Ethnobotany

M.Sc Botany

SELF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

M.Sc Final

Paper VIII – Ethnobotany (Optional Paper)

Unit – I & II

Block – I

Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) UniversityBhopal

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Ethnobotany

F - 08

BLOCK - I

ETHONOBOTANY

Unit – I Definition and Scope of Ethnobotany

Unit – II Indigenous culture, plants in mythology

Editor - Dr. (Smt.) Renu Mishra,HOD, Botany and MicrobiologySri Sathya Sai College for Women,Bhopal

Writer:- Miss. Neelam MewariAsstt. Professor, BotanyJaipur, Rajasthan

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UNIT 1 ETHNOBOTANY

Structure

1.1 Introduction1.2 Objectives1.3 Definitions and Scope of Ethnobotany1.4 Historical Review1.5 Areas of Ethnobotanical studies

1.5.1 Archaeoethnobotany1.5.2 Ethnoecology1.5.3 Ethnomedicine1.5.4 Ethnogynaecology1.5.5 Ethnomusicology1.5.6 Ethnomycology1.5.7 Ethnonarcotics1.5.8 Ethnopharmacology1.5.9 Ethnotaxonomy1.5.10 Ethnotoxicology1.5.11 Paleoethnobotany1.5.12 Ethnocosmetics1.5.13 Ethnolinguistics1.5.14 Ethnoorthopaedics1.5.15 Ethnoophthalmology1.5.16 Ethnopediatrics

1.6 Let Us Sum Up1.7 Check Your Progress: The Key1.8 Assignments or Activities1.9 References

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Ethnobotany is considered as a branch of ethnobiology, the study of past and present interrelationships between human cultures and the plants, animals, and other organisms in their environment. Like its parent field, ethnobotany makes apparent the connection between human cultural practices and the sub-disciplines of biology.Ethnobotanical studies range across space and time, from archaeological investigations of the role of plants in ancient civilizations to the bioengineering of new crops. Furthermore, ethnobotany is not limited to nonindustrialized or nonurbanized societies. In fact, co-adaptation of plants and human cultures has changed and perhaps intensified in the context of urbanization and globalization in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Nonetheless, indigenous, non-Westernized cultures play a crucial role in ethnobotany, as

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they possess a previously undervalued knowledge of local ecology gained through centuries or even millennia of interaction with their biotic (living) environment.The significance of ethnobotany is manifold. The study of indigenous food production and local medicinal knowledge may have practical implications for developing sustainable agriculture and discovering new medicines. Ethnobotany also encourages an awareness of the link between biodiversity and cultural diversity, as well as a sophisticated understanding of the mutual influence (both beneficial and destructive) of plants and humans. In this unit, we will discuss the historic roots of ethnobotany and a brief knowledge about different areas associated with it. The unit intends to highlight the role that local people’s knowledge and cultural perspectives can play in resource management and conservation.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to expand awareness about the intricate relationship between culture, plants, humans, and our environment. After going through this unit you will be able to- 1 Define the ethnobotany and discuss the scope of the subject area covered by this

descipline.2 Discuss the historic roots of ethnobotany and the role that human/plant interactions

have had in managing natural resources, and the influence of human on the evolution, distribution and utilization of major food and medicinal plants.

3 Understand and discuss the broad spectrum of terminology of ethnobotany that is often asociated with it.

4 Discuss the role, importance and contribution of ethnomedicine, ethnopharmacology, ethnoecology, ethnogynaecology, ethnomycology, etc., in our modern civilization.

5 Discuss the people-plant relations focusing upon impacts of plant conservation and opportunities for sustainable use.

1.3 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF ETHNOBOTANY

Since the beginning of civilization, people have used plants to provide them food, shelter, medicines, as well as the materials for construction and the manufacture of crafts and tools and many other products like fuel, paints, poison, etc. Plants often have ritual characters and are used because of their variety of properties. Nowadays their chemical and genetic characters are increasingly explored for human benefits. It had been possible due to ethnobotanical studies that have provided us a plenty of information data about plants either useful or harmful.

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Ethnobotany is the study of how people of a particular culture and region make the use of indigenous plants. Ethnobotanists explore how plants are used for such things as food, shelter, medicine, clothing, hunting, and religious ceremonies. These plants are known as ethnobotanicals. The term ethnobotany was suggested by John Harshberger in 1896 to delimit a specific field of botany and to describe plant uses. It was defined as “the use of plants by aboriginal peoples”. Its scope was much elaborated by Ford (1978) and Faulks (1958). Prior to this term (ethnobotany), many botanists were already including the use of plants by people within their study. However, it was Harshberger who proposed that discipline of ethnobotany might be developed with its own definition, scope, objectives and methodologies. Although Harshberger’s definition still provide the root of the ethnobotany, but to describe the field in broader sense ethnobotanists have given their definitions time to time. Let us look at the slight changes in emphasis through a review of current definitions.

Ethnobotany is considered to encompass all studies which concern the mutual relationship between plants and traditional peoples (Cotton, 1996).

In broad terms, ethnobotany is the study of the interrelationship between plants and people. The two major parts of ethnobotany are encapsulated in the word itself; ethno, ‘the study of people’, and botany, ‘the study of plants’. However, the field is limited on both sides. On the botanical sides of the field, few ethnobotanical studies are concerned with plants that have no connection to people. On the ethno side, most studies are concerned with the ways indigenous peoples use and view plants. And those uses and those views can provide deep insights into the human conditions (Balick and Cox 1996).

According to Ford 1994, ethnobotany is concerned with a wide range of interest of plants in cultural and ecological context.

According to Martin 1995, ethnobotany is the part of ethnoecology which concerns plants.

Turner 1996 has given an appropriate definition that is “the science of people’s interaction with plants”.

So, from the above recent definitions, it may be said that the ethnobotany has become a broader discipline, which is interested in all studies about the relationship between people and plants.

The definition and scope of ethnobotany has remained impressive even by the narrowest definition of the discipline. This is an interdisciplinary science and undertakes a research on the relationship between people and plants in the areas of: linguistics, education, healing, nutrition, archaeology, paleology, resource tenure and management, livelihood, etc. Ethnobotany can therefore serve as a gateway to many disciplines. The following disciplines are often included within the study of ethnobotany:

Discipline Relevance to EthnobotanyBotany Study of plantsAnthropology The study of how different cultures use plants

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Ecology How human interactions with plants and ecosystems affect ecology

Medicine Study of medicinal uses of plantsChemistry Study of composition of plants, especially medicinal plantsAgriculture Study of human domestication and management of plants,

especially traditional agriculture systemHorticulture Study of management of useful plants (fruits, vegetables,

ornamentals) in home garden or orchardForestry Study of human management of forest and forest treesAgroforestry Study of land management for the simultaneous production of

food, crops and treesArchaeology How ancient cultures used plantsEconomics Study of economic uses of plantsReligious studies Ritual uses of plants by different cultures and religionsLinguistics Study of linguistic terminonology for plants and plant parts by

people of different language groupsSystematics Study of folk taxonomy, how different people classify plants

As we have seen, ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary science and its scope is not confined to one area but it covers a broad range of study areas, which are interconnected to each other in one sense or the other. So, there is a great opportunity to explore the ethnobotanical approach towards the modern civilization and giving them a firm task, which should include:

Conservation of plant species- including varieties of crops and other forms of biological diversity.

Botanical inventories and assessment of the conservation status of the species. Sustainability in supplies of wild plant resources. Enhanced food security, nutrition and healthcare. Preservation, recovery and diffusion of local botanical knowledge and wisdom. Reinforcement of ethnic and national identity. Identification and development of new economic products from plants, for

instance food, crafts, herbal formulations, horticultural plants, etc.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) What is ethnobotany?

ii) Write briefly the relevance to ethnobotany of the following disciplines. Ecology, Medicine, Agriculture, Linguistics, Archaeology

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1.4 HISTORIACL REVIEW

The study of plants in the service of mankind has been a part of human civilization since ages. Information on the economic aspects of plants has been passed from one generation to the next generation. With the knowledge of the traditional practices botanists of world examined the practical uses of plants either reported or unreported. And in the light, a new branch of botany was emerged and termed as ethnobotany. In this direction, a detailed account on the origin of the branch has been made and presented here.

Before going to the history of ethnobotany, let us have a look at the flow chart given below to understand the subject deeply. The chart in itself is a full explanation of ethnobotany.

Ethnobotany

Plants in traditional Plants used by Plants in Plants in Materia Medicine tribals folklore Medica From archaeological Ceremonial Included through Remains observation In ancient times Practised by tribal people Included due to its uses In commerce Use hereditary Unreported but Embibed from exotic resources Only symbolic used by tribes

Exploitable Tested plants Employed in resources outside country

Quantity verses Climate

Diagrammatic representation of ethnobotany in its various perspectives

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Though the term "ethnobotany" was not coined until 1895 by the US botanist John William Harshberger, the history of the field begins long before that. In AD 77, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published "De Materia Medica", which was a catalog of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean. It also included information on how the Greeks used the plants, especially for medicinal purposes. This illustrated herbal contained information on how and when each plant was gathered, whether or not it was poisonous, its actual use, and whether or not it was edible (it even provided recipes). Dioscorides stressed the economic potential of plants. For generations, scholars learned from this herbal, but did not actually venture into the field until after the Middle Ages.

In 1542 Leonhart Fuchs, a Renaissance artist, led the way back into the field. His "De Historia Stirpium" cataloged 400 plants native to Germany and Austria. John Ray (1686-1704) provided the first definition of "species" in his "Historia Plantarum": a species is a set of individuals who give rise through reproduction to new individuals similar to themselves.

In 1753 Carl Linnaeus wrote "Species Plantarum", which included information on about 5,900 plants. Linnaeus is famous for inventing the binomial method of nomenclature, in which all species get a two part name (genus, species).

The 19th century saw the peak of botanical exploration. Alexander von Humboldt collected data from the new world, and the famous Captain Cook brought back information on plants from the South Pacific. At this time major botanical gardens were started, for instance the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Edward Palmer collected artifacts and botanical specimens from peoples in the North American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from the 1860s to the 1890s.

Once enough data existed, the field of "aboriginal botany" was founded. Aboriginal botany is the study of all forms of the vegetable world which aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles, ornaments, etc.

The first individual to study the emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician working in Sarajevo at the end of 19th Century: Leopold Glueck. His published work on traditional medicinal uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work.

The term "ethnobotany" was first used by a botanist named John W. Harshberger in 1895 while he was teaching at the University of Pennsylvania. Although the term was not used until 1895, practical interests in ethnobotany go back to the beginning of civilization when people relied on plants as a way of survival.

Other scholars analysed uses of plants under an indigenous/local perspective in the 20th century: e.g. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Zuni plants (1915); Frank Cushing, Zuni foods (1920); Keewaydinoquay Peschel, Anishinaabe fungii (1998), and the team approach of Wilfred Robbins, JP Harrington, and Barbara Freire-Marreco, Tewa pueblo plants (1916).

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In India, it was Dr. S. K. Jain (1986) from NBRI, Lucknow, affectionately known as “Father of Indian Ethnobotany” who made pioneering investigations. Growth and development of ethnobotany in India owes much to the painstaking works done by eminent scientists on different aspects of ethnobotany like S. K. Jain, S. L. Kapoor, V. P. Kamboj, K. V. Billore, N. C. Shah, Ved Prakash, R. P. Rao, K. C. Audichya, D. S. Bhakuni, P. V. N. Kurup, K. C. Tewari, Anil Goel, Archana Godbole, Pushpagandan, H. Santapau, Virendra Nath, A. K. Pandey, Momin Ali, Usha Shome, K. K. Kirtikar, M. L. Dhar, B. N. Dhawan, K. Himadri, S. K. Borthakur, K. S. Manilal, etc.

In the beginning, ethonobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and sometimes not helpful. This is because the botanists and the anthropologists did not come together on their work. The botanists focused on identifying species and how the plants were used instead of including how plants fit into people's lives. On the other hand, anthropologists were interested in the cultural role of plants and not the scientific aspect. Therefore, early ethnobotanical data does not really include both sides. In the early twentieth century, botanists and anthropologists finally collaborated and the collection of reliable, detailed data began.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) Who coined the term ethnobotany?

ii) Who is known as the ‘father of indian ethnobotany’?

iii) Who wrote De Materia Medica? ……………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………….

1.5 AREAS OF ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES

Beginning in the twentieth century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. Today, the practice of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills:

1 Botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens

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2 Anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants

3 Linguistic training to transcribe local terms and understand native morphology, syntax, and semantics.

Ethnobotanists engage in a broad array of research questions and practices, which do not lend themselves to easy categorization. However, the following headings attempt to describe some of the key areas of modern ethnobotanical study.

1.5.1 Archaeoethnobotany

Archaeoethnobotany is the study of the ethnobotany of identification of the plant materials from archaeological sites for studies on migration of human cultures, and origin, dispersal and domestification of crops etc. It is closely linked to ethnobotany, as it is difficult to understand the ecology of modern environments without considering the environmental history that often involves prehistoric human interventions. There are a large number of examples from archaeological remains, among them few are mentioned here.

Kalpa Vraksha in stone sculptures denotes Adansonia digitata basically a semi arid zone species. They grow in semi dry areas where there is scanty vegetation. This plant has augmental and vegetable component besides ensured additional income to villagers derived from its fruit whose water is tonic and nutritive. The stem fibre is used as cordage. Branches and leaves are considered as a cattle feed and flowers are used in medicine.

The history of the domestication of the cereal grain maize (commonly known as "corn") is of particular interest to archaeoethnobotanists. The process is thought by some to have started 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. Recent genetic evidence suggests that maize domestication occurred 9000 years ago in central Mexico, perhaps in the highlands between Oaxaca and Jalisco. Archaeological remains of early maize cobs, found at Guila Naquitz Cave in the Oaxaca Valley, date back roughly 6,250 years; the oldest cobs from caves near Tehuacan, Puebla, have been dated to approximately 2750 B.C.

1.5.2 Ethnoecology

Ethnoecology is the scientific study of the way different groups of people in different locations understand ecosystems around them; the environments in which they live; and their relationship with these. It seeks valid, reliable understanding of how we as humans have interacted with the environment and how these intricate relationships have been sustained over time.

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The “ethno” (see ethology) prefix in ethnoecology indicates a localized study of a people, and in conjunction with ecology, signifies people’s understanding and experience of ecologies around them. A few definitions of ethnoecology are given below:

Definition 1- “ Ethnoecology encompasses all studies which describes local peoples interaction with the natural environment including subdisciplines such as ethnobiology, ethnobotany, ethnoentomology and ethnozoology” (Martin 1995).Definition 2- “ Ethnoecology is the sciences of how people unerstand the relationship between human, animals, plants and physical elements of local environment” (Davison-Hunt, 2000).

Thus, ethnoeology is a multidisciplinary field that intregates techniques from biology, anthropology, ethnology, linguistics, economy and other fields. Ethnoecologists do not only work in primary forests, they are also interested in a broad range of vegetation types which have been altered by people, ranging from homegardens to mature secondary forests, where the majority of plants are found. Research focuses on the ecological knowledge of the indigenous people and of traditional agriculturists. Ethnoecologists address theoretical questions about the relationship between human and their environment and the answers contribute to rural development poverty alleviation, healthcare and conservation (Martin 1995). Thus ethnoecology is not limited to pure science, it can help to understand the dynamic relations between biodiversity and social and cultural systems.

1.5.3 Ethnomedicine

Ethnomedicine is a sub-field of medical anthropology that deals with the study of traditional medicines—not only those with relevant written sources (e.g., Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda), but also those whose knowledge and practices have been orally transmitted over the centuries.

While the focus of ethnomedical studies is often the indigenous perception and use of traditional medicines, another stimulus for this type of research is drug discovery and development. Major pharmaceuticals such as digoxin, morphine, and atropine have been traced to foxglove, opium, and belladonna, respectively. Ethnomedical investigations in this century have led to the development of important drugs such as reserpine (a treatment for hypertension), podophyllotoxin (the base of an important anti-cancer drug), and vinblastine (used in the treatment of certain cancers).

In the scientific arena, ethnomedical studies are generally characterized by a strong anthropological approach, or by a strong biomedical approach, particularly in drug discovery programs. The focus of anthropological studies is the perception and context of use of traditional medicines, while biomedical approaches often focus on discovering therapeutic molecules, such as the anti HIV/AID molecule prostratin.

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1.5.4 Ethnogynaecology

Ethnogynaecology is the study which deals with various diseases among women in tribal societies, related to sterility, conception, abortion, etc., and the use of abortifacients.

The drugs obtained from the plants to treat certain gynaecological problems have been reported to be useful and safe. Santalum album, Terminalia arjuna, Rauvolfia serpentina, Aloe vera, Lawsonia innermis, Ocimum sanctum are some examples of the plants which have been proved beneficial in treating gynaecological problems. Withania somnifera, Lawsonia innermis were used as abortifacient by local peoples since ages.

1.5.5 Ethnomusicology

Ethnomusicology is defined as "the study and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts." Formed from the Greek words ethnos (natio) of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of "people making music." Although it is often thought of as a study of non-Western musics, ethnomusicology also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective. Bruno Nettl (1983) believes it is a product of Western thinking, proclaiming "ethnomusicology as western culture knows it is actually a western phenomenon." Nettl believes that there are limits to extraction of meaning from an indigenous culture's music due to perceptual distance of the Western observer from the culture. However, the growing prevalence of scholars who study their own musical traditions, and an increasing range of different theoretical frameworks and research methodologies has done much to address criticisms such as Nettl's.

While musicology's traditional subject has been the history and literature of Western art music, ethnomusicologists study all music as a human social and cultural phenomenon. The primary precursor to ethnomusicology, comparative musicology, emerged in the late 19th century and early 20th century through the practice of people such as Bela Bartok, Zoltan Kodaly, Constantin Brailoiu, Vinko Zganec, Franjo Ksaver, Carl Stumpf, Erich von Hornbostel, Curt Sachs and Alexander J. Ellis. Comparative musicology and early ethnomusicology tended to focus on non-Western music that was transmitted through oral traditions. But, in more recent years, the field has expanded to embrace all musical styles from all parts of the world.

The Society for Ethnomusicology has been the primary academic organization for the discipline of ethnomusicology since its inception in 1955. Ethnomusicologists often apply theories and methods from cultural anthropology, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Though some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, the majority are involved in long-term participant observation. Therefore, ethnomusicological work can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive ethnographic component.

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Some ethnomusicological works are created not necessarily by 'ethnomusicologists' proper, but instead by anthropologists examining music as an aspect of a culture. A well-known example of such work is Colin Turnbull's study of the Mbuti pygmies. Another is Jaime de Angulo, a linguist who intensively studied the music of the natives of Northern California. Additionally, Anthony Seeger, professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, studied the music and society of the Suya people in Mato Grosso, Brazil.

1.5.6 Ethnomycology

Ethnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi ("fungi lore"), and can be considered a subfield of ethnobotany or ethnobiology. Although in theory the term includes fungi used for such purposes as tinder, medicine and food (including yeast), it is often used in the context of the study of psychoactive mushrooms such as psilocybin-containing mushrooms, Ergot and Amanita muscaria. By analogy to the term entheogen the term "entheomycology" (entheos meaning literally "god within", more freely translated "inspired") has been suggested for the study of psychoactive mushrooms used for spiritual purposes.

The researcher Robert Gordon Wasson rekindled interest in this field of study in the late 1920s, inspiring later (sometimes non-academic) researchers such as Terence McKenna, Carl Ruck, Giorgio Samorini, Keewaydinoquay Peschel, Richard Evans Schultes, John Allegro, Clark Heinrich, Dan Merkur, and James Arthur.

Besides mycological determination in the field ethnomycology depends to a large extent on anthropology and philology. One of the major debates among ethnomycologists is Wasson's theory that the Soma mentioned in the Rigveda of the Indo-Aryans was the Amanita muscaria mushroom. Following his example similar attempts have been made to identify psychoactive mushroom usage in many other (mostly) ancient cultures, with varying degrees of crediblity. Another much written about topic is the content of the Kykeon, the sacrament used during the Eleusinian mysteries in ancient Greece between approximately 1500 BC and 396 BC. Although not an ethnomycologist as such, philologist John Allegro has made an important contribution suggesting, in a book controversial enough to have his academic career destroyed, that Amanita muscaria was not only consumed as a sacrament but was the main focus of worship in the more esoteric sects of Sumerian religion, Judaism and early Christianity. Clark Heinrich claims that Amanita muscaria use in Europe was not completely wiped out by orthodox Christianity but continued to be used (either consumed or merely symbolically) by individuals and small groups such as medieval Holy Grail myth makers, alchemists and Renaissance artists.

While Wasson views historical mushroom use primarily as a facilitator for the shamanic or spiritual experiences core to these rites and traditions, McKenna takes this further, positioning that the ingestion of psilocybin was perhaps primary in the formation of language and culture and identifying psychedelic mushrooms as the original "Tree of Knowledge". There is indeed some research supporting the theory that psilocybin ingestion temporarily increases neurochemical activity in the language centers of the

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brain and, though this is hardly enough to substantiate McKenna's ambitious claim, it does indicate a need for more research into the uses of psychoactive plants and fungi in human history.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) Give an outline idea of the following: Ethnoecology Ethnomusicology Ethnomedicine Archaeoethnobotany Ethnomycology

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1.5.7 Ethnonarcotics

This is the study of the use of narcotics, snuffs, hallucinogens, etc, in primitive human societies.

Opioid drugs, also called opiates or narcotics, have been used since the beginning of recorded history. Opium is derived from a white liquid produced by the poppy plant, first cultivated in the Middle East and Asia. It was used therapeutically in ancient cultures to induce calm and to relieve pain, and recreationally to induce euphoric dream states. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), one of the main narcotics is used for smoking and chewing. Tobacco smoking was made known to Europeans, about the year 1492, having been observed by followers of Columbus when visiting the West Indian island. The tobacco plant was first introduced into India by the Portuguese about the year 1605 during the later part of the reign of Akbar.

1.5.8 Ethnopharmacology

Ethnopharmacology is the scientific study correlating ethnic groups, their health, and how it relates to their physical habits and methodology in creating and using medicines.

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As an amalgamation of the social science of ethology and the medical science of pharmacology, ethnopharmacology studies the pharmacological aspects of a culture’s medical treatment as well as its social appeal, including taste, symbology, and religious context. Through this, a culture’s exposure to pharmacological substances can be determined.

Ethnopharmacology is related to botany in that many pharmaceuticals are delivered through plants. It is also often associated with ethnopharmacy, but while the aim of ethnopharmacology is the bio-evaluation of the effectiveness of traditional medicines, the former deals instead with much broader trans-disciplinary aspects related to the study of perception, use and management of pharmaceuticals (not necessarily traditional medicines) within a given human societies. When investigating a natural products used by a certain culture as a medicine, it is important that the method of collection, extraction, preparation are the same or similar to those by the ethnic group as it is these processes which have allowed safe usage of the substance and give its safety records.

1.5.9 Ethnotaxonomy

The term ethnotaxonomy refers either to that subdiscipline within ethnology which studies the taxonomic systems defined and used by individual ethnic groups, or to the operative individual taxonomy itself, which is the object of the ethnologist's immediate study. For example, in many West African languages, the perceptual world of color is classified into the principal categories "Red," "White," and "Black" (finer gradations being secondary). The range of wavelengths that an English-speaker calls blue would be a subcategory of "Black."

The set of categories of family relationships evinced by the ethnic group's kinship system is another ethnotaxonomy. An example of this might be the Hawaiian kinship system, where all members of a generation of the same sex are referred to by a single term. Both the relationships termed mother and aunt in English fall into the same taxon "Mother-Aunt". This does not mean that the users of this taxonomy are confused about the concept "Birth-Mother," only that it is a subcategory.

Conversely, an ethnotaxonomy such as the Sudanese kinship system or that used in ancient Rome, where no two relationships have the same denotation, may show much more granularity than the English system. Thus the relationship called aunt in English is not fundamental in Latin, but either amita "Father's Sister" or matertera "Mother's Sister" must be chosen. Latin and Sudanese are called a "descriptive systems," and Hawaiian is called a "classificatory" system, but it is obvious that this terminology is English-centered, the difference being one of degree, rather than kind.

Categories of plants, "Useful" and "Harmful," etc., are yet another well-known example. Indeed, in recent years there has been a vogue usage of the term ethnotaxonomy limiting it to ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology, because of the "rediscovery" of the medicinal

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and commercial value of plants disclosed by examining the botanical ethnotaxonomies of lesser-known cultures.

1.5.10 Ethnotoxicology

Ethnotoxicology deals with various toxic plants used as fish poison, arrow poison etc., and these studies are mostly concerned with tribal people. Poisonous plants contain powerful toxic ingredients (phyto-chemicals) which if introduced into the body of any animal system, may be of relatively smaller quantity, will affect deleteriously and may be fatal at times. These toxic substances injure the basic life principles that is the protoplasm and the harmful effects produced, may be immediate or accumulative, the later may appear after a period of time when the poison reaches upto a specific concentration due to repeated administration. Aloe barbedensis, Datura stramonium, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Jatropha curcas, Lantana camara, Ricinus communis, etc., are some examples of toxic plants which have been used by ancient people from time immemorial.

1.5.11 Paleoethnobotany

Paleoethnobotany, is the archaeological sub-field that studies plant remains from archaeological sites. Major research themes are recovery and identification of plant remains, the use of wild plants, the origins of agriculture and domestication, and the co-evolution of human-plant interactions.

Paleoethnobotanists use a variety of methods to identify and recover plant remains. One method used to recover macroremains is to sieve excavated material manually in a water bath in order to allow the organic material to float on the surface. This method is known as flotation. The matrix (the soil from a suspected archaeological feature) is slowly added to agitated water. The soil, sand, and other heavy material, known as heavy fraction, will sink to the bottom. The less dense organic material such as charred seeds, wood and bone will tend to float to the surface. The material that floats to the top, called light fraction, is gathered with a sieve. The organic light fraction is then available for examination. Samples of the heavy fraction are also gathered for later analysis. Other types flotation processes include machine-assisted flotation and froth flotation. A paleoethnobotanist may also find concentrated remains of plants that typically are only grown through active cultivation (such as corn, beans, and squash). At the same site, an archaeologist might identify features such as stone walls surrounding enclosures arrayed in a pattern, and deep, layered middens with concentrations of domesticated animal remains such as goats or pigs. An analysis of the site, set within the context of the archaeological features and animal and plant remains, would suggest a settled agrarian community.Paleoethnobotanists also recover and analyze microremains phytoliths, pollen palynology, human paleofeces (sometimes called coprolite), and impressions in ceramic sherds (such as the imprint of grains in mixing bowl). Palynology is a mature and distinct

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scientific discipline that studies pollen, typically in the context of reconstructing past environments. Dendrochronology, the study of growth rings on trees relating to study of past environments, is another scientific discipline useful to paleoethnobotanical study.

1.5.12 Ethnocosmetics

Ethnocosmetics deals with the study of cosmetics of ancient past which were used by ladies to make theirself beautiful. Ethnobotanical studies revealed the fact that certain plants were used as cosmetics by ancient people to look themselves much better. Like Rosa chinensis, R. centifolia, R. damascena, these varities of rose are still used for making cosmetics and perfumes. Earlier Itra were used to scent themselves and were made by pure extraction of the essential oils from the fragrent plants. Lawsonia innermis has long been used in India and Middle East countries for colouring palms of hands, soles of feet and finger nails. Atropa belladonna has long been used in Italy by ladies to dilate their pupils in a time when it was believed that the dreamy, intoxicated stare thus produced was the height of fetching beauty; an extract of belladonna was used as eye drops as part of their makeup preparations.

1.5.13 Ethnolinguistics

Ethnolinguistics is a field of linguistic anthropology which studies the language of a particular ethnic group.

Ethnolinguistics is frequently associated with minority linguistic groups within a larger population, such as the Native American languages or the languages of immigrants. In these cases, ethnolinguistics studies the use of a minority language within the context of the majority population, and it also studies the perception of the language by the majority population.

More generally, ethnolinguistics studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups perceive the world. A well-known (but controversial) ethnolinguistic subject is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which states that perception is limited by what can be described in one's own language.

Ethnolinguists study the way perception and conceptualization influences language, and show how this is linked to different cultures and societies. An example is the way spatial orientation is expressed in various cultures (Bernd Heine 1997, Yi-Fu Tuan 1974). In many societies, words for the cardinal directions East and West are derived from terms for sunrise/sunset. The nomenclature for cardinal directions of Eskimo speakers of Greenland, however, is based on geographical landmarks such as the river system and one's position on the coast. Similarly, the Yurok lack the idea of cardinal directions; they orient themselves with respect to their principal geographic feature, the Klamath River.

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1.5.14 Ethnoorthopaedics

Ethnoorthopaedics is the study which deals with the surgery concerned with acute, chronic, traumatic, and overuse injuries and the other disorders of the musculoskeletal system by different cultures. There are not much records about the orthopaedics of ancient times. However, it was found in the literature that Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Egytian, dealed extensively with the setting of bones, traumatic injury such as dislocation of jaw, arm or shoulders, bruises, various fractures which include those of the limbs, ribs, nose, and skull.

1.5.15 Ethnoophthalmology

It is the study which deals with the ophthalmology (surgery of the visual pathways i.e. eyes) in primitive human societies. Since ages Atropa belladona, Emblica officinalis, Butea monoseprma, Terminallia bellerica has been used in ophthalmology.

Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita in about fifth Century B.C. in India. He described about 72 ocular diseases as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. Sushruta has been described as the first Indian cataract surgeon. Arab scientists are some of the earliest to have written about and drawn the anatomy of the eye—the earliest known diagram being in Hunain ibn Is-hâq's Book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye.

Check Your Progress 4

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) How would you distinguish ethnopharmacology from ethnomedicine?

ii) Briefly describe the significance of ethnobotany. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………..

1.5.16 Ethnopediatrics

Ethnopediatrics is the study of parents and infants in our own and different cultures. It explores the way different care-taking styles affect the health, well-being and survival of infants. Ethnopediatrics has developed to help us understand what makes us bring up our

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children the way we do and to try to discover what is truly the best way to parent our babies.

All cultures are concerned with children: not only because children are vulnerable, but also because they are society's investment in the future. The human infant is perfectly designed: it knows when to sleep, when to eat and how to cry out to signal it's needs. Parenting, however, is not always straightforward. Conflict can arise in raising children not only between the baby and the caretaker, but also on the more basic level between biology and culture. Caretakers are "hard wired" to respond to a needy infant, but every adult carries personal and cultural "baggage" that determines how he or she will parent. In addition, every society has traditions that guide how adults "should" treat their offspring. The human child is slow to mature, giving parents years in which to make endless choices and decisions about how to bring up their children.

1.6 LET US SUM UPAfter going throgh this unit, you would have achieved the objectives stated earlier in this unit. Let us recall what we have discussed so far.

The term ‘Ethnobotany’ was first coined by Harshberger in 1895. Ethnobotany deals with the direct relationship between plants and human. A number of terms are used in varied areas of ethnobotanical research, such as ethnotaxonomy, ethnomedicine, ethnopharmacology, ethnomycology, ethnoecology, etc.

Though it was Harshberger who first mentioned the ethnobotany as a descipline, but its history begins long before that. Many known scientists had already referred important plants and their various uses in their published records.

In India, it was Dr. S. K. Jain who made pioneering investigations on ethnobotany and affectionately known as “Father of Indian Ethnobotany”.

Archaeoethnobotany deals with the study of identification of materials from archaeological sites for studies on migration of human cultures, dispersal and domestication of crops, etc. while paleoethnobotany deals with the identification of fossilized plant materials and remains for studies an ancient plant economy, paleobotanical history of crops and changing patterns of the use of plant life by human cultures.

Ethnoecology is the field of study of the past and present interrelationships between human societies, and their living and non-living environment. The importance of ethnoecological research is now increasing by the fact that indigenous system could usefully be incorporated into the sustainable development of modern civilization and its management.

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Ethnopharmacology is an interdesciplinary science which deals with the identification, description, observations and experimental investigations of the ingredients used in various recipes prepared by aborigines and the effects of indigenous drugs on animals and human. While ethnomedicine, ethnogynaecology, ethnoophthalmology, ethnoorthopaedics are specific study branches as their name suggests and are linked with ethnopharmacology to some extent.

Ethnomusicology deals with the study of music of tribals and aborigins, its documentations, forms and content. Ethnolinguistic is the study of relationship between language and culture in different ethnic groups.

The study of use of toxic plants as fish poisons, arrow poisons in human societies is known as ethnotoxicology and the use of narcotics in ancient culture is considered under ethnonarcotics.

After a thorough study, now we are well familier with the fact that Ethnobotany is a field on rise nowadays. It is a field of research of great value and have gaines much interest of botanists, chemists, socialists, etc. because of its large study areas. It is possible now to conserve and maintain the biodiversity and indigenous culture with the help of ethnobotanical studies.

1.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: THE KEY

1. i) Ethnobotany is the study of how people of a particular culture and region make of use of indigenous plants. Ethnobotanists explore how plants are used for such things as food, shelter, medicine, clothing, hunting, and religious ceremonies. 

ii) Your answers may be as follows: a) How human interactions with plants and ecosystems affect ecology. b) Study of medicinal uses of plants.

c) Study of human domestication and management of plants, especially traditional agriculture system.

d) Study of linguistic terminology for plants and plant parts by people of different language groups.

e) How ancient cultures used plants.

2. i) John Harshberger in 1895 coined the term ‘ethnobotany’. ii) Dr. S. K. Jain is known as the ‘father of Indian ethnobotany’. iii) In AD 77, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published "De Materia Medica",

which was a catalog of about 600 plants in the Mediterranean. 3. i) Your answers may be as follows:

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Ethnoecology is the scientific study of the way different groups of people in different locations understand ecosystems around them; the environments in which they live; and their relationship with these.

Ethnomusicology is defined as "the study of and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts”.

Ethnomedicine deals with the study of traditional medicines that were used by different human societies to cure themselves.

Archaeoethnobotany deals with the study of identification of materials from archaeological sites for studies on migration of human cultures, dispersal and domestication of crops, etc.

Ethnomycology deals with the origin and antiquity of the use of fungi for human beings, such as mushrooms, yeasts, truffles, ergot, etc., for food, medicine or the preparation of beverages.

4. i) Ethnopharmacology is an interdisciplinary sciences of research that deals with the identifications, description, observations and experimental investigations of the ingredients used in various recipes prepared by ancient people and their effects on human and animals while ethnomedicine is a field of research which deals with the plants used as medicines for the treatment of various diseases and ailments by primary peoples. So, it is clear that in ethnopharmacology we study the constituents of the formulations and its effects on human and animals while in case of ethnomedicine, we try to find out the medicinal plants that have any traditional importance.

iii) The significance of ethnobotany is manifold. The study of indegenous knoweldge of local medicines and food products may have implications for developing sustainable agriculture and discovering new drugs. It also encourages an awareness of the link between biodiversity and cultural diversity, as well as a sophisticated understanding of the mutual influence (both beneficial and desructive) of plants and humans.

1.8 ASSIGNMENT OR ACTIVITIES Visit the nearby village and try to learn the methods useful to work with local

communities and learn about their knowledge and uses of the plant world. Make a list of plants used by villagers and on the basis of their local use, place

them in the field of the study of ethnobotanical research.

1.9 REFERENCESCotton C. M. 1996. Ethnobotany : Principles and applications. John wiley and Sons Inc.

Cunningham A.B. 2001. Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use and conservation. People and plants conservation manual. Earthscan, London.

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Martin G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany. A methods manual. People and plants conservation manual. Chapman and Hall, London.

Schultes R.E. and von Reis S. 1995 (eds). Ethnobotany, evolution of a discipline. Chapman and Hall, London.

UNIT 2 INDIGENOUS CULTURE

Structure

2.1 Introduction2.2 Objectives2.3 Indigenous Culture 2.4 Plants in Mythology2.5 Taboos and Totems in Relation to Plant2.6 Folklores and Folktales2.7 Plant in Similes and Metaphors2.8 Wild Life Protection in Tribals2.9 Plant domestication by the Tribals2.10 Let Us Sum Up2.11 Check Your Progress: The Key2.12 Assignment or Activities2.13 References

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In many cases, human life ends with death and burial in the ground. Plants are just the opposite. They emerge from the earth and draw nourishment from it. For this reason many mythological traditions associate plants with birth and rebirth and with the eternal cycle of life springing forth from death. Various trees, shrubs, herbs, grains, flowers, and fruits appear in myths and legends as general symbols of rebirth, decay, and immortality. Human beings share the earth with innumerable varieties of plants, animals and other living organisms. Through their presence, human modify the land, working the earth to yield a continuing supply of resources. Increasing evidence pointing to the anthropomorphic face of nature deems it necessary to recognize and protect cultural landscapes. This entails not only the protection of biological diversity, but cultural diversity too. In the previous unit we have studied ethnobotany and its scope in detail. In this unit some examples of mythology, cosmology, folktales and folklores associated with plant life have been discussed to demonstrate the intrinsic link between indigenous culture and the conceptualization of plants and human life.

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2.2 OBJECTIVESThe main objective of this unit is to provide knowledge about indigenous culture, mythology, folktales, folklores, taboos and totems related to plants. After going through this unit you will be able to:

1 Understand the indigenous culture and discuss mythology related to plants.

2 Discuss the taboos and totems related to plants.

3 Describe the folklores and folktales.

4 Discuss plant/human co-existence.

5 Demonstrate the wild life protection and domestication of plants.

2.3 INDIGENOUS CULTUREKnowledge may be called indigenous if it originates from, and is bound to local experiences, taking its local world not perhaps as the only one, but as the most relevant of all they know. Indigenous knowledge is human life-experience in a distinct natural and cultural amalgamation within a unique local and timely setting. It is an authentic appropriation of being, meaning that this very process happens exclusively in a given locality at a given time. In the field of medicine, Chinese culture (indigenous) developed Acupuncture technique. An acupunturist places needles into the skin to balance out the flow of chi which is believed to be the energy that flows through the human body. In theory, Chi runs along 14 pathways called meridains and when a patient is injured, stressed, or ill, their chi is supposedly being blocked. By placing needles in the Meridians the patients chi is thought to be put back into balance. Like Chinese culture indigenous culture of different places/countries occur and have their own belief and methods.

There are various ways to speak about indigenous cultures, for example we could speak from the perspective of our so-called ‘civilizations’ but how do we know that this perception is not contrary to the truth. We could speak on the basis of our traditional religious concepts but again these concepts may in reality be the opposite of what we believe. If we speak about the indigenous from the point of view of an anthropologist we arrive at a cold and empty language, a study that only pays attention to external and superficial matters, in the same way an anatomist analyses our inner organs or our bones but they are still a long way from knowing the reality. We believe that it is better to speak about indigenous cultures on the basis of their own reality, in relation to how they were as much as how they are now because in the course of time from yesterday to today many things have happened that are worth examining.

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2.4 PLANTS IN MYTHOLOGYPlants have played an important role in many of the world's mythologies and religions, and have been given deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. The most ancient cross-cultural symbolic representation of the universe's construction is the world tree. Other examples of plants featured in mythology are Yggdrasil and the modern tradition of the Christmas Tree in Germanic mythology, the Tree of Knowledge of Judaism and Christianity, and the Bodhi tree in Buddhism. In folk religion and folklore, trees are often said to be the homes of tree spirits. Historical Druidism as well as Germanic paganism appear to have involved cultic practice in sacred groves. The term druid itself possibly derives from the Celtic word for oak. Ficus religiosa plays an important role in Indian mythology.

Some Important Plants in Indian Mythology: In Indian mythology number of plants have been given sacred value and worshipped by different cultures. Some important plants of sared value have been discussed here.

Ashoka: The Ashoka Tree is one of the most sacred and legendary trees of India, and one of the most fascinating flowers in the Indian range of flower essences. The beautiful, perfumed flowers of the Ashoka Tree are used in temple decoration. Prized for its beautiful foliage and flowers, the Asoka Tree has many religious significances. This tree is revered by the Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. It is said that Lord Buddha was born under this tree in Lumbini. Some says that Lord Mahavira renounced the world under the Ashoka tree in Vaishali. The Hindus worship this tree because it is dedicated to "Kama Deva" (God of Love). The Ashoka tree gets a mention in the epic Ramayana as the "Ashoka Vatika" (garden of Ashoka trees) where Hanuman first meets Sita. Literally meaning "the "sorrowless tree", it is believed that drinking the water in which the flowers have been washed is widely considered a protection against grief among the Indians.

Banyan: Banyan Tree symbolizes the Trimurti-Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva and Lord Brahma. The tree also symbolizes life and fertility in many Hindu cultures. That is the reason, banyan tree is worshiped by those who are childless and this tree should never be cut. The tree can grow into a giant tree covering several hectares. The Great Banyan in the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, is considered to be the largest tree in the world. Lord Dakshinamurthy, who is worshiped as the "ultimate guru", is usually depicted beneath a banyan tree. He symbolizes Lord Shiva and is seen as the the destroyer of ignorance and embodiment of knowledge.

Bael: In India, Bael tree is considered to be very sacred because it is associated with Lord Shiva. It is said that Lord Shiva is pleased by offerings of leaves from the Bael Tree, also known as bilva or bel tree. Thus, the Brahmanas worshiped Lord Shiva by for a period of one fortnight by offering bel leaves and that way satisfied Lord Shiva greatly. The fruit, flowers and leaves of the tree are all sacred to Shiva. Planting these trees around home or temple is sanctifying and is equivalent to worshiping a Linga with bilva leaves and water. The trifoliate leaf or tripatra of the bael tree is believed to symbolize the three functions of the Lord-the creation, preservation and destruction as well as his three eyes. The

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offering of the leaves is a compulsory ritual while worshipping Lord Shiva all over India. The Beal tree is also sacred to the Jains. It is said the 23rd Tirthankara, Bhagwan Parasnathji attained "Nirvana" enlightenment under a Bael tree. Besides religious significane, almost all parts of the tree have medicinal qualities Bael is an ingredient in many Ayurvedic and Siddha formulations.

Bamboo: The common names of Lord Krishna-Venugopal, Bansilal, Murali and Muralidhar reflect His association with Bansuri or Venu, His constant companion. Bansuri is actually a flute made of bamboo. That is the reason, bamboo is revered in India because it is associated with Lord Krishna.

Banana: Though banana is not a tree but it is considered a tree because of its structure and size. It is a very sacred tree and all parts of the tree are used for some purpose or the other. For example, the trunk of banana is used to erect welcoming gates. The leaves are used to make the ceremonial pavilion. In some pooja, the leaves are used to serve "prashad". Just as leaves of bel tree are customarily offered to Lord Siva, it is believed that offering of the leaves of banana pleases Lord Ganesa. Banana as a fruit is offered to Lord Vishnu and Laksmi. Infact, the eleventh day of the bright half of Pausa (December-January) is considered to be very auspicious to offer banana to Lord Vishnu and Goddess Laxmi and sixth day of the bright fortnight of Kartika (October-November) is considered auspicious to offer banana to the Sun god. In some regions, banana tree is worshipped while performing Kadali Vrata or fast. According to tradition, during Vaisakha, Magha or Kartika sukla caturdasi, a banana tree is planted and nurtured till it bears fruit. It is said that worshiping the tree with flowers, fruit, etc. will help in the welfare of one's family.

Bhang: To all Hindus, the Bhang Tree is a very Holy Tree. There are many beliefs associated with the Bhang Tree. It is believed that a guardian lives in the Bhang leaf. To see in a dream the plant or water or leaves of Bhang is considered lucky as it brings wealth and prosperity into the dreamer's power. To meet someone carrying Bhang is a sure sign of success. Bhang is a popular drink made of the leaves and flowers of the Bhang tree and considered to be a "prashad". It is must for every devotees to have bhang on Mahashivratri. It is also said that nothing good can come to the man who treads underfoot the holy Bhang leaf. A longing for Bhang is a sign of happiness. Since ancient times, Yogis take deep draughts of Bhang so that they can center their thoughts on the Eternal without any disturbance because bhang has that intoxicating power in it. Infact, the students of ancient scriptures at Benares are given Bhang before they sit to study. Bhang has also many medicinal virtues. It is also believed that no god or man is as good as the religious drinker of Bhang. It is also said that to restrict the use of such a holy and gracious herb as the hemp or Bhang would cause widespread suffering and annoyance.

Coconut: In Sanskrit, the name for the coconut palm "Kalpa vriksha", which means "the tree which provides all the necessities of life" or "wish-fulfilling tree". The coconut tree is given a special place in most Hindu households and great care is taken to nature the tree. In the southern part of India, it is a must for every household to plant coconut trees. There is a popular saying, "Water the plant for five years, reap coconuts for life" . The coconut is used for all religious purposes. Infact, it represents the main "sthapana" of any pooja.

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The whole pot filled with water, mango leaves and coconut, also known as "Purnakumbha" is a symbol of Goddess Laksmi or Fortune and the coconut represents divine consciousness. To break a coconut in the beginning of any event is considered to be very auspicious. Coconuts are offered in Temples to worship to various Gods and Goddesses. The fruit is also believed to represent Lord Shiva and the three black marks on the coconut shell, symbolizes his eyes.

Lotus: The Lotus is always considered as an evocative symbol of beauty, purity and divinity and a highly revered flower by all Hindus. In Hinduism many of the deities are pictured sitting upon a lotus or holding a lotus flower. Rising up pure and unsullied from the depths of the muddy swamp, the lotus represents the manifestation of God. The pure white lotus flower is the only plant to fruit and flower simultaneously. The flower is a symbol of Goddess Laxmi. One of the incarnations of the Mother-Goddess or Devi and wife of the Hindu god Vishnu, Laxmi is the goddess of fortune and prosperity as well as the epitome of feminine beauty. According to Hindu mythology she was born radiant and fully grown from the churning of the sea. Lakshmi is always portrayed as sitting on a lotus flower which is her traditional symbol. That is why this flower held in high esteem. The Lotus flower has also symbolized spiritual enlightenment. It is said that the Lotus in Eastern Culture has a similar symbolism to the Rose in Christianity.

Mango: The mango tree is another sacred tree of the Hindus. The significance of this finds mention in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas. The mango as a fruit is a symbol of love and fertility. The leaf of the tree is used during most religious and social ceremonies of the Hindus. A "Purnakumbha" is a pot filled with water and topped with fresh mango leaves and a coconut and considered to be the "staphna" of the puja. The pot symbolizes Mother Earth, water is the life giver, coconut the divine consciousness and the mango leaves symbolizes life. The whole "Purnakumbha" is symbolizes Goddess Lakshmi and good fortune. On various auspicious occasions, mango leaves are used to adorn entrances at home to signify good fortune. Mango blossoms are used on Basant Panchami day in the worship of Goddess Saraswasti. The tree is also sacred to the Buddhists because it is believed that Lord Buddha performed during his lifetime the instantaneous creation of a large mango tree from the seed at a place called Shravasti.

Neem: It is said that on the first day of Chaitra, after Amavasya, it is very essential to worship the neem and eat its leaves, mixed with pepper and sugar, as a safeguard from fever. The neem tree besides having various medicinal benefits is a highly revered tree among the Hindus because it is a manifestation of "Goddess Durga" or "Maa Kali". That is why the tree is sometimes referred to as Neemari Devi. The Tree is worshiped very intensely. Tamil Ladies, while worshiping Maa kali dress in red, carry branches of the Neem tree, and dance in public places swishing the branches as an act of exorcism and to purify the world. The multi-headed occult goddess Yellamma (a highly revered goddess in south Indiai) sometimes assumes the appearance of a young neem tree. Young maidens worship this Goddess by cladding themselves all over in neem branches. In Bengal, neem is considered to be the tree which is the abode of "Sitala" (the great Pox-mother who can cause or cure disease). The customary treatment of pox is therefore to rub the body with

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neem leaves while making prayers to Sitala. It is also said that the smoke of burning neem protects both the living and the dead from evil spirits.

Peepal: The Peepal Tree also known as "Ashvattha" in Sanskrit, is a very large tree and the first-known depicted tree in India. A seal discovered at Mohenjodaro, one of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation depicts the peepal being worshiped. According to the Brahma Purana and the Padma Purana, when the demons defeated the gods, Lord Vishnu hid himself in the Peepal Tree and that is why it is believed that the Peepal Tree is a symbol of Vishnu and is worshiped since a long period of time. There is another belief that the tree represents the Trimurti-the roots being Brahma, the trunk Vishnu and the leaves Shiva. Some says that Lord Krishna is believed to have died under this tree, after which the present Kali Yuga started. According to another belief, Goddess Lakshmi also inhabited the tree, specially on Saturday and hence it is considered auspicious to worship it. Infact women worship the tree to bless them with a son tying red thread or red cloth around its trunk or on its branches. According to the Skanda Purana, to cut down a peepal tree is considered a sin. Even Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment under the peepal tree and the peepal is also sacred to Buddhist. Hence it is also called the Bodhi tree or "tree of enlightenment".

Red Sandalwood Tree: Besides being used in fragrance industry, fine woodworking and aromatherapy, Sandalwood is commonly used for incense and religious ceremonies. The Red Sandalwood Tree is considered to be a very sacred tree and is like a sage among many people. It is said that all other trees are considered ordinary trees and are like ignorant men in front of a Red Sandal wood. Popularly known as Chandan, Sandalwood has an extraordinary fragrance. Sandalwood paste is used in all religious rituals. The paste is smeared on the foreheads of devotees of Vishnu and Shiva and it is said that the sandalwood paste is meant to cool and protect the "Agna chakra" present between the eyebrows. In India, the death pyre is made using sandalwood branches for centuries. According to legend, Lord Ganesha was created by Goddess Parvati out of sandalwood paste that she used for her bath and breathed life into the figure.

Tulsi: Tulsi is always associated with purity and a highly revered and used for all religious purposes among the Hindus. It is considered very auspicious to have a Tulsi plant in the front courtyard of many Hindu households. Tulsi beads can always be seen around the necks of serious yogis and mystics in India, worn to purifying the mind, emotions and body. Dispelling the unwanted influences of others, gross and subtle, is one of the many benefits bestowed by Tulsi plant and hence worshipped by all. Tulsi plants are also prized in Ayurveda, where they are considered an integral part of that sophisticated healing system. In practically every temple in India, no puja can be started without few Tulsi leaves. There is always a special place reserved for this sacred plant. The qualities and amazing powers of this plant are found throughout the oldest writings on Earth, the Sanskrit Vedas of ancient India, where it is stated that simply touching the wood is purifying at many levels.

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Various forms of plant life also appear in folklore, culture and fiction, often relating to immortality or fertility. These often hold cultural and religious significance to the peoples for whom they appear.

The tree, with its branches reaching up into the sky, and roots deep into the earth, can be seen to dwell in three worlds - a link between heaven, the earth, and the underworld, uniting above and below. It is also both a feminine symbol, bearing sustenance; and a masculine, phallic symbol - another union.

In literature, a mythology was notably developed by J. R. R. Tolkien, his Two Trees of Valinor playing a central role in his mythopoeic cosmogony. Tolkien's 1964 Tree and Leaf combines the allegorical tale Leaf by Niggle and his essay On Fairy-Stories. William Butler Yeats describes a "holy tree" in his poem The Two Trees (1893).

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) What is indigenous culture? ii) Discribe in brief some plants of Indian mythology.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Important plant facts around the world:

St.John's wort was thought to contain the power of the sun. It's strength is said to be enhanced if harvested with a bronze knife at midday of the summer solstice.

In some cultures flowering trees and shrubs are treated as if they are pregnant women.

The sepals and petals of the Passionflower are said to represent Christ's apostles.

Planting mint around cabbages and tomatoes is thought to produce tastier vegetables.

Periwinkle was believed to represent the endless cycle of life and death.

To grow a bountiful crop of basil, ancient gardeners believed shouting and swearing while sowing the seeds would ensure a healthy harvest.

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The word duir in Gaelic means both oak and door. Oak doors offer strength and protection.

It was once believed oak trees themselves marked the hidden doorways between spiritual realms.

2.5 TABOOS AND TOTEMS IN RELATION TO PLANTS

TABOOS: The taboo label is nothing but a product of the human mind. Taboo plants, in general, refer to plants that a certain ethnic group will avoid growing, mostly for superstitious reasons. For example, most people in Singapore avoid growing the Plumeria, croton and cordyline inside their home gardens as they have been regarded as graveyard plants. Growing graveyard plants in one’s home garden is believed to attract bad luck. Bananas and various night-blooming fragrant plants, especially those with white flowers, are also avoided as they are believed to be linked to spirits. Trees such as Adansoma digitata and Sterculia opendiculata are not cut because whoever cut these species may be affected by evil spirit. Trees that are found in a water sources and on top of the mountain are not cut. People believe that these trees bring rainfalls and conserve water. As a result, people respect their local taboos and religion by not cutting the trees. People believe that ash twigs should not be used for pea sticks as they can harm the plants and take all the good out of the soil and also if it is growing in the garden and one has to cut it, first one has to take its permission otherwise it can curse the person. Hawthorn should never be taken into the house because it is unlucky - also neither snowdrops nor ivy should be taken indoors.

For conservation of biodiversity, taboos seem to be beneficial as they restrict the use of plants and/or cutting these plants.

TOTEMS: A totem is anything in nature we connect to for guidance and wisdom. We often connect to the fin, feather, and fur of our brother and sister creatures; but don't forget the stones, insects, and plants beneath our feet. Each person has a unique connection to their totem and how they work together. There are some examples of plant totems.

Peony Protection, blooming in our hearts, nurturing love.

Peonies are a wonderful flower found in many gardens in May. Grown best in shade and moist composted soil they grow from a small stalk into a huge delight of color and smell. Peony seeds were often dried and carved to wear around the neck for protection to travelers and prevent evil curses. Peonies planted around a home grant protection and health to all who lived within. Peonies also speak of learning how we may start small in the world but grow into a huge success. Peony energy is strong yet nurturing and loving,

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reminding us to nurture ourselves and our desires so that they may bloom forth into our daily lives.

Red Clover Fairy Rings, Spirit Sight, Luck, Abundance, and Simple Joys.

Red Clover and all the Clover family have been with humans since we first herded beasts to graze in fields. Often considered a farmers friend it was fed to the cattle as food, boiled and stained for a sweet tea or face wash, and use to aid cough and inflammations. Clovers are everywhere humans are found. Clover seeds can live 50 or more years in the soil until the time is right. Clover also brings oxygen and nutrients into the soil allowing for other plants to seed in. Clover promotes life, generosity, abundance, and sweetness to all that walk barefoot through her cool leaves. The spirit of Clover is playful and calls to us to remember the hours spent looking for that special four-leaf clover. When we relax and look for the small details is when we open ourselves to the Fairy Realms. Clover patches often grow in a circle creating a doorway between the Fairy/Spirit world and ours. So next time you pass a clover circle take a moment to look. Search for that lucky four-leaf wonder and watch for the little white lights of Fairies saying hello.

Carnations - July Color Healing, Love, and Vision.

Carnations are a common favorite at the flower stand. They come in every color in the rainbow and can be grown with ease in the garden. We receive carnations at happy events or give carnations to friends that are sick. Carnations' spicy smell helps us to focus and visualize our dreams and desires. White carnations for memory, focus and creation. Blue and green carnations for growth, new beginnings, and easing of emotions. So go to your local flower stand and choose a carnation today. Let it's smell and color bring love and health to you and your dreams.

Weeping Willow Magic, Dreaming, Flexibility, Relaxation, and Water

Lazy summer days by our favorite pond or lake is embodied in the spirit of the Weeping Willow. Willows are a common tree found through out the world. Their love of water was a sign to deep water below. Their flexible branches are used for dream catchers to form the frames. Their calming effects are also found in the Aspirin we take for headaches. So next time you need to relax or meditate try sitting next to a Weeping Willow. The soft sound of her leaves will put you into a trance and relieve the peace you're looking for.

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

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i) What do you understand by taboo and totem plants?ii) How taboos are useful in conservation of biodiversity?

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Daffodils Healing, Spring, Protection, and Cheerfulness.

Daffodils are one of the first flowers to appear in the spring. Their bright colors give a promise to the warmth of summer to come and the blooms of other flowers. Although they come in a mixture of colors; yellow still remains the favorite of many. Their bright color of yellow is one of the most healing vibrations. In combination with their bright green stalks daffodils bring healing and prosperity to any home or office. The color yellow brightens moods, and allows us to see the world in a different light. Their strong thick leaves protect them from frost and their flowers can turn toward the direction of light. Allow the spirit of daffodils to turn your heart toward the warmth of cheer and healing.

2.6 FOLKLORES AND FOLKTALESFOLKLORES: Plants have long been associated with folklore all over the world. So lets delve into the beliefs and mysteries that surround many of the plants around us.

Aconite (Aconitum napellus)Its leaves and roots are extremely toxic and were used by the ancients as a poison. The Greek's called it akoniton (without dirt) because it grows on rocky ground, and lykoktonon (wolf-slaying) because it was traditionally applied by their arrows when hunting wolves.

Apple tree (Malus domestica)The apple-tree was an important orchard fruit of ancient Greece. It was associated with love and marriage.

Sage (Salvia officinalis)In London, it is a symbol of immortality. It was often planted on graves in days gone by as it was said to live forever, often thriving on neglect where other plants would fail and die, and it’s true that it is one of the easiest plants to grow as long as it is not in wet soil.

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Rose (Rosa domascena)The rose has many stories about it, Greek mythology tells of its beginnings.Chloris, Greek Goddess of Flowers, found a sad and weak nymph one day, and wishing to restore her to health asked The Graces to help. They granted the nymph the gifts of joy, brightness, and charm. Chloris wanted to do more for the dying nymph so appealed to the other gods and she was given nectar, beauty by Aphrodites, and Zephyr, the west wind, blew away the clouds so the sun could shine upon her. Chloris called this beautiful bloom Rose.It was believed that all roses were white in the beginning, and one of the many stories of how roses became coloured again comes from Greek mythology. It's told that the god Jupiter saw Venus bathing, she was so embarrassed that she blushed, and all the white roses surrounding her bath turned red in sympathy.

Red Sandalwood Tree (Santalum album)According to Indian mythology, sandalwood tree is depicted as being entwined with serpents. Sandalwood remains cool and aromatic even when the poisonous serpent coils around it. This also has another meaning that the basic nature of an individual cannot change because of outer effects.

Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)According to Indian mythology, Tulsi plant is most loved by Lord Vishnu and Vrinda Devi, the Goddess ruling Tulsi is known as the personification of bhakti or devotion to the Supreme Being. Tulsi is considered to be associated with purity and a highly revered and used for all religious purposes among the Hindus. It is considered very auspicious to have a Tulsi plant in the front courtyard of many Hindu households

FOLKTALES: "Folktales are the soul's nourishment. They keep the flame of possibility alive." --- Rafe Martin

Folktales related to plants have been discussed here. In our culture folktales have got special place. Every tale involves a tree in one way or another. Trees appear in dreams. They sing and talk. They offer consolation and convey special powers. In many of the tales, a tree serves as teacher or guardian of the truth. Characters who sit under a tree or climb up into a tree are suddenly inspired to set out on a journey or receive a decisive insight.

1) Why Death is Like the Banana Tree (A Tale from Madagascar):God wanted the first man and woman to be able to choose the kind of death they would have. One day he asked, "Would you prefer to die like the moon, or like the banana tree?" The couple did not know what it meant to die like the moon or the banana tree, so God explained, "Each month the moon dies and fades away, but it revives bit by bit to live again. When the banana tree dies, it does not come back, but it leaves behind green shoots so that its offspring can carry on in its place. You may have offspring to take your place, or you may revive each month like the moon. You choose."

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The couple considered the options for some time. If they chose to be childless, they would always be restored to life, like the moon. It would be lonely, however, and they would have no one to help them with their work, no one to teach, to love, or to strive for. They told God they preferred to be fruitful like the banana tree. God granted their wish. They had many fine children and a happy life and then they died. Since then there has been much love and new life on this earth, replenishing generation after generation. But since the first couple chose, each individual's life is brief, and in the end the body withers like a banana tree.

2) The Magic Pear Tree (A Tale from China)A long time ago in ancient China a farmer went to market. He had luscious pears to sell and was determined to ask a very high price. Once he had found a good place in the market, he cried out: "Pears, beautiful pears...!"

Whilst he called attention to his goods, an old ragged-looking monk approached him. He humbly asked to be given one of the pears. The farmer said: "Why should I give a pear to you? You're as lazy as anything and haven't done an honest day's work in your life." As the monk did not walk away but repeated his request, the farmer became more and more angry. He called him the nastiest things under the sun.

"Good sir, " said the monk, "I cannot count the number of pears in your wheelbarrow. You have hundreds of them. I have only asked for one pear. Why has this made you so angry?"

By then a large crowd of people had assembled around the farmer and the poor monk. "Give him a little pear," someone suggested, in the hope that this might solve the problem. "Do as the old man asks, for heaven's sake it is only a pear," another one remarked, but the farmer wouldn't hear of it. "No is no is no," he said. Finally an elderly man bought one of the pears and handed it reverently to the old monk.

The monk bowed, thanked the elderly man and said: "You know that I am a holy man. When I became a monk I gave up everything. I have no home, no clothes which I may call my own, no food other than what is given to me. How can you refuse to give me a single pear when I ask for it? I shall not be this selfish. I invite every one of you to eat one of the pears that I have grown. It shall be an honour if you accept my invitation."

The people were startled. Why had the monk asked for a pear if he had so many pears with him? He did not seem to carry anything. What did the old man mean?

The monk ate his pear with great concentration until there was just one small pip left. He quickly dug a hole in the ground, planted the pip and gently covered it with earth. Then he asked for a cup of water. One of the people in the crowd handed him the water. The monk poured it on the soil. Hardly any time had passed when the bystanders saw some green leaves sprouting from the earth. These leaves grew very quickly. The people were astounded. In front of their eyes stood a small pear tree with branches and more branches and leaves, more and more leaves. Where the old monk had planted the little pip only

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minutes ago, there was now a small pear tree. It continued to grow faster and faster. They could see it grow.

Silence fell in the marketplace as the tree burst into flower and the flowers slowly turned into large, sweet-smelling pears. The monk's face was aglow with pleasure. He picked the pears one by one, and handed them to each person who had witnessed the pear tree's miraculous growth. He handed them out and handed them out until everyone had been refreshed by a delicious pear. Then the monk took his axe and before the people even realized what was happening, the pear tree was cut down. The monk simply picked the tree up, put it over his shoulder and went on his way.

The farmer had watched the scene in amazement. He had not been able to believe his eyes when the pear tree grew out of the ground so near to his very own wheelbarrow which was full of pears. He looked at the barrow. It was empty. Not a single pear was left in it. One of the handles of the barrow was missing, too. Then the farmer knew what had happened. The old monk had used his pears to create the wonderful pear tree.

Of course the monk was nowhere to be seen. The pear tree which the monk had picked up with such great ease was found a little further down the road. It was the missing handle from the wheelbarrow. The farmer was in a towering rage, whilst the crowd laughed.

3) The Singing Fir Tree (A Tale from Switzerland)Once there was a master woodcarver who lived in the village of Reckingen in the canton of Valais. Many of the churches in this region were beautified by this special handiwork, which was the carving of sacred figures of the saints, and church pews decorated with wooden foliage.

One evening when the church bell of Recking rang for the hour of prayer the woodcarver heard strange but beautiful singing. He went to his window to listen and noticed it seemed to be coming from the forest of Hohbach which covered the steep hills that rose above the village.

The singing stopped as soon as the bell stopped ringing. "My imagination is running away with me," the woodcarver muttered to himself as he put away his tools and hurried to church. But the next night he heard the singing again. And the night after that he heard it once more. In fact, the strange music began every time the church bell rang for evening prayers and ended when the bell stopped ringing every night for the next several nights. The woodcarver was understandably relieved to discover that many other villagers heard it as well.

One evening during prayer time, he climbed the hill to the forest of Hohbach determined to find the source of the mysterious music. He wandered about among the huge trees for a long time. At last the singing led him to a giant fir hundreds of years old. To his astonishment the sound seemed to come from out of its trunk! When it was again quiet he ran to the village to report his discovery. After that, each evening several of his neighbors climbed the hill to the miraculous tree and stood in reverent amazement beside it.

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The woodcarver visited the tree often and ran his hands across its bark. The giant fir was constantly in his thoughts, even appearing in his dreams. He became obsessed with the idea of making a carving out of it, to be the most magnificent work he had ever done.

The parish finally agreed to cut down the tree and let him work on it. But the woodcutters harbored a secret misgiving as they felled the magnificent fir, and their hearts grew heavy as they dragged it down to the valley with horses.

The master carver cut himself a huge block from the heart of the tree. He told the parish he was going to make a statue of the Virgin Mary and set to work that very night. He toiled day in and day out and in his zeal almost forgot to eat. People flocked from miles away to watch the Holy Mother slowly emerge from the wood. The woodcarver was truly talented and his work a veritable masterpiece. All said that no artist had ever made Mary look so beautiful and alive.

When the statue was finished it was presented to the church of Reckingen. The priest took the statue and placed it on the alter as the people watched in silent awe. Then suddenly the wooden figure of Mary opened its mouth, and once more the familiar dulcet tones of the miraculous music were heard.

But that was the last time the fir tree sang.

4) Why Plants Have Human Characteristics (Iroquoian Myth)Before the earth was created there was a land above the sky. Certain beings, men and women with human characteristics but not entirely human, lived among the sky people. These beings grew so numerous that the land above the sky became crowded. The beings began to quarrel among themselves and with the sky people.

The sky people went to the Great One and asked: "Can you not do something to bring back peace to this land above the sky?"

The Great One poked a hole in the sky and blew his breath through the hole, so strongly that a cloud of mists formed in the space below. He then asked the sun to shine through the hole. When the sun's rays fell on the mists, they turned to water and formed a great sea.

Then the Great One called the Moon and asked her to shine through the hole. As she shone down, a thick scum formed on the sea. Gradually, the scum drew together into a solid mass and made the earth, with the sea all around it.

Great One now had a place to send the beings, but when he saw how bare the earth was, he decided he must first change some of the beings into plants and animals, and send them to all the corners of the earth.

So Great One changed most of the beings into plants and animals, and then with a great breath, scattered them over the earth. And that is why every living thing on earth has

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some human characteristic, because each kept one thing from the time when the beings lived in the land above the sky. In animals it is easier to see these characteristics, but if one looks carefully, they are to be found in plants as well. Some plants have leaves shaped like the human hand, or like an eye or ear. Some have hair that looks like human hair. Others have flowers shaped like faces or feet. All of them, whether in an open or a secret place, have one thing that shows they are also descended from the beings in sky, just like the humans.

5) Why Trees Whisper (Estonian Legend)In the early days of earth, not long after the trees were created and humans were forced to leave Paradise to work, a man went out to the forest to cut wood. The first tree he came to was a pine tree. But as soon as the man lifted the axe he heard a voice cry out.

"Don't strike me. Can't you see the sticky tears that are already coming out of my body? If you hit me it will bring you bad luck."

The man did not indeed see the sticky sap coming from the several cuts in the tree trunk, so he moved on farther into the forest. He came to a spruce tree and again raised his axe. But the spruce tree protested.

"Don't cut me down. You will find me of little use for my wood is twisted and knotty."

Unhappily, the man went on until he came to an alder tree. Once more he raised his axe to strike but the alder shrieked at him.

"Be careful that you don't wound me. Whenever I am cut, blood runs from my heart. It will stain my wood and your axe blood red."

The man went no farther but called out to God.

"How am I to get wood to make fire and to build shelter? Every tree I meet cries out and pleads that I not cut it down."

God took pity on the man and said: "Return to the forest. I will see that hence forth no tree will talk back or contradict you."

The man did as he was told and this time no tree spoke to him. None protested as he cut down to make shelter and to make a fire.

The trees were not happy about this. They dared not complain aloud to God. Instead, they began to whisper softly, each time a person entered their domain in the forests. If you approach a group of trees anywhere, you can still hear them softly whispering to each other. They are gently complaining about their poor treatment at the hands of humans.

Check Your Progress 3

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Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) Write folklores associated with following plants:a) Tulsib) Red sandalwood treec) Aconited) Apple tree………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…….…………………………………………………………………...….

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2.7 PLANTS IN SIMILES AND METAPHORS"We are the sprouts at your hands and feet. We are the branches at your trunk. We come in front of trees and stones. We are at your bark, at your fruit. We are your flowers. We are your tendrils. We are the ones who need your shade."

We all know the literal meanings of simile and metaphors. In simile comparison involves using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ while metaphors, on the other hand, are much more direct. From times immemorial human attributes are often assigned to plants. In the earlier lines we can see the examples of plant metaphors. When we compare the beauty or smile of a woman with that of petals of rose, it will be plant simile. In many poetries beauty of women have been compared with different flowers using the words ‘like’ and ‘as’. It is not only the beauty but different human activities and actions can also be compared with plants.

Descriptive terminology of plant parts draws further comparison between humans and plants. Like, a seed is composed of its child, surrounded by the endosperms, its flesh. A tree’s sap may be referred to its blood or its pus. Tree’s branches are its arms and grains are its face. In simile we can say that the branches of tree are like the arms of a man and the grains of plant are like the face of a child. Human processes and body parts are employed to describe any number of characteristics of a tree or plant itself, its roots, its flowers, etc.

2.8 WILD LIFE PROTECTION IN TRIBALS"The tribal life of India has a long history. The British adopted two policies for them. One was for the removal of certain evil customs, which were prevalent in the society, like

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sati, child marriage, etc., and the other was the policy of non-interference in the recognition of their customary laws about marriage, adoption, succession, etc.

There are many laws for the Scheduled Tribes and at the same time they have their own customary or traditional code of conduct too. The legislative provisions are of two types, one for their welfare and the other that puts restrictions on their conduct.

There are many laws to protect the environment. Some of them are; Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, Indian Forest Act, 1927, etc. These acts protect the wild life by declaring some areas as protected areas, reserved forests, protected forests, etc. These acts also affect the tribal laws, which are made for the welfare of the tribesmen.

The regulations of many protected areas in the world strictly prohibit hunting, gathering of plant resources or other productive activities within park or reserve borders. This policy applies to all local people; even those who have traditionally had access to the area and possibly practiced sustainable ways of harvesting natural products from the wild lands. They are forced to continue their activities in buffer areas around the park, which may lack some resources and where they may face competition from enterprises which may be ecologically destructive, such as certain types of logging and agriculture.

The Forest Rights Act, a law recognizing the rights of forest communities, has come into force, with the Union tribal affairs ministry issuing a formal notification to this effect on January 1, 2008.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest-Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, was notified after more than a year of political interventions, bureaucratic twists and hectic lobbying by activists representing tribal and wildlife interest groups.

The main beneficiaries of the Act are scheduled tribes (STs) and other traditional forest-dwellers living in and depending on forests for their livelihood for three generations -- 75 years prior to December 13, 2005.

Essentially, the Act aims to provide a framework to record the rights of forest-dwellers, allowing them to cultivate forest land to the extent under occupation, subject to a ceiling of four hectares, the right to collect, use and dispose of minor forest produce, and rights inside forests that are traditional and customary, like grazing and maintaining homesteads. The act renders the Forest Conservation Act, 1980, the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and the Indian Forest Act, virtually invalid."

The Act also makes it mandatory for right holders to ensure sustainable use, conserve bio-diversity and maintain ecological balance, thereby strengthening the conservation regime of forests across the country.

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2.9 PLANT DOMESTICATION BY THE TRIBALS

Domestication refers to the process whereby a population of animals or plants, through a process of selection, becomes accustomed to human provision and control.

Plants domesticated primarily for aesthetic enjoyment in and around the home are usually called house plants or ornamentals, while those domesticated for large scale food production are generally called crops.

Domestication has played an enormous part in the development of mankind and its material culture. It has resulted in the appearance of agriculture as a special form of animals and plant production. Tribes of different parts of world played an important role in domestication of plants as well as animals. These people came to know how to use the plants and what part should be used and what should not.

The earliest human attempts at plant domestication occurred in Asia. There is early evidence for conscious cultivation and trait selection of plants by pre-Neolithic groups in Syria: grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Paleolithic (11,000BC), but this appears to be a localized phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step forward domestication.

Domestication of vegetatively reproducing plants, such as those with tubers, probably preceded domestication of seed plants-cereals, legumes, and other vegetables. Hemp, one of the most ancient plant domesticated in India, is an example of a multipurpose plant: oil is obtained from its seeds, fibres from its stalks, and the narcotic hashish from its flowers and leaves.

Some plants were domesticated especially for the production of narcotics; such plant is tobacco, which was probably first used by American Indian Tribes for the preparation of a narcotic drink and only later for smoking. The opium poppy is another example of a plant domesticated solely for a narcotic.

In different parts of the world very different species were domesticated. In the Americas squash, maize, and perhaps cassava tubers formed the core of the diet. In East Asia , millets, rice, and soy were the most important crops.

Although several of wild food and medicinal plants used by early men have been domesticated by modern civilization and has become part of our culture, yet a number of them and their relatives still grow in wild and are conserved and protected by the indigenous people and ethnic societies (tribals) and traditional people all over the world. These indigenous societies are descendents of the primitive men. Hence a considerable part of the knowledge of early men about the utility about the plants and people plant

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relationships have been continued down to modern days and are survived by the ethnic societies through folklore and through faith and folk tradition.

Check Your Progress 4

Notes: A) Write your answer in the space given below. B) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

i) Define human plant co-existence with the help of some example.ii) Define role of tribes in plant domestication.

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2.10 LET US SUM UP

After going throgh this unit, you would have achieved the objectives stated earlier in this unit. Let us recall what we have discussed so far.

Human being share the earth with innumerable varieties of plants, animals and other living organisms. Through their presence, humans modify the land, working the earth to yield a continuing supply of resources.

Indigenous knowledge is a very broad term that comprises all aspects of life- food, farming, and hunting, medicine preparation and treatment, arts, crafts and technologies used by indigenous cultures around the world.

Plants have played an important role in many of the world's mythologies and religions, and have been given deep and sacred meanings throughout the ages. In Indian mythology number of plants have been given sacred value such as Peepal, Tulsi, Bamboo, Neem, Bael, Palas etc.

Taboo plants are those plants that are restricted for growing or cutting because of some superstitious reasons. Whatever may be reason but these taboos can help in preventing the biological diversity.

Totems are just opposite to taboos. Some specific plants have given some totems attached with it. It is nothing but it is believed that it is linked with some magic.

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Plants have long been associated with folklore all over the world. Folktales related to plants from different countries are discussed in the unit in detail.

Human/plant co existence can be seen through the examples of plant simile and metaphors. From the time immemorial plants and human have been compared with each other. Poets describe the beauty of a lady with that of flowers by giving different examples. A tree can be compared with a human body and human actions.

For wild life protection, government has passed different acts time to time. These acts adversely affect the tribals for a while as in the protected areas hunting, gathering, and fire are restricted, which are livelihood for many tribals.

Tribals of world have played an important role in domestication of many plants as crops, vegetables, medicinal plants etc.

2.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: THE KEY

1. i) Indigenous culture originates from, and is bound to local experiences, taking its local world not perhaps as the only one, but as the most relevant of all they know. Indigenous knowledge is human life-experience in a distinct natural and cultural amalgamation within a unique local and timely setting.ii) Some plants of Indian mythology:

Ashoka: The Ashoka Tree is one of the most sacred and legendary trees of India, and one of the most fascinating flowers in the Indian range of flower essences. The beautiful, perfumed flowers of the Ashoka Tree are used in temple decoration. The tree is revered by the Hindus, Buddhist and Jains.

Banyan: Banyan tree symbolizes the Trimurti-Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva and Lord Brahma. The tree also symbolizes life and fertility in amny Hindu cultures.

Peepal: The Peepal Tree also known as "Ashvattha" in Sanskrit, is a very large tree and the first-known depicted tree in India.

Tulsi: Tulsi is always associated with purity and a highly revered and used for all religious purposes among the Hindus. It is considered very auspicious to have a Tulsi plant in the front courtyard of many Hindu households. Tulsi beads can always be seen around the necks of serious yogis and mystics in India, worn to purifying the mind, emotions and body.

2. i) Taboo plants, in general, refer to plants that are restricted for growing in certain ethnic group, mostly for superstitious reasons. Totemic plants are those plants that we grow for guidance and wisdom. ii) For conservation of biodiversity taboos seems to be beneficial as they restrict the use of plants and/or cutting these plants.

3. i) Your answer may be as follows

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a) Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum): Tulsi is considered to be associated with purity and a highly revered and used for all religious purposes among the Hindus. b) Red Sandalwood Tree (Santalum album): Sandalwood remains cool and aromatic even when the poisonous serpent coils around it. This also has another meaning that the basic nature of an individual cannot change because of outer effects.c) Aconite (Aconitum napellus): Its leaves and roots are extremely toxic and were used by the ancients as a poison. The Greek's called it akoniton (without dirt) because it grows on rocky ground, and lykoktonon (wolf-slaying) because it was traditionally applied by their arrows when hunting wolves.d) Apple tree (Malus domestica): The apple-tree was an important orchard fruit of ancient Greece. It was associated with love and marriage.

4. i) Human/plant co existence can be seen through the examples of plant simile and metaphors. Some examples are given below:Plant metaphors: "We are the sprouts at your hands and feet. We are the branches at your trunk. We come in front of trees and stones. We are at your bark, at your fruit. We are your flowers. We are your tendrils. We are the ones who need your shade."Plant simile: Branches of tree are like the arms of a man and the grains of plant are like the face of a child.ii) Domestication has played an enormous part in the development of mankind and its material culture. It has resulted in the appearance of agriculture as a special form of animals and plant production. Tribes of different parts of world played an important role in domestication of plants as well as animals. These people came to know how to use the plants and what part should be used and what should not. Domestication of important crops and vegetables were done by different tribes of the world. Still they possess knowledge about the wild plants of economic use that are far beyond our reach. Useful plants are conserved and protected by the indigenous people and ethnic societies (tribals) and traditional people all over the world. In the last we can say that the ethnobotanical survey is important and very useful for mankind and for growth of society.

2.12 ASSIGNMENT OR ACTIVITIES

Visit the local areas around you and collect information regarding mythological values of locally grown plants.

2.13 REFERENCES

Alexander P. 2002. The Forest in Folklore and Mythology.

Bansi L. M. 2000. Trees in Indian Art, Mythology, and Folklore.

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Baumann H., William T. S., Stearn E. R. 1993. The Greek Plant World in Myth, Art and Literature. Workman Pub Co.

Fred H. 2005. The Meaning of Trees: Botany, History, Healing, Lore.

Martin G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany. A methods manual. People and plants conservation manual. Chapman and Hall, London.

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