grasslands Hamua, GrasslandsPawera, Grasslands Colenso, Redquin,Renegade, Astred, Pac 19.

Sowing: Sow in autumn or spring at 2–5kg/ha in mixtures with grasses and whiteclover for perennial pastures; 5–8kg/hafor hay crops or in mixtures with annualryegrass. Inoculate seed before sowing.

Feed quality: Crude protein anddigestibility are adequate for fattening ormilk production.

Diseases: None significant, although canbe affected by root and crown rots onpoorly drained sites.

Pests: Red-legged earth mite and blue oatmite can have a devastating effect duringestablishment. Heliothis can also causedamage.

Grazing management: Responds bestand persists longer if frequent closegrazing or cutting is avoided. Therecommended minimum residual grazingor cutting height is 75mm. Cansometimes dominate the pasture duringlate spring – early summer. Graziersshould take adequate bloat precautions.

Companion species: White clover,perennial ryegrass, tall fescue and manyother pasture plants such as chicory.

STRAWBERRY CLOVER (Trifoliumfragiferum)

Spring–summer-growing legume thatspreads by runners. Well suited to salineor poorly drained sites.

Strengths: Provides a useful contribution

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to pasture quality during spring–summerwhen other legumes are less active. Willregenerate well from seed followingdrought. Very persistent. Will withstandfrequent close grazing and grows well insituations that are too wet or too dry forother perennial clovers.

Weaknesses: Not as productive as whiteclover and should not be sown wherewhite clover will grow successfully.

Seasonality: Main production from springto autumn.

Varieties: Palestine, O’Connor.

Sowing: Sow at 1–4kg/ha in autumn(dryland) or spring (irrigated). Sow into afirm, clean seedbed. Drill less than 1cmor broadcast and cover and roll. Inoculateseed before sowing.

Feed quality: Good. Adequate proteinand energy for fattening.


Pests: Establishment can be affected byred-legged earth mites.

Grazing management: Reasonablytolerant of a wide range in grazingmanagement, although continuous closegrazing, particularly by sheep, can lead toa thinning of the sward.

Companion species: Most often mixedwith tall fescue, cocksfoot and sometimestall wheat grass. In wet saline areas it is

most often the only legume sown. Oftenincluded at low rates in more generalpasture mixes in order to coloniseoccasionally wet parts of the pasture.

SUBTERRANEAN CLOVER(Trifolium subterraneum)

As there is far more to be written aboutsubclover than would fit in this manual,details are not given here. Instead, readthe Agfact Subterranean clover in NSW—identification and use (P2.5.16), whichshould be in the back of this manual.

WHITE CLOVER (Trifoliumrepens)

Prostrate stoloniferous perennial legume(can also be a self-regenerating annual).The flower head is large, round and whiteor light pink.

Strengths: Highest quality legumeavailable for high rainfall (>900mm) andirrigation areas. Responds well tophosphorus and potassium fertiliser.Tolerates acidic soil as long as aluminiumconcentrations are below 10%. Well suitedto frequent rotation grazing on dairies.

Weaknesses: Lacks drought tolerance.Poor stolon survival over summer. Highrequirement for potassium candisadvantage it when growing in

1.5 27


competition with kikuyu. Does nottolerate waterlogging or salinity.

Seasonality: Grows well in autumn andhas a marked spring flush. Tolerates frost.Some winter growth in early-floweringcultivars. Summer growth can occur inLadino types if moisture is available.Persistence through stolon survival is poorin most districts without irrigation. Willre-establish with correct grassmanagement. Many coastal districts havea large seed-bank of naturalised whiteclover, which can make a significantcontribution in some years.

Varieties: Haifa, Grasslands Huia (NZwhite clover), Irrigation, Pitau, Osceola,Grasslands Kopu, Prop, GrasslandsPrestige, Aran, Sustain, GrasslandsTahora, Tamar.

Sowing: Sow at 1–4kg/ha on goodmoisture in early autumn to early winter(dryland) or spring (irrigated andTablelands). Sow on the surface, coverand roll. Don’t sow too deep.

Feed quality: Highest quality legumeavailable. Digestibility 70%–85%; ME11–12.5MJ/kg; crude protein 18%–25%.Low in soluble carbohydrate; needs to begrown with high-soluble-carbohydrate

grass, or animals need to be fedcarbohydrate supplements. Bloat can be aproblem: spray white-clover-dominantpastures with bloat oil before grazing.

Diseases: Rugose leaf curl, lucernemosaic virus, white clover mosaic virusand rusts can cause yield losses.Rhizoctonia and other root and stolon rotscan affect white clover.

Pests: Nematodes can affect white cloverstands in coastal NSW. Cutworms, white-fringed weevil larvae, aphids and somemites can also cause damage.

Grazing management: When grown withperennial ryegrass, graze when the thirdryegrass leaf is as long as the second leaf(third-leaf stage) or when the lower whiteclover leaves are just beginning to age.When it is grown with subtropical speciessuch as kikuyu, it is important to followthe ‘golden rule of management’: grazeheavily and slash or mulch so that akikuyu mat does not develop. Thisapproach allows space for white cloverseedlings to emerge from an autumngermination.

Companion species: Perennial ryegrass,fescue, phalaris, kikuyu.

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Other pasture species

CHICORY (Cichorium intybus)

Chicory is a relatively new species forsowing into pastures. There is a widevariation in types and distinguishingfeatures. At present, the only commercialcultivar is Puna. It is a deep-rooted,perennial plant that is active in spring andsummer and produces little during winter.Other varieties could vary significantlyfrom this description.

Strengths: Deep-rooted. Puna is drought-tolerant and capable of providing a qualityfeed base during the hotter months.

Weaknesses: A very demanding grazingmanagement strategy needs to be used torealise the full benefit from the crop.

Seasonality: Main production spring–autumn.

Varieties: Puna.

Sowing: Sow at 0.5–1 kg/ha in mixtureswith ryegrass and clover. Best when sowninto a clean seedbed.

Feed quality: Protein and energy areadequate for milking or fattening. Able toextract a variety of minerals and traceelements from the soil; this can bebeneficial to stock health.

Diseases: None significant in Australia,although sclerotinia, a crown disease, hasbeen noted overseas, particularly wherethe crop is grazed and trodden on in wetconditions.

Pests: None significant, but takeprecautions against earth mites atestablishment.

Grazing management: Good productionand persistence have been obtained fromrotation grazing. A rotation involving 3weeks’ grazing followed by 3 weeks’ restis ideal. Under dairying conditions,particularly during summer, the rotationneeds to be shorter to keep up withavailable feed, possibly 14 days. Needs tobe grazed down to 15cm for best results.Ideally, chicory should not make up theentire diet for a dairy animal. Stock shouldhave access to chicory for 3–4 hours a dayfollowing milking and then be put onordinary pasture.

Companion species: Chicory willrespond to the nitrogen made available bycompanion legumes such as red and whiteclover, strawberry clover and possiblylucerne. It can also be included in pasturemixtures, at low rates, with a variety ofcomplementary grasses.

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