Improved livelihoods for smallholder farmers

A tool for planning agricultural water management investments

LIVELIHOOD ZONES ANALYSIS

Ethiopia

Prepared by Dr. Girma Medhin in consultation with FAO, 2011

About this report The AgWater Solutions Project aimed at designing agricultural water management (AWM) strategies for smallholder farmers in sub Saharan Africa and in India. The project was managed by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and operated jointly with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the Stockholm Environmental Institute (SEI) and International Development Enterprise (IDE). It was implemented in Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Tanzania, Zambia and in the States of Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal in India. Several studies have highlighted the potential of AWM for poverty alleviation. In practice, however, adoption rates of AWM solutions remain low, and where adoption has taken place locally, programmes aimed at disseminating these solutions often remain a challenge. The overall goal of the project was to stimulate and support successful pro-poor, gender-equitable AWM investments, policies and implementation strategies through concrete, evidence-based knowledge and decision-making tools. The project has examined AWM interventions at the farm, community, watershed, and national levels. It has analyzed opportunities and constraints of a number of small-scale AWM interventions in several pilot research sites across the different project countries, and assessed their potential in different agro-climatic, socio-economic and political contexts. This report was prepared as part of the efforts to assess the potential for AWM solutions at national level. The livelihood zones analysis divides the country in a series of areas where rural people share relatively homogeneous living conditions on the basis of a combination of biophysical and socio-economic determinants. It describes the main sources of livelihood of rural populations (by category of people), their natural resources base, potential and key constraints to development. It analyses the relation between people and water and helps understanding to what extent and how water can be a factor for development.

Contents

CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................................................IABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS .................................................................................................................... III

LIVELIHOODZONE1 ............................................................................................................................. 1

LOWLANDMIXED–WESAMELIVELIHOODSYSTEM............................................................................................. 1

LIVELIHOODZONE2 ............................................................................................................................. 2NORTHERNMIXEDMIDLANDSLIVELIHOODSYSTEM............................................................................................. 2

LIVELIHOODZONE3 ............................................................................................................................. 2NORTHERNCEREALPULSEMIXEDLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ........................................................................................ 2

LIVELIHOODZONE4 ............................................................................................................................. 3

NORTHWESTLOWLANDSORGHUM/SESAMEMIXEDLIVELIHOODSYSTEM................................................................ 3

LIVELIHOODZONE5 ............................................................................................................................. 4WESTERNCOFFEE/MAIZELIVELIHOODSYSTEM ................................................................................................. 4

LIVELIHOODZONE6,16AND17........................................................................................................... 46. NORTHERNPASTORALLIVELIHOODSYSTEM;16:GAMBELLAAGRO‐PASTORALLIVELIHOODSYSTEM;17:SOUTHERNPASTORALLIVELIHOODSYSTEMS...................................................................................................................... 4

LIVELIHOODZONE7 ............................................................................................................................. 6EASTERNHIGHLANDMIXEDLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ................................................................................................ 6

LIVELIHOODZONE8 ............................................................................................................................. 6

AWASHPASTORAL/AGRICULTURALSYSTEM....................................................................................................... 6

LIVELIHOODZONE9 ............................................................................................................................. 8

MEHER/BELGTRANSITIONLIVELIHOODSYSTEM................................................................................................. 8

LIVELIHOODZONE10 ........................................................................................................................... 9NORTHEASTERNPASTORALLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ................................................................................................ 9

LIVELIHOODZONE11 ........................................................................................................................... 9EASTERNCHAT/SORGHUMHIGHLANDMIXEDLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ........................................................................ 9

LIVELIHOODZONE12 ........................................................................................................................... 9

‘OGADEN’PASTORALLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 9

LIVELIHOODZONE13 ......................................................................................................................... 10HIGHLANDMIXED–TEFFLIVELIHOODSYSTEM ................................................................................................ 10

LIVELIHOODZONE14 ......................................................................................................................... 11HORTICULTURAL(ENSET/CEREAL)MIXEDLIVELIHOODCOMPLEX......................................................................... 11

LIVELIHOODZONE15 ......................................................................................................................... 12

RIFTVALLEYLIVELIHOODSYSTEM .................................................................................................................. 12

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ANNEX1–LIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐GENERALCHARACTERISTICS................................. 1

ANNEX2–LIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐SOCIOECONOMICASPECTS .................................. 4

ANNEX3–LIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐WATER‐RELATEDASPECTS ................................... 7

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Abbreviationsandacronyms

BBM BroadBedmaker

CBPB ContagiousBovinePleuropneumonia

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

NGO Non‐governmentalorganization

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Livelihoodsystemsanalysis

LIVELIHOODZONE1

Lowlandmixed–Sesamelivelihoodsystem

This livelihood zone covers theworedas of Kafta, Humera, Tsegedie andWolkeit and belongs to the

traditional climatic zone of ‘Kolla’ (lowland). The livelihood zone is classified as hot‐warm semi‐aridlowlands. There are extensive plains covered with bush, scrub and acacia. The hottest months are

between April and June with temperatures rising to 42°C, and 25 and 35°C between June andFebruary. The zone has a distinctly unimodal rainfall pattern and agricultural crop production isexclusivelydependentonthemajorrainsthekiremtbetweenJuneandSeptember.Totalannualrainfall

ranges between 400–650mm. The zone is drained by the tributaries of the Tekeze river, which hasfertileblackcottonsoils,clayloamandredclaysoils.

The zone has become a resettlement area and is a sparsely populatedwith considerable agriculturalproductionpotential.

Mixedfarmingwithcropandlivestockproductionprovidesthemajor livelihood,whiletheeconomyis

centered on the production of the oil crop sesame, which is one of the country’s major exportcommodities.Sesame isproducedbothbysmall‐scaleand large‐scale farmerswith42and58percentsharerespectively.Productiontechniquesandmethodsusedbyboth large‐scaleandtraditionalsmall‐

scalefarmersaresimilar,theonlymajordifferencebeingtheuseoftractorsbylarge‐scalefarmersforploughingandseedbedpreparation.Sesameproductionishighlylabourintensive,mostofthesehighlypaidlabourersareimportedfromotherareasduringthepeakseasons.

Themain livestock in the zone are cattle and shoats,which aremostly tradedwith Sudan across the

border. There is abundant grazing and browsing for livestock. The major production challenges arebovineandovinepasteurellosis,lumpskindiseasesandtrypanosomiasis.

Aseriousprobleminthezoneiswaterforlivestockanddomesticuse.Waterispurchasedfromprivatelyowned,hand‐pumpoperatedwellsusingscarceopenwatersources.

Sesameisthemainagriculturalproduct.It isexportedovertwomajorroutes:tothecentralmarketin

AddisAbabaandtotheSudanacrosstheborder.Thezoneisquitewellconnectedbyall‐weatherroads.

Landholdingandfamilysizevariesconsiderablywithwealthgroup.Theverypoorhouseholdscultivate1to2.5haofland,whilethebetteroffcultivatebetween10and22ha.

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LIVELIHOODZONE2

Northernmixedmidlandslivelihoodsystem

This livelihoodzone includestheworedasofGantaAhferomDebayZenaandAtsbiWomberta,.WorieLehe, Kola Tembein, Samre, Tahtay Kararo, TahtayMaychew,Wukro,Degua Tembein andAdwa. Thezone iswarmtocool,moistmid‐highlandswitha long,unimodal rainfallpattern.This livelihoodzone

coverswideareasoftheTigraycentralhighlands,whichhashighlyvariabletopography,withmoderatetemperatures(Woynadega)andsomeareaswithahotclimate(Kola).Agriculturalproductionisentirelysupportedbythe‘kiremt’,mainseason,JunetoSeptemberrainsbetween500‐700mm/year;although

therearepocketsutilizingtheveryshortrainsforplantingoflong‐seasoncrops.Themaincropsgrownincludemaizeandsorghum,aswellasteffandfingermillets.Themainlivestockincludecattle,shoatsanddonkeys.Theareaisdominatedbyinfertileclayandsandysoils,thevegetationcoverisdominated

by bushes, scrubs and acacia trees. The very poormay own from 0 to 0.25 ha, while the better offbetween1and2ha.

Theareaisgenerallyfooddeficientbecauseofacombinationoffactors includinglowsoilproductivityresulting from poor soils, high population density, striga weed infestation, the livestock diseases

pasteurollosis andBlackleg. Activities that support livelihoods are honey production andmigration oflabour force outside the livelihood zone.Main destinations formigrating workers are the large‐ andsmall‐scalesesameproductionareasintheneighbouringworedas.

Worie Lehe and other rivers draining into the Tekeze river system provide the major surface water

resources.

LIVELIHOODZONE3

Northerncerealpulsemixedlivelihoodsystem

ThelivelihoodzonefullyorpartiallycoverstheworedasofBelesa,Beyda,Dabat,Debark,JanamoraandZiquala and represents thehighlands aroundGondar. The agri‐ecological zone iswarm to cool,moistmid‐highlandswithunimodalrainfallpattern.Thetopographyishillyandmountainousatthefootofthe

EthiopiaHighlandshighestpeaktheRas‐dashen.Thelivelihoodzonehasarelativelylongrainyseason,fromMay toSeptember.Agriculturalproduction is fullydependenton thekiremt (main season) rainsthatsupportamoderatelyproductivemixedfarmingsystem.Themaincultivatedcropsincludewheat,

barleyandbeans.Themajorsoil types in the livelihoodzonearemoderately fertileclay,vertisolsandclayloamsoils.

Despitetherelativelyabundantrainsandmoderatefertility,thezonefacesrecurrentfoodcrises.Croppests and diseases are themajor factors affecting crop production. Sheep, cattle and horses are the

major livestock kept in the livelihood zone. Springs and rivers provide themain sources ofwater forlivestockandhumanconsumption.Theprimaryfactorsaffecting livestockproduction includeshortageof animal feedandgrazing,diseases suchas anthrax,Blackleg, Foot‐and‐mouth,parasites,Rinderpest

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andpasteurellosis.Verypoorhouseholdswith familiesofbetween3and7own0 to1ha. Betteroffhouseholdshavefamiliesofbetween6and10andownfrom1.5to2.5ha.

Steepslopesandmountainoustopographycoupledwithhighpopulationcauseseriousshortageofland.

This is a livelihood system in the subafro‐alpine agro‐ecologies, where sparse vegetation cover is

dominated by the production of barley and sheep. This area is 3000 m above sea level withprecipitationofover1400mm.Oneortwocropsofbarleyareproducedandhighlandsheepandgoatsdominatelivestockproduction.

LIVELIHOODZONE4

Northwestlowlandsorghum/sesamemixedlivelihoodsystem

The woredas included in the livelihood zone are Kamashi, Guangua, Dibate, Bulen, Assosa, Bambasi,

Belojegonfoy andAgeloMeti. The livelihoodagro‐ecological zonebelongs to thehot‐to‐warm,humidlowlandsandpartlytothehot‐warm,sub‐humidlowlands.Temperaturesrangebetween20and25°CduringMaytoOctoberandbetween35and40°CfromNovembertoApril.TherainyseasonspansMay

toOctoberwithanaverageannualrainfallbetween900and1200mm.

ThiszonebordersthestatesofOromiaandAmharaandSudan,belongstotheBenishangulcentralKollaregion. Although there is huge irrigation potential with the numerous rivers criss‐crossing the zone

agriculture remains totally rainfall dependent. Plains and undulating land dominate the topographywhilethevegetationinmostoftheworedasismainlybambooforestandbushscrub.Blackvertisolsandsandy clay soils are the dominant soil types. Regardless of the high agricultural potential, the area

suffersfromintermittentfooddeficitsmainlycausedbyconflictandunrest.

This is a mixed farming livelihood zone in which crop and livestock production provide the mainlivelihoodbase for communities.Wild foodgatheringplaysa supplementary role to livelihoods in thezone. The main crops are sorghum, sesame, finger millet, Niger seed and groundnuts. Sesame and

sorghumaremainlyproducedforsale,whiletherestofthecropsareproducedforhomeconsumption.

Armyworm,bollworm,termites,stalk‐borer,lateblightandsmutaswellasweedinfestationareamongthe major challenges faced in the livelihood zone. Cattle, goats and sheep are the main livestockresources. The riversofDabus,Dedesa,BelesChankurmKetebandAbay (Nile) are themain surface

waterresources.Othernaturalresourcessuchasgold,marble,fish,GumArabicarebelievedtoexistinlargequantities.Accesstomarketandtransportinfrastructureisfair.

Verypoorhouseholdshavefamiliesof3to5andownfrom0to2ha,whilebetteroffhouseholdswith8‐10familymembersmayown4to6ha.

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LIVELIHOODZONE5

WesternCoffee/Maizelivelihoodsystem

The livelihood zone comprises theworedasofAleAyraGuliso, Begi, Bench,Bila Seyo,Borecha, Bure,Cheta,Chora,DaleSadi,Darimu,Decha,Diga,Ganji,Dawodale,Gechi,Gera,Godere,goma,GutoWayu,Haru,HawaWelel,Jarso,JimmaArgjo,JimmaHoro,Kersa,LaloAsabi,LaloKillie.LimuKosa,LimuSeka,

Mana,Mana Sibu,MeanitGoldiiya,Menit Shesha,Metu,Nunu Kumba, Sayo, Sekuru, Setema, Sheka,ShewaBench,SibuSire,Sigmo,SupenaSodo,Sylem,TiroAfeta,YayuAndyeki.

Thereisahighlevelofforestcoffeeproductionalongwithspicesthatarecollectedfromtheforestsformarket.PermanentcropsareproducedsuchasErnestaroundhomesteads.

Theagro‐ecologicalzonewarmtocoolsub‐humid;midland(‘Woynadega’)withundulatingtopography.

Maximumtemperaturerangesbetween25and28°CinFebruarywithminimumtemperaturesfrom10

to15°CinSeptember.Thevegetationcoverisamixofnaturalcoffeeforestsandbushscrub.

Thegeographic features include riversandmountains.Thedominant soil typesare fertile sandy loamsoilswithhighproductivity.Thisisaone‐seasonrainfallarea;theextendedrainfallperiodstartsinApril

until the end of November. TheGanna, min rains, fall from June to September andmergewith theArfasa(smallrains,MarchtoMay).Cropproductionistotallydependentonrainfall.

Maize, sorghumand fingermilletsaregrown forhomeconsumption,whilecoffeeandeucalyptusare

produced for cash.Othermajornatural resources in the livelihood zonearegoldandbamboo.Majorcropproductionconstraintsinthelivelihoodzoneareweeds,wildanimals,coffeeberrydiseaseandstalkborer.

Themainlivestockarecattle,sheep,goats,donkeysandchickens.Majorsourcesofwaterforhumansas

wellaslivestockduringthewetseasonareminorriversandseasonalpools,whilemajorriversaretheonlywater sources during the dry season. Trypanosomiasis and Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia(CBPB)andanthraxaffectlivestockproduction.

Thelivelihoodzoneismoderatelypopulatedandwithmoderateaccesstomarkets.Familiesinverypoor

householdsrangefrom4to6andcultivatebetween0.5and1ha.Thebetteroffinthelivelihoodzonehavefamilysizesofbetween7and9andown2.5to4.5ha.

LIVELIHOODZONE6,16AND17

6. Northernpastorallivelihoodsystem;16:Gambellaagro‐pastorallivelihoodsystem;17:Southernpastorallivelihoodsystems

ThislivelihoodcategoryrepresentsthewesternandsouthernpastoralareasincludingLivelihoodZone6(southern);LivelihoodZone16(western)andLivelihoodZone17(northwestern).UnderLivelihoodZone

6are theworedasofArero,BakoGazer.Basketo,Bena,Bero,Chereti,Dire,DoloOdo,Filtu,Gambela

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Gelila,GoroBaqaqsa,GuradamoleHamer,Kuraz,Moyale,Telteleyabelo.WoredasunderLivelihoodZone16areAbobo,Akobo,AnderchaAnfilo,Bero,Dima,Gambela,Gidami,GogItang, Jikawo, Jor,Majiand

Surma.LivelihoodZone17includestheworedasofAlefa,ChilgaGuba,Kurmuk,Metema,Quara,Sanja,SherkoleandTsegede.Thethreecategoriessharecommonfeaturessuchasthepracticeofsomeformofpastoralismincombinationwithotherlivelihoodactivities.

Thezoneunder6predominantlybelongstotheagro‐ecologicalclassificationofhottowarmsub‐moist

lowlands, while the zone under 16 is under the agro‐ecological class of hot to warm sub‐humidlowlands.LivelihoodZone17fallsunderthecategoriesofhot‐to‐warm,semi‐aridlowlandsandhot‐to‐warm arid lowland plains. Themain livelihoods are pastoralist and agro‐pastoralist.Where practiced

crop production plays a varying supplementary and risk‐minimizing role. Although the bulk ofpastoralists’foodisderivedfromlivestockproductionwithvariousherdingpractices,cerealsandpulsesobtainedby tradeplay a significant role.Wild fruits contribute to thedietof pastoralists, particularly

duringperiodsofdisasteranddrought.

Thepastoralistproductionsystemservesassourceofdraughtanimalsandotherlivestockproductsforhighland and lowland sedentary farmers. Trans‐boundary trade in the border areas of Kenya andSomalia significantly contribute topastoralists’ livelihoods.Collectingof some forestproducts suchas

incense,GumArabic,GumOlbanin,GumOpoponexfromAcaciaSenegalBosweliaspp.andComiphoraspp. supplement pastoralists’ livelihoods. As a result of increasing pressure on the livelihoods in thesystem,thenumberofWoredasbeingdeclaredasfoodinsecureisgrowing

Withriversidecultivation(cropproduction/Fishingsystems),LivelihoodZone16hassomedistinctive

features.Definingfeaturesofthissystemofproductionare:livelihoodpatternsbasedonrecessionagriculturealongthefloodplainsofriverembankmentsandfishingpracticedwiththeseasonal

movementsoflivestockwhenpeoplemoveclosertoorfurtherawayfromriverbanksfollowingseasonalriverflowlevels.

Cropping activities are carried out about 150‐200m along both sides of the riverbanks twice a year.Mostcultivated landisdirectlysownusingadibblingsystem(3‐4seedsperhole)withoutanyformof

landtillage.

Thefirst(mainseason)plantingiscarriedoutbetweenthesecondweekofAprilandthesecondweekofMay. Early‐maturing varieties of crops are planted to avoid flood damage in August. The secondcroppingseasonstartsinOctober,afterthefloodshaverecededwhenresidualmoistureisused.Crops

cultivatedincludemaize,sorghum,sesame,andgroundnuts,cowpea,rice,tobaccoandbeans.HarvestiscarriedoutinDecemberandJanuary.

Productivity is very lowas a result of soil‐bornepests anddiseases since there is no soil exposure tosunlight.Householdfoodanddietaryneedsaresupplementedbyfishing,which ispracticedbyalmost

all members of the family. Mango trees that are planted along riverbanks serve to supplementhouseholdconsumptionandprovideasourceofadditional income.Thecultivatedplotsizesalongtheriverbanksaresosmallbecauseoftheseasonallyhighconcentrationofpeople

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Livestock production is the main source of livelihood, while fishing and crop production play asupplementaryrole.

Seasonal runoff along the banks of major rivers support production activities and determines the

livelihood pattern. During the peak rainfall seasons, because of flooding of large areas, people andlivestockmovefromlow‐lyingareastohigheraltitudes.Whenwaterlevelsreturntonormaltheycarryoutcropproduction,which is supplementedby fishing.Nodeliberatewatercontrolandmanagement

interventionsarecarriedout.

The livelihoodsystemforzone17 is increasinglyacquiringfeaturesofneighbouringLivelihoodZone1,wheresesameproductionandtradeplayasignificantroleinthelocaleconomy.

LIVELIHOODZONE7

Easternhighlandmixedlivelihoodsystem

Thislivelihoodzonerepresentsalargepartoftheeasternhighlandcomplexwithdiverseagro‐ecologicalfeatures.Agro‐ecologiesincludewarm‐to‐cool,arid,mid‐highlands(towardsthenortheasterntipofthe

livelihood zone); warm‐to‐cool, sub‐humid, mid‐highlands in the north; warm‐to‐cool, humid, mid‐highlandstowardstheeastandcentralparts;hot‐to‐warm,sub‐moistlowlands,aswellashot‐to‐warm,moist lowlands towards the south. This is a predominantly mixed production system based on the

productionofawidespectrumofcropsandtherearingoflivestock.

TheworedasincludedunderthislivelihoodzoneareAdaba,Amaro,Amigna,ArbeGona,Aroresa,Aseko,Bekoji,Boke,Chiro,Chole,Darolebu,Dodola,Fedis,Gedeb,Ginir,Goloodo,Gololcha,Goro,Guradamole,Habro, Hager Mariam, Kochere, Kofele, Kokosa, Konso, Kuni, Lagahida, Liben, Melaka Balo, Meda

Welabu, Mennana Arena, Merti, Mesela, Meyu, Nensebo, Odo Shakiso, Raytu, Robe, Selahad, Seru,Shirka,Sinana,SudeandTena

LIVELIHOODZONE8

Awashpastoral/agriculturalsystem

Thislivelihoodzoneispartofthehugepastoralistsystemintheeasternpartsofthecountrycommonlyreferred to as the Afar Depression. The woreds of the livelihood zone are Afambo, Amibara, Awash

Fentale,Aysaita,BureMudaytu,Chifra,Dewe,Dubti,Fentale,Fursi,Mile,SimurobiandTelalak.Withanaveragealtitudeofbetween330and350mabovesea level,thevegetation isamixofshrubs,bushesandpastureland.The livelihoodzonebelongsentirely to theagro‐ecological zoneofhot‐to‐warmarid

lowlands.Thispredominantlypastoralistareaisbecomingincreasinglyanareaforlarge‐scaleagriculturebasedon irrigation.Huge farmsproducingcotton, sugarcaneandhorticultural crops functionparallelwiththepastoralistmodeofproductionofindigenousAfarcommunities.

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Wateravailabilitydetermines,toagreatextent,productionandmovementpatternsofpastoralistsandagro‐pastoralists. Water (rainfall) is generally scarce and temperatures are very high. Availability of

surfaceandgroundwaterishighlyvariable.Despitetheshortageofwater,watercontrolisonlylimitedto small, traditionalpondsand irrigationplaysan insignificant role. Exceptionsherearemedium‐andlarge‐scaleirrigationdevelopmentsinpartsofthelivelihoodzone.Theverylowrainfallandrunofffrom

the highlands are themain sources ofwater,which determine livelihood andmovement patterns ofpastoralistsandagro‐pastoralists.

The extremely low level of precipitation has a bimodal nature, occurring in two distinctly separaterainfallseasons.Generally,thelivelihoodzonetowardstheeasternhighlandescarpmentsreceivesmore

rain than areas towards the east. The livelihood benefits from runoff coming from the highlandescarpmentsandtheAwashriver,oneofthecountry’slargestrivers,whichisthemajorsourceofwaterforlivestockandhumanconsumptionaswellasthelarge‐scaleirrigationschemes.

The distinctive feature of this system of production is the extensive transhumance‐based livestock

productionlivelihoodpattern,whichispracticedunderrelativelyharsh(hotanddry)climaticconditions,withasparsepopulationandpoorintegrationofmarkets.

Pastoralistshavedevelopedhighlyefficientproductionsystemsbasedongenerallysustainablenaturalresourcesmanagementand,inparticular,opportunisticmanagementofrangelands(wetanddryseason

grazingareas).Pastoralistscanbeclassifiedascomparativelywealthy,holdingsubstantialassetsintheformof livestock. Thepoorhave small herds and flocks, thosewhomoreor less relyon saleof theirlabourforalivingareincreasinglyengagingincropproduction.

Livestock production is the major means of livelihood for pastoralists and agro‐pastoralists, crop

production playing only a supplementary and risk‐minimizing rolewhere it is practiced. Although thebulk of pastoralists’ food is derived from livestock production, based on diverse herding practices,

cerealsandpulsesobtainedthroughtradealsoplayasignificantrole.Wildfruitscontributetothedietofpastoralistsparticularlyduringperiodsofdisasteranddrought.

The pastoralist production system serves as a source of draught animals and also other livestockproductsforhighlandandlowlandsedentaryfarmers.Irrigatedandrainfedcropproduction,combined

withlivestockrearing,mainlycattleandshoats,providethemajorlivelihoodbasis.Therearebothlarge‐scalegovernmentandprivatelyoperated farms in the zone focusingon theproductionof cottonandhorticulturalcrops.Tendaho,andmiddleAwashagriculturaldevelopmentfarms,areamongthemajor

farms in the zone. An increasing number of households are taking up irrigated crop production as ameans of livelihood because of the frequent natural hazards that have led to widespread foodinsecurity. Most households in the livelihood zone purchase additional grains from markets to

supplement their livestock‐product based diets. Very poor households receive in kind from middleincomeandbetter‐offhouseholds.

LivestockandpeoplemovealongthebanksoftheAwashriverduringdryseasonsandmoveoutagainwhentheAwashriverbeginstoflooditsbanks.Infrastructureandroadconnectivityiscomparativelyfair

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becausethemainroadfromAddistoDjiboutipassesthroughitsotheworedasareconnectedwithall‐weatherroads.

Verypoorhouseholdshavefamilysizesof5‐7whilebetteroffhouseholdshavefamilysizesof9‐11.Poor

householdshave5‐8shoatswhilebetter‐offhouseholdsown30‐50.

LIVELIHOODZONE9

Meher/Belgtransitionlivelihoodsystem

The livelihoodzoneoccupiesanarrowstripofhighlandescarpmentdividingthecentralhighlandsandtheeasternlowlands.Agro‐ecologiesrepresentedinthelivelihoodzonearemainlywarm‐to‐cool,moist,mid‐highlands and warm‐to‐cool, sub‐moist, mid‐highlands. This is among the livelihood zones with

characteristically bimodal rainfall pattern and two crop production seasons, theBelg and theMeher.WoredaswithareasfallingunderthislivelihoodzoneincludeAmbalage,AngolelaTera,ArgobaSpecial,Artuma Fursi, Asagirt, Bati, Berehale, Dalul, Dawa Chefa, Debre Berhan, Debre Birhan Zuria, Dessie,

DessieZuria,Dewe,EfratanaGidim,Endamahoni,Enemay,JileTimuga,Kewet,Koneba,MegaleMojanaWedera,Ofla,RayaAzeboTehuledere,WoldyaandWerebabu.

The topography of the livelihood zone is mountainous and hilly with plains in some places. Thelivelihood zone is largelydeforested vegetation is comprisedofbushes and shrubs. The river systems

includemajorriverssuchastheBorkenaandChefa.Thesoilsaresandy,sandyclayandsandyloamwithmoderatefertility.

Cropproductionisthemajoreconomicactivity,whilelivestockproductionissignificantamongwealthierhouseholds. Crop production is dependent on the major rains of Kiremt occurring from July to

September,theBelgrainsfromFebruarytoAprilplayasupplementaryrole.Thereare,however,somepockets in which irrigated agriculture is practiced. The livelihood zone receives an average annualrainfallofabout726mm.Rainfallisunimodalandthereisasingleharvestofbothshortandlong‐cycle

crops.

Major crops cultivated are sorghum, teff, vetch and maize. Cattle, goats and sheep are the mainlivestock in order of importance, while wealthier people also keep some camels. Among the majorchallengesofthelivelihoodzone,inorderofimportanceareshortageofanderraticrainfall,croppests

anddiseases, livestockdiseasesandfloods.Whilecropand livestocksalesbringthewealthier farmersmostoftheirincome,thepoorheavilyrelyonpaidworkinlocalfieldsandsafetynetprogrammes.

Verypoorhouseholdshave familysizesof4 to6,while thebetteroffhave larger familysizes rangingbetween7and9.Verypoorhouseholdscultivatebetween0and0.75ha,whilethebetteroffown1.5to

2ha.

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LIVELIHOODZONE10

Northeasternpastorallivelihoodsystem

This zone includes extreme arid and hot areas east of the pastoralist Livelihood Zone 8. WoredasincludedareAfdem,Afdera,Ayisha,Dembel,Elidar,Erebti,Erer,Ewa,Gulina,Habru,Miesso,TeferiBerandTeru.Theagro‐ecologyishot‐to‐warmaridlowlandplainsallworedasexperienceextremedryand

hot climatic conditionswith temperatures in excess of 30°C. The livelihood zone ranges from116m

belowsealevelto700mabove.TheAsaleandAfderalakesarefoundinthelivelihoodzone.Thetotalannual rainfall is less than 250 mm. Seasonal streams flowing from both the western and eastern

plateauusuallydryupuponreachingthesandyplainsandthelakes.

Pastoralism is the main livelihood with camels, sheep and goats being the most important livestockspeciesonwhichthezoneslivelihoodsarebased.Migrationofpeopleandlivestocktowardstheedgeoftheescarpmenttakesplaceduringthedryseason.Purchasedcerealssupplementthepastoralists’food,

whichisbasedonlivestockproducts.Chronicwatershortages,recurrentdroughtandlivestockdiseasesarethemainchallengesofthelivelihoodzone.

The poor in the livelihood zone have 6 to 7 family members, while the middle andbetter‐offhave8to10and11to13familymembersrespectively.Thepoorown10to15shoatsand1

to3cattle,whilethemiddlewealthgroupsown55‐60shoats,6‐8cattleand6‐8camels.Thebetteroffown100‐140shoats,14‐16cattle,14‐16cattle,14‐16camels,2‐4donkeysand2‐4packanimals.

LIVELIHOODZONE11

Easternchat/sorghumhighlandmixedlivelihoodsystem

Thislivelihoodzonehasdistinctlivelihoodandcroppingpatterns,whichareessentiallyanextensionofthecentralandeasternEthiopianhighlands.TheworedasunderthislivelihoodzoneareBedeno,Deder,

Doba,Girawa,GoroGutu,Gursum,HaroMaya, Jijiga,KebriBeyah,Kersa,Kombolcha,KurfaCheleandTulao.Agro‐ecologyispredominatelywarm‐to‐cool,arid,mid‐highlands.Theagro‐ecologyatthefootofthemountainousterrainbelongstotheclassofhottowarm,moistlowlands.

LIVELIHOODZONE12

‘Ogaden’pastorallivelihoodsystem

This livelihood zone comprises areas commonly referred to as the ‘Ogaden’ (Somali region) with

extensivesandylowlandplainswithveryhightemperaturesandverylowrainfall.SomelargeriverssuchastheWabeShebeleGenaleDawacomprisethemajorsurfacewaterresources.Theworedasincludedunder this livelihood zone are Afder, Aware, Bare, Boji, Debeweyin, Danot, Egehabur, Degehamedo,

Dihun, Doloby, East Imi, Elkere, Ferfer, Fik, Geladin, Gerbo, Gode, Gudis, Kebridahar, Kelafo,Meyumuluka,Mustahil, Segeg, Shekosh, Shilabo,Warder andWest Imi. Thepredominate topography

1

areplainswithsomehillyandundulatingareas.Theagro‐ecologyofthelivelihoodzoneishot‐to‐warm,arid, lowland plains. Bushy vegetation covers (sometimes thick) the livelihood zone. The extremely

meagerrainfallhasadistinctbimodalpatternwiththemainrainDiroccurringMarchtomid‐MayandthesmallrainKaranduringJulytoSeptember.

LIVELIHOODZONE13

Highlandmixed–tefflivelihoodsystem

This livelihood zone includes the early settlement central and northern highland complexes inwhichsedentary agricultural production has been practiced for centuries. Major agro‐ecologies in this

livelihood zone include cold‐to‐very cold, sub‐moist, subafro‐alpine‐to‐afro alpine; cold‐to‐very cold,moist,subafro‐alpine‐to‐afroalpine;warmtocool,sub‐moist,mid‐highlands;warmtocool,moist,mid‐highlandsandhottowarm,moist,lowlands.Thelivelihoodzonereceivesrelativelyabundantrainfallon

whichagricultural production isdependent.Areasof the livelihood zone towards theeast experiencebimodalrainfallpatterns,whilethosetowardsthewesternpartshaveunimodalpatterns,theMinrains(Kiremt)dominateinbothcases.

WoredasunderthislivelihoodzoneareAbayChomen,AbeDongora.AbichunaGena,Akaki,AlemGena,

Ambassel, Ambo, Ameya, Ankasha, Awebel, Bahir Dar, Bahir Dar Zuria, Bako Tibe, Banja, Baso Liben,Becho,BerehnaAleltu,Bibugen,Bugna,BureWombera,Chelya,Dangila,Dano,Dawo,DawntDelanta,Deby Telatgen, Debre Markos, Debre Tabor, Debre Sina, Dega Damot, Degem, Dehana, Dejen,

Dembecha,Dembia, Dendi, Dera, Ejere, Enarj Enawga, Enebsie Sarmider, Estie, Fagita Lakoma, Farta,Fogera,GeraMidir,GerarJarso,GidaKiremu,Gimbichu,GindeBeret,GisheRabel,GonchaSisoEnessie,Guduru, Guzamen,Hulet Ej Enesie, Ibantu, IlluJarti, Jeldu, Jimma Haro, Jima Rare, Kelela, Kembebit,

Kutaber, Kuyu, Lay Betna Tach Bet, Lay Gaynt, Legambo, Limu, Machakel, Mama Midir, Mekeda,Merawi,MetaRobi,MoretenaJiru,MulonaSululta,Nono,Quarit,Samre,Sayint,Sekela,Sekota,ShebelBerenta, Simada, Siya Debirna, Tach Gayint, Tenta, Wadla, Walisona Goro, Walmera, Wara Jarso,

Wegede,Wonchi,Woreillu,WeremoWajietur,WuchalenaJidoandYayaGulele.

In the zone rainfedproductionof awide‐rangeof highland cereals (teff dominated) andpulses usingdeeply entrenched, traditional crop and livestock husbandry practices under temperate climaticconditionsinthehighlands,inwhichlongyearsofextractiveformsofproduction,highpopulationand

livestockdensitieshaveledtoadvancedlevelsofnaturalresourcesdegradationcharacterizethesystemofproduction.

Thebasisofthelivelihoodsystemistheproductionofcereals,pulsesandoilcropsalongwithlivestockthatiskeptonnaturalpastureandcropresidues.Beforethedepletionofthenaturalforestcovertoits

presentprecariouslevel,saleoffirewoodandwoodforconstructionaswellassaleofforestproductsused to contribute significantly to farmers’ livelihoods. Farmers in this systemare also engaged, to acertainextent,inpettytradetoaugmenttheirincome.

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Rainfall, which has a unimodal pattern in the north and northwest, and bimodal in some central,southernandsoutheasternhighlands,determinesproductionandlivelihoodpatterns.Increasednatural

resourcesdegradationandclimatechange,andassociatedrainfallvariability,haveinducedsomedegreeofsmall‐scaleirrigationdevelopmentandwatercontrol.Theneedtointensifyagriculturalproductiontomeet the demands of rapidly growing populations in this livelihood zone prompted some degree of

irrigation development and water control. Most of the traditional and modern small‐scale irrigationdevelopmentactivitiesareconcentratedinthislivelihoodsystem.

The high level of runoff and irrigation potential remains mostly untapped. Drainage associatedproblems;vertisoilsthatoccur inconsiderably largearea inthe livelihoodzone,areseriouschallenges

constrainingproduction.Althoughsomeeffortstoimprovedrainagetechniques,suchastheBroadBedmaker(BBM),haveshownsomesignsofsuccessinimprovingworkabilityofthesoilsandextendingthegrowingperiod,theirup‐scalingremainsachallenge.Decliningorganicmattercontentandmulchinthe

soil as a result of the unsustainable agronomic practices have reduced effective utilization of soilmoistureinmanypartsofthelivelihoodzone.

LIVELIHOODZONE14

Horticultural(Enset/cereal)mixedlivelihoodcomplex

Thislivelihoodzonemainlybelongstotheproductionsystemcommonlyreferredtoasthehorticulture(Enset complex). The agro‐ecology is warm to cool, moist, mid‐highlands. This livelihood zone is

characterizedbyveryhighpopulationdensityandintensivelandusebysmall‐scalefarmers.

This livelihood zone includes the woredas Akilina Mohr, Angacha, Alaba, Alicho Woriro, Andercha,Angacha, Badawacho, Bita, Bule, Cheha, Chena,Dalocha,Dara,Daramalo, Ela, Enemorna,GenaBosa,Gewata, Gimbo, Gofa Zuria, Goro, Gumer, Hulla, Humbo, Isara, Kacha Bira, Kedida Gamela, Kemba,

Kindo Koisha, Kokir, Kokir Gedebano. Lanfero, Limu, Lomo Bosa, Mareka Gena, Masha, Melekoza,Menjiwo,Misha, Nono, Ofa, Omo Sheleko, Selti,Sodo, Sodo zuria, Soro, Telo, Tocha, Ubadebrtsehay,urga,Wenago,VirgachefeandZala.

This systemofproduction isbasedonacombineduseof thehandhoeand theanimal‐drawnplough

‘Maresha’fortheproductionofmainlyhorticulturalcrops(Enset,coffee,chat,rootcropsandfruits)aswellasamoderateamountofcerealsandpulseswithmultiplecroppingpractices.Livestockproductionis an integral part of the system that is increasingly being restricted to stall and restricted feedingof

animalsbecauseofthescarcityofland,whichistheresultofextremelyhighpopulationdensities.Theseareas,whichbenefitfromprolongedmoistperiods,havethehighestlandutilization/productivityrates,whilelabourproductivityislowestasaresultoftheveryhighratioofadultlabourtoland.‘Enset’(False

banana) is themost important foodcrop,whilecattleathigheraltitudes,coffeeandothercashcropssuchassugarcaneinmidtolowaltitudeareasserveassourcesofincome.Land‐holdingsizeisrelativelylargerinhighaltitudeareasreachingupto1.5haperhousehold,whileitisonlyabout0.5hainmedium

andlowaltitudeareas.

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Ensetismainlyplantedasahomesteadcropalongwithsomecerealsandpulses.Thecropisplantedinsmall plots in the field and provides the most important basis of livelihood in the system. It is

supplemented by livestock production and/or cash crops, depending on the agro‐ecologies. Nolivelihood is provided from the collection of honey and other forest products because the naturalvegetationhasdisappeared.Tradehasbeenconstrainedbecauseofpoorinfrastructuredevelopment,is

emerging as an area of economic activity after recent improvements in road communication. Landdegradationisincreasingcausedbytheveryhighpressurefromthegrowingruralpopulationandsomeweatherirregularitiesthatoccurinthissystemofproduction,thelevelofpovertyandfoodinsecurity.

LIVELIHOODZONE15

RiftValleylivelihoodsystem

This livelihood zone is part of theGreat Rift Valley depressionwith high concentration of freshwater

lakes.Hottowarm,humid,lowlands,hottowarmmoistlowlandsandhottowarmsub‐moistlowlandsmake up the agro‐ecology of the livelihood zone. The topography is predominantly plains withundulatingfeaturesandacaciatrees,bushandgrasslandsdominatethevegetationcover.Mostofthe

freshwaterlakesoftheRiftValleyareaareconcentratedinthislivelihoodzonemakingitanattractivedestinationbothforlocalandinternationaltourists.

MajorriversincludeBulbula,Meki,HulukaandHarakelo.Thelivelihoodzoneisasanctuaryforwildlife,especially for a variety of birds includingmigratory. In addition to thehuge geothermal potential the

area is also endowedwith soda ash. TheGanna is themajor rainy season that extends from June toSeptember, while Arfasa is the minor rainy season occurring from March to April. The soils of thelivelihoodzonearesandyandlessfertile.Althoughthelivelihoodzonehashugegrazingpotential, it is

frequentlyaffectedbymoisturestress.

Thelivelihoodzoneisafooddeficitzonereceivingfoodaidduringdrought.Maizeisthemajorcultivatedcrop,while haricot beans are grown for income. The low level of soil fertility, coupledwithmoisturestress,keepagriculturalproductionandproductivityverylow.Thereisanincreasedflowofinvestment

intoirrigatedagriculturebothbylarge‐scaleaswellassmall‐scalefarmers.

Themain types of livestock kept include cattle and shoats in a free grazing system.Main sources ofwater during the rainy seasons are rivers, surface rainwater, seasonal ponds and community ponds.Duringthedryseasonriversandcommunitypondsbecometheonlysourcesofwater.Waterqualityis

affected by the high fluoride content, which is a problem for human health. Market access in thelivelihoodzoneisgood.

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ANNEX1–VIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐GENERALCHARACTERISTICS

Maincrops FarmerstypologyLivelihood

zoneMainclimate

Mainwatersourceforagriculture

Mainsourcesofliving(typeofproduction,incometypology,etc.)

Maintypeofsoil

Rainfed Irrigated A B C D E

1

Arid:(Hot‐warmsemi‐aridlowlandsagro‐

ecology)

RainfallUnimodalMeher‐Majorrains)rainfall(JuneJulyAugust(350‐750mm),shallow

wellsfordomesticuse

Mixedsystem‐Livestock,cropproductionLivestockdominatedbycattleand

Shoats

ModeratelyfertileBlack

clay

Sorghum&sesame

0 0 <5% 70% 25%

2

(Tepidtocoolmoistmidhighlands

agroecology)‐humid,unimodal&bimodal

RainfallLongUnimodalrainfall(May,JuneJulyAugust,

September,

ModeratelyproductivemixedfarmingCrop

production

Moderatelyfertile,clay,vertisolandclayloam,mediumtextured

Cereals&pulses

Vegetables,maize

3% 15% 80% 2% 0

3

(Tepidtocoolmoistmidhighlands

agroecology)‐humid,unimodal&bimodal

RainfallLongUnimodalrainfall(May,JuneJulyAugust,

September,

ModeratelyproductivemixedfarmingCrop

production

Moderatelyfertile,clay,vertisolandclayloam,mediumtextured

Cereals&pulses

Vegetables,maize

3% 15% 80% 2% 0

4Hotandwarm

climateRainfall Farmers,andtraders

Teff,sorghum,maizeandserials

10 80

5(Tepidtocoolsub

humidmidhighlandsagro‐ecology)

Rain,groundwater,surfacewaterUnimodalRinfalloneofthehighest1200‐1700)longrainyseasonApril‐October‐oneagriculturalseason

Coffee,spices,maize,fruits,vegetablemajorcoffeeproducingarea.

Cattleandshoatsarethemainlivestock

RedclaysoilLoamsoilwithmoderateproductivity

Coffee,Chatmaize,sprices,cereals,root

crops

Vegetable 97 3

1

6

Semi‐aridtoarid(Hottowarmsub‐

moistlowlandsagro‐ecology)

Surfaceandgroundwater(trsditionalellas),smallrainfall,waterhaversting200‐600mmrain,bimodalLong(March‐May)short(June‐August)

Mainlypastoralistandsmallscaleagriculture(cattle,goats,camels,

sheeps,maize,sorghum,(gold),Sorghum,Maize

Teff)

Sandy,sandyclaysoil

Maizesorghumsugarbe

Fruitvegetable

5 80 15

7

Moisthighlandtosemiaridland:

(Tepidtocoolhumidmidhighlandsagro‐

ecology)

Rainwater,surfacewaterAwashriver,groundwaterbimodal(FebruaryMarch)(July‐September)annualrainfall122‐320mm.Largescaleagriculturealongthe

Awash

Cereals,livestock,spices,fruitandvegetable

Sorghum,MaizeandTeffareimportantcrops.

Goatsandsheep,camelandcattle

Vertisoils,sandysoils

Wheat,barly,pulses,spices

Fruitvegetable

85 5 10

8Semiarid:(Hotto

warmaridlowlandsagro‐ecology)

River,rainfallrainwater,surfacewaterAwashriver,groundwaterbimodal(FebruaryMarch)(July‐

September)annualrainfall122‐320mm.Largescale

agriculturealongtheAwash

CattleCamel,smallruminants,small/largescaleirrigateedandrainfedagriculture,charcoaltarding

60%alluvial,40%alluvial

MaizeCotton,

Sugarcanevegetables

60 20 20

9Semi‐arid:Tepidtocoolsubmoistmid

highlands

Rainfall,irrigationunimodalJune‐September)alsosmallshowersinApril.Unreliable600‐800mm,rivers,shallowwells,seasonalpoolsusedin

thedryseason

Livestock(cattlesheepandgoats),crop

production

Finetomediumtextured,clay

richsoils

Maize,sorghum,

cereals(wheat,Barly)&chickpeas

Vegetables,maize,

chickpeas20% 0 60% 15% 5%

10Arid:(Hot‐warmarid

lowlandsagro‐ecology)

NowatersourceLessthan200mmofrainfalldistictly

bimodalCamel,smallruminant

Vulcanicashes&Sandysoils

100%

11

Semiarid(Tepidtocoolsubhumidmidhighlandsagro‐

ecology)

Groundwater,rainfallbimodalrains(460‐930mm)majore(June‐august)minor(March‐

April)

Commercialagric,import‐exportChatandCoffeemajorcommercialcrops

Vertisoil Maize,sorghumVegetables,fruits,chat

15% 60% 25%

12Arid(Hot‐warmarid

lowlandsagro‐ecology)

Traditionalwellsandseasonalstreams

Camel,smallruminant,cross‐bordertrading

Sandysoil 100%

13

Moisthighland:(Tepidtocoolmoistmidhighlandsagro‐

ecology)

Rainfall,surfaceandgroundwater

Cerealspulses,livestock,incet,

Vertisoils,sandysoils

Cereals,teff,pulses,old

crops,spices,Vegetable 93 5 2

14 Moderate Rainfall Rainfeedagricalture

Rootcrops,greenpepper,maizeandspices

80

1

15 Semi‐aridtoarid

Surfacewater,rainwater,groundwaterbimodalrainslong(June‐September),short

(April‐May)500‐800mmannualprecipitation

Livestock(cattle,sheep,goatsandchicken),

vegetable,fruit,cereals

Sandandclaysoils

Cereals,pulses,maize,

Vegetable,maize,

87 10 3

16

Semi‐arid(Hottowarmsubhumidlowlandsagroecology):

Surfacewaterandrainfall400‐500mmrainfallbimodal,(March‐May)(September‐

October)

Cross‐bordertrading,fishing,agro‐pastoral

Don'tknow Maize Coffe 90

17

Semi‐arid:Hottowarmsub‐moistlowlandsagro‐

ecology)

Unimodalrainfall(June‐September)about800mm

Farmers,andtradersVertisolandClayloam

Maize,sorghum.Fingermillets,Sesamecotton

80

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ANNEX2–CIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐BOCIOECONOMICASPECTS

Marketaccess(high,moderate,limited)

Livelihoodzone

Averagelandholdingsize(ha)

Mainconstraintsforlivelihoods

Leveloffoodinsecurity(high,

moderate,limited)

Incidenceofruralpoverty

(high,moderate,limited)

Inputs Outputs

Ruralpopdensity

Migrationissues

%female‐headed

householdOtheraspects Notes

1 >2

Watershortage,erraticrainfall,

economic&socialinfrastructure

Limited

LimitedVerypoor20%,poor30%,middle

30%Better‐off20%

Moderate ModerateSparcelypopulated

No ItisanissueEffectofmalaria

epidemic,shortageoflabor

2 1

Shortageofcultivableland,erraticrainfall,

shortageofwaterforagric,land

degradation,poorinfrastructure

High High Moderate ModerateDenselypopulated

Yes,exists Itisanissue

Shortageofagriculturalland,lackofmarketfor

vegetables,traditionalfarmimplements

3 1

Shortageofcultivableland,erraticrainfall,

shortageofwaterforagric,land

degradation,poorinfrastructure

High High Moderate ModerateDenselypopulated

Yes,exists Itisanissue

Shortageofagriculturalland,lackofmarketfor

vegetables,traditionalfarmimplements

4 <2haLesslandownership,

traditionalfarmingModerate Moderate Low

Sparselypopulated

Insignificant No

1

5

Coffeefarmersareconsidered

astraditionalastheir

productivityisverylow

3

Inefficientuseofressources,

livestockdesease

Moderate‐

good

6 <2ha

Erraticrainfallandpoorinfrstructure,accesstomarketandroads,low

waterdevelopment

Moderatewithseasonalpeacks

Moderatwithseasonalpeacks

Limited LimitedSparselypopulated

Nomadic.Agropastoralmigration

Low

7 3

Lackofprivatelandpropertyrights(notallcertified)andcommonlands=unappropriate

landuses,moisturestress,inefficientuseofressources,infrastructure,

market

8 >1haFlooding,salinity,curlture(nomads)

Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low 5

Peopleuselandforkeepingcattleand

workinlargescaleestate,nomadshavenotadaptedtofarming

9 >1.5

Shortageofgrazingland,erraticrainfall,

shortageofwaterforagric,poorinfrastructure

Moderate Moderate Moderate ModerateModeratelypopulated

Yes,exists Itisanissue

Effectofmalariaepidemic,

livestockdisease,shortageoflabor

1

10Clan

holding

Harshclimate,salinity,vulcanicsoil,accessto

marke

Low High Low Low Low Low 5

Lackofawareness,culturalinfluence,marginal

developmentactivity

11 0.5Landscarcity,degradation

Moderate Moderate High High Low Low 5

12Clan

holdingWaterscarcity,

insecurityLow High None None Low Low 5

Lackofawareness,culturalinfluence,marginal

developmentactivity

13 Landscarcity,degradation

Waterlogging,land

fragmentation,inefficientuse

ofwater

HighModerate‐

good

14 <2ha

Rainfall,traditionalagricalturalsystem,high

populationdensity

High High Moderate High High

Alotoffarmingactivityisdonebyfemales

15 Droughthazards,poorsoilfertility,waterquality

Moistureconstraint,inefficientofwater,price

variability,poorguidanceforirrigationschemes

High Good

16 <2haErraticrainfallandpoorinfrastructure

Moderate Moderate Limited Limited Low

Significantcross

border,forlabourand

trade

Femalecroppingsystem,

femaleownland

17 <2ha

Rainfall,traditionalagricaltural

system,illegaltrade

High HighHigh

(illegal) Scattered

Significantcross

border,forlabourand

trade

Low

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ANNEX3–EIVELIHOODZONESATTRIBUTETABLE‐BATER‐RELATEDASPECTS

Livelihoodzone

Mainwater

resources

Mainwateruse(farming,livestock,domestic,

etc.)

Mainwater‐relatedconstraints

Seasonality

(bimodal,

unimodal,etc.)

Frequenceof

droughtsanddryspells

Frequenceof

floods

TowhatextentAWMcan

improvelivelihoods

Localconflicts(compet

inguses)onwatermanagement

LevelofAWMdevelopment(high,medium,low)

Surfacewateravail

Groundwater

availability

Levelsurfacewater

exploitation

Levelgroundwa

terexploitatio

n

PhysicalAWMpotenta

il

Reuseof

waterforagriculture

Waterquality

problemsfor

agriculture(salinity,sodicity,etc.)

Ethnicity

implicationsforAWM

Notes

1

2

3

4

GW,surfacewaterandrainfall

DomesticScarsityofwater,malariaandtse‐tse

fly

Unimodal

Low LowIfthereisAWM,itishigh

No Low High High Low High High LowInsignifica

ntLow

5

Rain,groundwater,surfacewater

Foralltheabove

Poorawarenessoftheresource,highcostfordiversion

anddamconstruction,

topographiccontrollforlowschemirrigation,poorextesionsurvice

Unimodal

Low Low Highly None Low Good Good Low Low Medium None NoneLimited

1

6

Surfaceand

groundwater,smallrainfall,water

haversting

Domestic,forlivestockandlimitedforirrigation

Irraticdistributionofwater,salinityofgroundwateratsomeplaces,

BimodalMedium

Moderate

Medium

Moderateforwaterresourceandpastureland

LowModera

teModerat

eLow Low Medium None

Localizedsalinity,sodicity

Moderate

Transboundaryconflictsarealsoseensometimes

7

Rainwater,surfacewater,

groundwater

Foralltheabove

Limitedawarenessoftheresource,highcostfordiversion

anddamconstruction,

topographiccontrollforlowschem

irrigation

Unimodal

mostlyand

bimodalinsomeareas

Mediumtohigh

LowModera

teNone

Lowtomodera

teGood Good Moderate Low Medium None Notmuch

Limited

Landslidedeforestation

,landdegradation,soilerosion,surfacewater

pollutionaroundtowns

8Rivers,rainfall

Commercialagri,cashcorp(sugar,cotton),livestock,farming

Soilsalinity,flood,malaria

Bimodal High High High

Smallscalevscommer

cial

Medium

High High High Low High No No No

9

10 RainfallLocalized

ponds,cattleLackofwater,soil

salinityLimitedbimodal

High No Low No Low No Limited Low Low Low No No No

11Rainfall,

groundwater

Commercialagri,livestock

Erraticrainfall,flood Bimodal LowMedium

High LowMedium

Low High Medium Low High No No NoMajorwaterconservation

works

12 No Livestock Lackofwater Bimodal High No Low No Low Low High No No Low No No No

13

Rain,surfaceand

groundwat

Domestic,forlivestockandlimitedforirrigation

Limitedawarenessoftheresource,highcostfordiversion

anddam

Bothunimodalandbimodal

Low Low Medium None Low Good Good Low Low Medium None None None

Highsoilerosion,landdegradation,moderate

1

er construction,topographiccontroll

forlowschemirrigation

landslide

14Rainfall,GWandsurface

Agricaltureanddomestic

Landscarsityandoverpopulation

Bimodal Low Low Low Low High High High Medium Low Medium Low No Low

15

Surfacewater,rainwater,groundwater

Foralltheabove

Limitedawarenessoftheresource,

limitedtopographiccontrollforlowschemirrigation,

localizedgroundwaterandsurfacewater

salinity

Bimodal High Low Highly NoneMedium

Moderate

Moderate

High Medium

Highbutgoodwatermanagement

NoneSalinity,sodicity

None

Careshouldbetakenonirrigationwater

managementtoavoidsalinity

upconingsoilincrustation,lakelevelreductionshouldbecontrolled

16Surface

waterandGW

Mainlyfordomesticandlivestock,fisherybutlittleforfarming

Utilizationproblrm,malria

Unimodal

HighMedium

IfthereisAWM,itishigh

Low Low HighModerat

eLow Medium Low Low

Insignificant

Low

17

Surfacewater,rainfallandborehole

Rainfedagricalture

Capacityproblemtoutilizewater

Unimodal

Low LowIfthereisAWM,itishigh

No Low High High Low Medium Medium Low Low Low