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Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
i
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Dr. Duran Kala, Ishik University, Iraq
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT
Çağrı Tuğrul Mart, Ishik University, Iraq
MEDIA REVIEW EDITOR
Mustafa Albay, Ishik University, Iraq
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Öztaş, Ishik University, Iraq
Prof. Dr. Zafer Ayvaz, Ege University, Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ozgur Kisi, International Black Sea University, Georgia
Prof. Dr. Bayan Salim, Ishik University, Iraq
Prof. Dr. Yassin Al-Hiti, Ishik University, Iraq
Prof. Dr. Nabil A. Fakhre, Salahaddin University, Iraq
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amir Nurullayevich, Russian State Geological Prospecting University, Russia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Thamir M. Ahmad, Ishik University, Iraq
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Cihan Mert, International Black Sea University, Georgia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hassan Hassoon Aldelfi, Ishik University, Iraq
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suat Karadeniz, Ishik University, Iraq
Asst. Prof. Dr. Cevat Onal, Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Nigeria
Asst. Prof. Dr. Omer Eskidere, Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Nigeria
Asst. Prof. Dr. Serkan Dogan, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Asst. Prof. Dr. Jasmin Kevric, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Asst. Prof. Dr. Nejdet Dogru, International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dr. Mehmet Özdemir, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Mutlay Dogan, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Doğan Özdemir, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Halit Vural, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Cumhur Aksu, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Gunter Senyurt, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Selcuk Cankurt, Ishik University, Iraq
Dr. Zakariya Adel Hussein, Koya University, Iraq
Editorial Office:
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq
www.eajse.org
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
ii
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering gratefully acknowledges the support of Ishik University.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering is particularly indebted to Ishik University Research Center.
Copyright © 2017
All Rights Reserved
Composed by Irfan Publishing, Erbil, Iraq
Printed by Anıl Press, Gaziantep, Turkey
No responsibility for the views expressed by the authors in this journal is assumed by the editors or by
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering.
EAJSE (Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering) is published biannually (December, June) in both print
and online versions by Ishik University.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
iii
Table of Contents
1. Analysis of Antenna Types Performance in Mobile Phone Base Station……………....1
Authors: Saba Fadhel Jaf & Muhammed Fadhel Jaf & Niyaz Fadhel Jaf
2. Impact of Cement Replacement Partially by Mosaic powder on
Compressive Strength of Concrete…………………………………………………….…9
Authors: Arass O. Mawlod & Najmadeen M. Saeed
3. The Application of Electrochemical Process as Inner Holes Cleaner…………….…...19
Author: Hiba H.Alwan
4. Engineering and Microstructures Characteristics of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based
Geopolymer Concrete …………………………………………………………………....27
Authors: Akram S. Mahmoud & Ganjeena J. Khoshnaw & Faten I. Mahmood
5. 5G Next Generation Mobile Wireless Technology with Massive MIMO Continue
4G Revolution, Key Technologies and Challenges………………………………….….40
Author: Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen
6. Wavelet Transform based Score Fusion for Face Recognition using SIFT
Descriptors………………………………………………………………………………..48
Authors: Musa M.Ameen & Bilal Ahmed & Muhammed Anwar & Payam M.Hussein
7. Developing a Novel Approach for Evaluation Performance of the Engineering
Departments Managers Using 360° Technique………………………………………...56 Authors: Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy & Mohammed S. Kh. Al-Marsomi
8. Raising Environmental Awareness among Young Generation Using Social Media: A
Case “Green It at Ishik University”……………………………………………………..68
Authors: Mehmet Ozdemir & Rasha Alkabbanie
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
1
Analysis of Antenna Types Performance in Mobile Phone Base
Station
Saba Fadhel Jaf 1 & Muhammed Fadhel Jaf
2 & Niyaz Fadhel Jaf
3
1 University of Kirkuk, Iraq College of Engineering
2 University of Sanbetresburg, Russia College of Computer Engineering
3Kalar university, Iraq College of Engineering
Correspondence: Saba Fadhel Jaf, University of Kirkuk, Iraq College of Engineering, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: March 24, 2017 Accepted: April 26, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p1
Abstract: The paper is evaluate the usage antenna type k742225 in Kalar towers mobile phone base
station in Asia cell in Kurdistan in south of Sulymaniya. By studying the characteristics of the above
type of antenna in this paper a comparison made between the performance of antenna type k742225
and Kathrein antenna other types for Kalar towers mobile phone base station in Asia cell by using the
Tool Site master. Simulation results indicate that antenna type k742225depends on the network
environment and different environments may lead to different optimization results in terms of capacity
and coverage performance. The result shows that coverage analysis best compare to Kathrein antenna
other types, Kathrein antennas type k742225 still have better performance in term of coverage
enhancement and interference control. This pattern we can see the first NULL of Kathrein antenna
type k742225 show better attenuation than Kathrein antenna other types and also it have bigger
vertical beam width and under the antenna Kathrein have more propagation. To finding the suitable
Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it affects the system
performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in addition to reducing the
interference levels with the cellular system.
Keywords: k742225 Antenna, Tower, Mobile Phone, Capacity, Coverage
1. Introduction
Wireless communication has been experiencing development during the past decade. There has
recently been explosive growth in the use of mobile communications. Today's operators of
mobile-communication systems face a problem, more acute than before, of ensuring good quality
of service, which generally means providing not only good coverage but also low interference.
When estimating the coverage or radiation pattern of mobile base station, engineer must rely
on the manufacturer-provided antenna radiation pattern (Saba, 2015). In most cases, carefully
optimizing the down tilt angels produces enhanced signal strength levels at the targeted areas, thus
reducing the interference levels from other covering cells. However, excessive down tilt.
Angle may lead to dramatic coverage shortages, specifically at the edges of the main loop
direction (Huawei Technologies, 2009; Kathrin Antennen Electronic, 2011). Kathrein Panel
antennas are designed, manufactured, and tested using modern computer modeling methods, up-to-
date manufacturing techniques and sophisticated measurement equipment to assure that every
antenna that bears the Kathrin name will provide long, reliable performance, strength, longevity
and reliability. Our antennas are designed to withstand the shock, vibration, moisture resistance,
salt spray, icing and temperature extremes according to rigorous IEC world standards for antennas
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(Kathrin Inc. 2013). Fig.1. shows places asking for the Kathrin Panel antennas in the world.
Figure 1: Kathrin Panel Antennas in the World
Designs utilize a production process known as pulltrusion. This method of fabrication forces when
cured has a tensile strength some 4 times greater than injection-molded, thermoformed. Radom
may expand by as much as .117 inches under elevated temperature conditions, while a Kathrein
radom of the same size expands only .016 inches. Of course, better joint stability means better
sealing, which prevents moisture entry. There are commercially available antenna’s that can
remotely change their down-tilt, azimuth and beam width (Kathrin Antennen Electronic, 2010,
2011).
Kathrein’s dual band antennas are ready for 3G applications, covering all existing wireless bands as
well as all spectrum under consideration for future systems, AMPS, PCS and 3G/UMTS. These
cross-polarized antennas offer diversity operation in the same space as a conventional 800 MHz
antenna, and are mountable on our compact sector brackets (Kathrin Inc. 2013).
2. Methodology
The angle of the main beam of the antenna below the horizontal plane is called antenna tilt.
Positive and negative angles are also referred to as downtilt and up-tilt respectively (Huawei
Technologies, 2009). In electrical down tilt, main, side and back lobes are tilted uniformly by
adjusting phases of antenna elements. However, in mechanical down tilt, antenna main lobe is
lowered on one side and the antenna back lobe is raised on the other side because antenna elements
are physically directed towards ground in mechanical down tilt (Huawei Technologies, 2009).
The frequency range for K742225 are 824–960/1710–2180MHz, while for K739686 are 806–
960MHz and for K739684 are 824–960MHz. The three types have the same polarization,
impedance, isolation and VSWR are +45°, –45°, 50 Ω, > 30 dB, and < 1.5 respectively. But for
gain in K742225 is 17/18.5dBi, for K739686 17.5 dBi and for K739684 is 15 dB (Kathrin Inc.
2013; Louis, 2010). Electrical tilt continuously adjustable for K742225 is 0°–7°/0°–6°T as same
K739686, while for K739684 is 0°–14°T. Fig. 2, 3, 4 show the horizontal and vertical pattern for
K742225, K739686 and K739684 respectively.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
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(a) Horizontal Pattern (b) Vertical Pattern
Figure 2. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K742225
(a) Horizontal Pattern (b) Vertical Pattern
Figure 3. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K739686
(a) Horizontal Pattern (b) Vertical Pattern
Figure 4. Horizontal and Vertical Pattern for K739684.
As shown from kathrein antenna type K742225 Fig. 2 (a) the horizontal pattern are have a wide
main lobe with no back lobe, while for kathrein antenna typesK739686 and K739684 in fig.3 (a)
and fig.4 respectively horizontal pattern are have a wide main lobe with little back lobe. while
for vertical pattern the three last types have same main, side and back lobes as shown in
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
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fig.2(b),fig3.(b) and fig.4(b) respectively. The Maximum power are 250 W for Kathrein antenna
type K742225, while for K739686 are 500 W and for K739684 are 400 W (at 50 °C ambient
temperature). The Fig.5 (a), (b) and (c) show the mechanical specification for Kathrin antenna
types K742225, K739686 and K739684 respectively in details (Kathrin Antennen Electronic,
2014).
(a) Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK742225.
(b) Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK739684.
(c)Mechanical Specification for Kathrein Antenna TypeK739684.
Figure 5. Mechanical Specification for Kathrin Antenna Types K742225, K739686 and K739684.
As shown from Fig. 4 the same input for each type, so as for Connector position, while for
Adjustment mechanism are 1x, Position bottom, continuously adjustable for each K739686 and
K739684, while the twice for K742225 (Louis, 2010). But for Height of K742225 are 2516 mm
while for K739686 are 2580 mm , and for K739684 are 1296 mm, but the three types have the
same width are 262 mm, also the depth have the same for K739686 and K739684 are 116 mm
but the depth for K742225 are bigger than the two last types (39 mm) (Kathrin Antennen
Electronic, 2014).
3. Results
To finding the suitable Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it
effects on the system performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in
addition to reducing the interference levels with the cellular system. Fig. 6 shows Kalar city by
Google Earth Map in Kurdistan in south of Sulymaniya.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
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Figure 6. Kalar City by Google Earth Map
By studying the characteristics of the Kathrein antenna types by choosing Kalar city towers mobile
phone base station in Asia cell in Kurdistan in Suoth of Sulymaniya. As shown in fig.7.
Figure 7. Kalar City Towers.
There are 33 site in kalar city almost of these sites used type K742225 there are: Kalar_0616,
Kalar2_0757, Kalar3_0681, Kalar4_0744, KalarFc_0748, Kalarikon_0743, KalarMk_0760,
NwKalar_0645,Smood2_0729, Kalar3_0681, NwKalar_0645,Smood3_0724, Kalarikon_0743. And
the other lest have the antenna type K739684, K739686, K730378 and K80010305.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
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Table 1:
The Antenna Type And The Number Of Sectors For Each Sites In Kalar City.
As shown from Table1. The antenna types and the number of sectors for each sites in Kalar
city, according to table 1. For kathrein antenna type K742225 there are six sectors used in
Kalar_0616, Kalar2_0757,Kalar4_0744, KalarFc_0748,KalarMk_0760,Smood2_0729 and
Smood3_0724 site respectively. While three sectors used inKalar3_0681.
Kalarikon_0743, Nw Kalar_0645,Kalar3_0681, NwKalar_0645,Kalarikon_0743.
Site Name Antenna
type
No. of Sectors
GrdaGozina_074
6
K739684 3
Kalar_0616 K742225 6
Kalar2_0757 K742225 6
Kalar3_0681 K742225 3
Kalar4_0744 K742225 6
KalarFc_0748 K742225 6
Kalarikon_0743 K742225 3
KalarMk_0760 K742225 6
NwKalar_0645 K742225 3
Pebaz_0693 K739684 3
Smood2_0729 K742225 6
Tazade_0756 K730378 3
BanAsiaw_0820 K730378 2
Kalar3_0681 K742225 3
NwKalar_0645 K742225 3
Bardasur_0799 K80010305 3
Bardasur2_0838 K739686 3
Smood3_0724 K742225 6
Kalar8_0839 K739686 3
Kalar9_0837 K739686 3
Kalar10_0840 K739686 3
Kalar11_0841 K739686 3
Kalar13_0836 K739686 3
Kelabarza_0824 K739686 2
Kalarikon_0743 K742225 3
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ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
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(a) Performance Kathrin Antenna Type K742225
(b) Performance Kathrin Antenna Type K739686
(c) Performance Kathrin Antenna type K739684.
Figure 8. Performance Kathrin Antenna types K742225, K739686 and K739684.
From Fig. 8 shows three curves for performance Kathrin Antenna Types K742225, K739686
AndK739684 respectively. By comparing on performance for the three last types. From fig 8 (a)
the Antenna Type K742225 performance starting with higher than 130 dB more than the curves. In
fig8 (b) for antenna type K739686 where the its lower than the magnitude of 110 dB so as for the
last curve in fig8(c), the Kathrin Antenna Type K739684 better than from Kathrin Antenna Type
K739686 where its magnitude starting at 120 dB, but not reached Kathrin Antenna Type K742225.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
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It’s clear from the curve that Kathrin Antenna Type K742225 have good performing also it is
better than other Kathrin Antenna Type K739686 And K739684. Simulation results indicate that
optimum down tilt angle depends on the network environment and different environments may lead
to different optimization results in terms of capacity and coverage performance.
4. Conclusion
This paper is evaluate the usage antenna type k742225 in Kalar towers mobile phone base station
in Asia cell in Kurdistan in suoth of sulymaniya. By studying the characteristics of the above type
of antenna. In this paper a comparison made between the performance of antenna type k742225 and
Kathrein antenna other types for Kalar towers mobile phone base station in Asia cell. Simulation
results indicate that antenna type k742225depends on the network environment and different
environments may lead to different optimization results in terms of capacity and coverage
performance. The result shows that coverage analysis best compare to Kathrein antenna other
types. Kathrein antennas type k742225 still have better performance in term of coverage
enhancement and interference control. This pattern we can see the first NULL of Kathrein antenna
type k742225 show better attenuation than Kathrein antenna other types and also it has bigger
vertical beam width and under the antenna Kathrein have more propagation. To finding the suitable
Kathrein antenna type is a very critical issue in cellular network, since it affects the system
performance, aiming to enhance the signal strengths of serving cells, in addition to reducing the
interference levels with the cellular system.
References
Saba, F. A. (2015). Comparison between electrical and mechanical antenna tilt angle in
Sulaymaniya mobile phone base stations. Kirkuk University Journal Scientific Studies
(KUJSS), 1093), 1-13.
Huawei Technologies Co. (2009). Base Station Antenna Catalogue. Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2011). 27–512 MHzKATHREIN-Antennas and Antenna Line
Products for Public Safety, Ports, Airports, Distribution, Public Transport, Utilities.
Germany.
Kathrin Inc. (2013). Proffotional antennaandfilter or mobile communications 700-3800 MHz, Scala
Division, USA.
Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2010). 790 – 6000 MHzBase Station Antennas, Filters, Combiners
and Amplifiersfor Mobile Communications, KATHREIN-Werke KG Rosenheim
Germany.
Kathrin Antennen Electronic. (2014). 694 – 6000 MHz Base Station Antennas, Filters, Combiners
and Amplifiers for Mobile Communications, KATHRIN-Werke KG Rosenheim
Germany.
Louis, J. M. (2010). Electrical and Mechanical Downtilt and their Effects on Horizontal Pattern
Performance. Retrieved from http//:www.commscope.com. Comm Scope, Inc.Director,
Applications Engineering.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
ISSN 2414-5629 (Print), ISSN 2414-5602 (Online) EAJSE
Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
9
Impact of Cement Replacement Partially by Mosaic powder on
Compressive Strength of Concrete
Arass O. Mawlod1 & Najmadeen M. Saeed
2
1,2 Civil Engineering Department, University of Raparin, Ranya, Iraq
Correspondence: Arass O. Mawlod, University of Raparin, Ranya, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: March 12, 2017 Accepted: April 26, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p9
Abstract: Mosaic tile is considered as one of the most popular tiles used as finishing material in
different parts of the buildings, especially, for floor finishing. During the process of the manufactured
mosaic tile, a huge volume of sludge waste has been produced in the stage of polishing and has the
effect towards the environment, so it can be reused as a partial replacement of cement for economical
purpose. The mosaic sludge can be improved to the mosaic powder through the process of normally
drying and sieving. In this paper, an experiment has been conducted to investigate the behavior of
compression strength of the concrete by replacing cement with the mosaic tile dust (MTD) by the rate
of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30%. For this purpose, an experimental program was carried out in
which fourteen mixes with different combinations of mosaic tile dust in two different groups of
different w/c ratio of 0.45 and 0.55 respectively. The samples are tested and compared with the
conventional concrete to find out whether the compressive strength increases or decreases with
increasing the rate of replacing the cement by mosaic tile dust (MTD) by the above ratios.
Keywords: Concrete Cube Sample, Mosaic Tile Dust, Compressive Strength, Workability
1. Introduction
Concrete is arguably the most important building material, playing a basic role in all building
structures. Its virtue lies in its versatility, durability and fire resistant. Concrete can be used for all
standard buildings, both single storey and multistorey and for containment and retaining structures
and bridges as discussed by MacGinley and Choo (1990). The concrete technology researchers are
continuously trying to improve concrete design to reach higher concrete strength and at the same
time reduce the consumption of the resources by finding new alternatives. Nowadays a large
amount of mosaic tile sludge in building construction is generated during polishing the tile surface,
which makes around totally dirty. This study presents the solution for the environmental problem
by collecting the waste and drying it to reproduce powder, which is used as a partially cement
replacement in the concrete. Recently, many researches were carried out in order to use ceramic
and marble tile waste as a partial replacement or mixture material in the concrete in order to
improve concrete design.
Ceramic Tile Waste
The studies conducted by Sukesh et al. (2012) and Torgal et al. (2011) have done their research
about the partial replacement of cement in concrete by using of waste materials like ceramic waste.
They have found that the concrete with partial cement replacement by ceramic powder has minor
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strength loss possess increase durability performance. Manogna and Lakshmi (2015) and Raval et
al. (2013) have investigated that using ceramic waste as a partially replacement of cement up to
30% by weight of cement increases the compressive strength of concrete but further replacement of
cement with tile powder decreases the compressive strength gradually. However, Anwar et al.
(2015) concludes that when the ceramic waste powder is replaced by up to 30% by weight of
cement without affecting compressive strength of concrete, but further replacement of cement with
ceramic waste powder decreases the compressive strength, this result has also been reported by
Patel et al. (2014).
Marble Tile Waste
Pal et al. (2016), Vijaya et al. (2016), Raju et al. (2016), Shirule et al. (2012), Singh et al. (2015),
Sahu (2016), Kumar and Kumar (2015) have discovered that the compressive strength of concrete
increases up to 10% replacement of cement by marble dust powder and further increasing of
percentage of marble dust powder leads to decreasing in compressive strength of concrete.
Nonetheless, Singh and Bansal (2015), Anwar et al. (2015) and Gurumoorthy (2014) have
investigated that the most suitable and optimum percentage replacement of marble dust in concrete
is almost 12%, 20% and 25% respectively. Further, any addition of waste marble dust the
compressive strength is decreased.
The purpose of this paper is to find the compressive strength of concrete while replacing the mosaic
tile dust (MTD) with different proportions in concrete based on experimental investigations and
comparing the characteristic strength at the two water cement ratios, namely, of 0.45 and 0.55.
The outline of this paper is as follow. The experimental materials are presented in Section 2.
Section 3 shows the mix design and considered variables. Sections 4 and 5 introduce the
experimental methodology and the discussion respectively, while a concluding summary is
presented in Section 6.
2. Experimental Materials
2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) was used for the entire experimental mixes of the study. The
chemical and physical properties of the cement are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively, which are
conformed to IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement. The specific gravity of the
cement is 3.14.
2.2 Aggregates
2.2.1 Course Aggregate
In the investigation the crushed gravel is used, which is available locally. In order to obtain the
densest possible concrete, the existing gravel was separated by sieve analysis and remixed by
desired amount according to the specification for having the most well graded course aggregate.
The sieve analysis was carried out for the whole required quantity so as to be fitted with the
standard specification ASTM-C33 (2003) for coarse aggregate, see Table 3 and Figure 1. The
specific gravity and Fineness Modulus of the course aggregate is 2.72 and 2.15 respectively.
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Table 1: Chemical properties of cement (OPC)
Chemical requirements
IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement
Limitation Test Results
Lime saturation coefficient % 0.66-1.02 1.0
Magnesium Oxide (as MgO)% ≤5 3.6
Sulfate content (as SO3) % 2.5 if C3A ≤ 5 2.2
2.8 if C3A ≥5
Loss of ignition (as LOI)% ≤4.0 3.5
Non soluble substance % ≤ 1.5 0.8
Table 2: Physical properties of cement (OPC)
Physical Requirements
IQ.S 5/1984 Standard for Ordinary Portland Cement
Limitation Test Result
Fineness (Blaine) kg/m2 ≥230
343
-Initial setting time minute ≥45 150
-Final setting time hour ≤10 3:20
Soundness (expansion) % ≤ 0.8 0.2
Compressive strength is not less
than (MN/m2)
≥15.0 35.7
≥ 23.0 46.0
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Table 3: Grading of Coarse Aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits
No. Sieve No. (mm) % Passing ASTM C33 Limits
1 12.5 100 100
2 9.5 90 85-100
3 4.75 20 10 – 300
4 2.36 5 0 - 10
5 1.18 0 0 - 5
Fineness Modulus 2.15
Specific Gravity 2.72
Figure 1: Grading curve for the coarse aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits
2.2.2 Fine Aggregates
The locally available river natural sand has been used as fine aggregate in this study. To get the
most dense concrete, the existing sand was separated by sieve analysis and remixed by the desired
amount for having well-graded fine aggregate according to ASTM-C33 (2003) standard
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1 10 100ASTM Sieve size [mm] (log scale)
Percen
tag
e P
assin
g
Test
Upper ASTM Limit
Lower ASTM Limit
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specification for fine aggregate (see Table 4 and Figure 2, for more information). The specific
gravity of sand is 2.66 and fineness modulus is 4.66.
2.3 Water
Water is an important component of concrete since it works in the chemical reaction with cement
and it aids to from the strength giving cement gel. In the investigation tap water is used for mixing
and curing. The quality of water was observed carefully, it was free from organic materials and oil.
Table 4: Grading of Fine Aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits
No. Sieve No. (mm) % Passing ASTM C33 Limits
1 9.50 100 100
2 4.75 96.5 90-100
3 2.36 87.7 75-100
4 1.18 73.2 55-90
5 0.6 41.2 35-59
6 0.3 13.1 8-30
7 0.15 3.2 0-10
Fineness Modulus 4.15
Specific Gravity 2.66
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Figure
Figure 2: Grading curve for the fine aggregate with ASTM-C33 (2003) limits
3. Mix Design and Considered Variables
One variable, cement replacement partially by mosaic powder, was selected to investigate its effect
on compressive strength of concrete in two different w/c ratios (0.45 and 0.55) as shown in Tables
5 and 6 with their mix design.
Table 5: Mix design w/c =0.45 for 12 liter of concrete batch
All units in gram
Ratio of MTD to the original required cement (3600g)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Mat
eria
ls
Cement 3600 3420 3240 3060 2880 2700 2520
MTD 0 180 360 540 720 900 1080
Water 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620 1620
Gravel 14837 14815 14794 14772 14751 14730 14708
Sand 9891 9877 9862 9848 9834 9820 9805
Total 29948 29913 29877 29841 29805 29770 29734
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.1 1 10ASTM Sieve size [mm] (log scale)
Pe
rce
nta
ge
Pa
ss
ing
Test
Upper ASTM Limit
Lower ASTM Limit
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Table 6: Mix design w/c =0.55 for 12 liter of concrete batch
All units in gram
Ratio of MTD to the original required cement (3600g)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Mat
eria
ls
Cement 4800 4560 4320 4080 3840 3600 3360
MTD 0 240 480 720 960 1200 1440
Water 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640 2640
Gravel 12569 12540 12512 12483 12455 12426 12397
Sand 8379 8360 8341 8322 8303 8284 8265
Total 28389 28341 28293 28246 28198 28150 28102
4. Experimental Methodology
In this experiment the mosaic tile dust (MTD), which was used as a partially cement replacement
was evaluated. In the investigation two groups of mixes were used with the two w/c ratios of 0.45
and 0.55. Each group of mixes contains seven batches 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% of
original required cement replaced by mosaic tile dust (MTD). For each of the batches 3 cubes were
casted. After 24 hours the cubes were demoulded and placed in the water tank for the curing
purpose for 28 days, then all specimens were tested for compressive strength and the results which
were recorded eventually.
5. Discussion
After all specimens were tested for compressive strength, the results are shown in Table 7, and for
more clarity the results are also shown in Figure 3, which represents compressive strength vs. rate
of mosaic tile dust (MTD) used instead of Ordinary Portland Cement. It is observed that the
compressive strength of the specimens without replacing any amount of MTD with cement are
23.05MPa and 33.39MPa for w/c of 0.55 and 0.45 respectively. However, the compressive
strengths for both w/c of 0.55 and 0.45 peaked with replacing cement by only 5% of mosaic tile
dust (MTD), and the compressive of 28.38MPa and 35.32MPa are recorded. This increasing of
compressive strength are due to the filler like behavior of the mosaic tile dust (MTD), which
cooperates in the filling of the voids, resulting more densifying concrete and make a bit stronger
concrete as compared to the conventional concrete.
Beyond the 10% replacement of mosaic tile dust (MTD) to 30%, which is the maximum amount of
using MTD, the compressive strength starts declining steadily with the rest of increasing mosaic
tile dust (MTD). In other words, the compressive strength decreases by 10%, 6%, 4%, 23.6% for
15%, 20%, 25% and 30% replacement of cement by MTD respectively for the w/c= 0.55. Whereas,
the rate of decreasing in compressive strength are 21%, 13%, 13.65%, 24% for 15%, 20%, 25%,
30% replacement of cement by MTD respectively for w/c=0.45. That is because the growing level
of the partial replacement of mosaic tile dust (MTD) decreases the workability and results the loss
of well compacting and increasing the voids. In the same time, the material works as filler when the
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material is used instead of cement, the percent of cementitious medium drops and the bond between
the whole matrixes will reduce, leading to decreasing the compressive strength. In conclusion, we
can see that the best rate of using mosaic tile dust (MTD) as a partial replacement of Ordinary
Portland Cement is about 5% for both w/c of 0.55 and 0.45, as shown in Figure 7.
Table 7. The effect of cement replacement by various amount of MTD
MTD% Compressive strength (MPa) for w/c 0.55 Compressive strength(MPa) for w/c 0.45
0% 23.05 33.39
5% 28.38 35.32
10% 24.62 33.56
15% 21.93 31.34
20% 21.68 29.09
25% 20.93 28.83
30% 17.60 25.34
Figure 3: The effect of cement replaced by various level MTD
6. Conclusion
The purpose of this research was mainly to find out and compare the compressive strength of
normal concrete with cement replacement partially by mosaic tile dust (MTD) at the water cement
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Com
pre
ssiv
e S
tren
gth
(M
Pa)
Mosaic Tile Dust (MTD)%
w/c=0.55 w/c=0.45
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ratios of 0.55 and 0.45 for better fruitful replacement. Based on experimental investigations of the
compressive strength of concrete, the following observations are drawn:
1. Compressive strength of concrete increases up to 10% of partial replacement of cement with
mosaic tile dust (MTD).
2. Compressive strength of concrete decreases when the replacement level increased from 10% to
15%, 20%, 25% and 30% by weight of cement.
3. The optimum percentage for replacement of cement with mosaic tile dust (MTD) with cement is
almost 5%.
4. Utilization of mosaic tile dust (MTD) as a partial replacement of cement has another benefit in
terms of environment and economy because cement industry is one of the main sources of CO2
to the atmosphere, and the mosaic tile dust (MTD) could be obtained without cost.
5. The workability decreases with increasing percentage of mosaic tile dust (MTD) replacement of
cement in the mixes.
References
Anwar, A., Ahmad, S., Husain, S. M. A. & Ahmad, S. A. (2015). Replacement of Cement by
Marble Dust and Ceramic Waste in Concrete for Sustainable Development. International
Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology (IJISET), 2(6), 496-503.
Astm-C33 (2003). Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
Gurumoorthy, N. (2014). Influence of Marble Dust as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 3(3),740-743.
Kumar, R. & Kumar, S. K. (2015). Partial Replacement of Cement with Marble Dust Powder.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 5(8), 106-114.
Macginley, T. J. & Choo, B. S. (1990). Reinforced Concrete: Design Theory and Examples.
Second Edition edn., CRC Press.
Manogna, P. & Lakshmi, M. S. (2015). Tile Powder as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), 2(4), 75-77.
Pal, S., Singh, A., Pramanik, T., Kumar, S. & Kisku, N. (2016). Effects of partial replacement of
cement with marble dust powder on properties of concrete. International Journal for
Innovative Research in Science & Technology, 3(3), 41-45.
Patel, J., Shah, B. K. & Patel, P. J. (2014). Ceramic powder in concrete by partial replacement of
cement- a literature analysis. Journal of International Academic Research for
Multidisciplinary, 2(3), 712-727.
Raju, Ramya, Jayaraj, G. K. & Shaikh, A. A. (2016). Study of partial replacement of cement by
marble powder. International Journal of Recent Advances in Engineering & Technology
(IJRAET), 4(4), 102-106.
Raval, A. D., Patel, I. N. & Pitroda, J. (2013). Eco-Efficient concretes: Use of ceramic powder as a
partial replacement of cement. International Journal of Innovative Technology and
Exploring Engineering (IJITEE), 3(2), 1-4.
Sahu, C. (2016) .Partial replacement of cement with marble dust powder. Imperial Journal of
Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR), 2(8), 97-104.
Shirule, P. A., Rahman, A. & Gupta, R. D. (2012). Partial replacement of cement with marble dust
powder. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies, IJAERS,
1(3):175-177.
Singh, J. & Bansal, E. R. S. (2015). Partial replacement of cement with waste marble powder with
M25 grade. International Journal of Technical Research and Applications, 3(2), 202-205.
Singh, R., Bhutani, M. & Syal, T. (2015) Strength evaluation of concrete using marble powder and
waste crushed tile aggregates. International Journal for Science and Emerging
Technologies with Latest Trends, 20(1), 18-28.
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Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
18
Sukesh, C., Katakam, B. K., Saha, P. & Chamberlin, K. S. (2012) A Study of sustainable industrial
waste materials as partial replacement of cement. International Proceedings of Computer
Science and Information Technology, 28,161-166.
Torgal, F. P., Shahsavandi, A. & Jalali, S. (2011). Mechanical Properties and Durability of
Concrete with Partial Replacement of Portland Cement by Ceramic Wastes. In
Proceedings of 1st International Conference on WASTES: Solutions, Treatments and
Opportunities. University of Minho, Guimaraes, Portugal.).
Vijaya, K. Y. M., Shruti, D., Tharan, S. N., Sanjay, S. R. & Sricharan, P. M. (2016). Partial
replacement of cement to concrete by marble dust powder. International Journal for
Modern Trends in Science and Technology, 2(5), 111-122.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
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Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
19
Application of Electrochemical Process as Inner Holes Cleaner Hiba H.Alwan
1
1Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Knowledge University, Iraq
Correspondence: Hiba H. Alwan, Knowledge University, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: April 11, 2017 Accepted: May 22, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p19
Abstract: Electrochemical process is a relatively important method for removing unwanted scales by
anodic dissolution. In this work an Electrochemical process was used to remove the corrosion from the
inner holes of the work pieces (medium carbon steel 0.35% C) by immersing it in electrolyte sodium
carbonate, Na2CO3. The tool used was made from brass. This work focuses on surface roughness of
the work pipes.
Keywords: Electrochemical Process, Electrolytic Cell, Surface Finish
1. Introduction
Electrochemical process is a removing rust by anodic dissolution method and it has no cutting
forces and stresses because the process depends mainly on electrical conductivity of materials and
chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the workpiece (Alwan, 2011). No thermal damages
occur to the workpiece structure which produces surface stresses. Thus, high surface finished is
obtained (Singh, 2008). There are various methods for rust removal, but they are unsuitable for
being old or due to their being old techniques, they tend to be destructive in use. Dissolving the rust
with acids such as phosphoric acid or even vinegar can produce good results, but this process can
remove surface features which may have been preserved in the rust. These methods were
considered inappropriate. also known as electrolysis, which involves using the passage of an
electric current in an alkaline solution, or electrolyte, to do the job of trying to convert some of the
corrosion products into a more stable form, whilst loosening the remaining corrosion by converting
it into a loosely bound, easily removed deposit (Westcott, 2010).
Electrochemical cleaning has a working mechanism that is similar to that of electro polishing.
Unlike the electro polishing, the electrochemical method of cleaning is deemed far more portable,
and it can also be applied locally. One would not be wrong in saying that the electrochemical
method of cleaning is indeed more advantageous than other methods such as electro polishing, acid
cleaning or even mechanical cleaning. When it comes to electro cleaning, you don’t have to deal
with the annoying problems of dirt, buffing compounds (Eliyan, Mahdi & Alfantazi, 2012).
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) plays a critical role in the dissolution reactions of internal and external sides
of pipeline structures. Many works were reported on the electrochemically-enhanced stress
corrosion cracking when bicarbonate-saturated ground water is in contact with pipeline surfaces. It
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20
was reported that bicarbonate is a major agent in the dissolution of pipeline steels although of the
reported controversy on its role in acidic CO2-saturated flows. In another study, bicarbonate was
also proposed to contribute in formation of complexation of iron carbonate. In most pipeline
corrosion studies, the mechanisms conventionally involved a solution of H2CO3 in driving the
cathodic reactions in deoxygenated media (Harle & Beavers, 1993).
Bicarbonate was reported to be a key corrosive agent involved in anodic and cathodic reactions.
More specifically, the determining steps were found to be fundamentally associated with
bicarbonate as they are, for example, reduced directly to produce adsorbed hydrogen atoms and/or
hydrogen gas represented by Eqs. (1)–(3) as:
HCO3- + e
- → Hads + CO3
2- (1)
HCO3- + Hads + e
- → H2 + CO3
2- (2)
2HCO3- + 2 e
- → H2 + 2CO3
2- (3)
The corrosion rates and polarization characteristics were found dependent on bicarbonate content
(Videm & Koren, 1993).
2. Procedure
2.1 Cathode tool
The material used for Electrochemical tools should be electrically conductive and easily Machin
able to the required geometry. The tool used in the process is made from brass metal as cylinder
shape with diameter Ø13 mm.
2.2 Anode Work Piece
For this work, the work piece is a cylinder pipe medium carbon steel (0.35%) with the chemical
composition show in table (1a,b)
Table (1a): The material specification
Material standard DIN system
Material of the workpiece Medium carbon steel (Ck35)
Steel group Special structural steels
Designation symbol Ck35
Material number 1.1181
Density of the alloy 7.85 g/cm3
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Table (1b): Composition of the alloy
Element Wt% Density
(g/cm3)
Atomic
weight
Valence
C 0.35 2.26 12.011 4
Mn 0.81 7.84 54.938 4
Si 0.19 2.33 28.086 4
P 0.011 2.93 30.97376 3
S 0.023 1.819 32.066 2
Ni 0.3 8.92 58.693 2
Cr 0.07 7.19 51.996 6
Mo 0.01 10.22 95.94 3
Cu 0.02 8.97 63.546 2
Al 0.05 2.71 26.98 3
Remain 98.436 7.86 55.845 2
2.3 Electrolytes
Na2CO3 is used with water as an electrolyte with weights (250g) and (1 litter) of water.
2.4 Electrochemical cell
The electrochemical process was done by placing the workpiece in the cell with fixture to oscillate
the workpiece during the process. The tool is made of brass having a cylinder shape and fixed in
the tool holder using drilling machine. The gap between the tool and the workpiece is controlled
manually. After that the negative pole of the power supply is connected to the tool and the positive
pole to the workpiece. Then both tanks are filled with the electrolyte. During the process and after
power supply is turned on, the electrolyte with the sludge is sending out to the storage tank. From
the other side of the storage tank the electrolyte is send to a filtration unit to remove the sludge and
is pumped to the reaction zone (Alwan, 2011).
In this work, the experiment is focused on the roughness and the surface cleaning of the workpiece.
3. Result and Discussion
The free anodic dissolution can involve OH_ to form iron (2) hydroxide:
Fe 2+
+ 2OH - → Fe (OH)2 + 2e
- (4)
The cathodic reactions involve the simultaneous reduction of bicarbonate and dissolved oxygen:
HCO3- + e
- → ½ H2 + CO3
2- (5)
HCO3- + e
- → Hads + CO3
2- (6)
OH- involvement in the dissolution processes results in a defective hydrous film capable of
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0
2
4
6
8
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
5.21 5.07 5.09 5.89 6.01
2.9 3.05 3.22 4.32
4.88
SUR
FAC
E C
LEA
NIN
G (
µm
)
Gap size(mm)
Ra before Ra after
decelerating the current densities.
The film, could be hydroxide-based developed within a short potential range, which was illustrated
in a Fe–H–C–O Pourbiax diagram, (Hirnyi, 2001) as:
Fe + 2OH -→Fe(OH)2
- (7)
Fe + HCO3 - → FeHCO3
(8)
Fe(OH)2 + OH
- → FeCO3 + H2O + e
-
(9)
3FeCO3 + 4OH - → Fe2O3 + 2HCO3
- + H2O + 2e
- (10)
4Fe (OH)2 + O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 4H2O (11)
The results of the effect of gap size on the surface cleaning is gaven in table (2) at operation time of
T = 10 minutes and current density 2.856 Amp/cm2.
Table (2): The surface Cleaning & the gap size before and after the operation
Fig (1) shows the effect of increasing the gap between the tool and the workpiece causing the
surface cleaning rather poor after Electrochemical process due to the increase in the distance
between the tool and the work piece that causing dicrease in the conductivity of the electrolyte
(increase in ohmic resistance) causing unequal distribution of the current density on the surface
which cause unequal anodic dissolution on the machining surface of the workpiece.
Fig (1 ): The relationship between the gap size on the surface cleaning
Gap size
(mm)
Workpiece Roughness Before
the operation
(µm)
Workpiece Roughness
After the operation
(µm)
1 5.21 2.6
1.5 5.97 3.05
2 5.09 3.22
2.5 5.89 4.32
3 6.01 4.88
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7.79 7.59 7.3048 6.8967 6.5294
0.191 0.186 0.179 0.169 0.16
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Dis
solu
tio
n r
ate
(cm
/se
c)
Gap size(mm) roughness Reamoving metal
The increasing of the surface roughness and efficiency of cleaning indicate at gap size (3mm)
reaching to (46.7%) compared with gap size of (1mm). The poor cleaning of workpiece surface as
shown in fig (2) and table (3), these due to the increase in the distance between the tool and the
work piece which causing increasing in Ohmic resistance of the electrolyte reducing the amount of
the current and decreasing the amount of anodic dissolution.
Table (3): Surface cleaning & the gap size on the dissolution rate
Fig (2) the relationship between the gap size on the dissolution rate
The dissolution rate decreases with the increases of the gap size, and the best result for the high
dissolution rate is at the small gap sizes. For this reason (1 mm) gap size has been chosen as a best
size for the tests.
The results of surface roughness at different current values are given in the table (4). These are at
time of operation T = 10 min and the gap size between the tool and the work piece = 1 mm.
Gap
size
(mm)
Workpiece
Weight Before
the operation
(g)
Workpiece
Weight After
The operation
(g)
MRRs x10-2
(cm3/sec)
Dissolution
ratex10-5
(cm/sec)
1 149.5 140.5 0.191 7.79
1.5 113.6 104.8 0.186 7.59
2 157. 4 148.9 0.179 7.3048
2.5 152.8 144.8 0.169 6.8967
3 190.2 182.6 0.16 6.5294
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Table (4) surface cleaning & the current density before and after the operation
Fig (3) shows that the effect of the current density on the cleaning surface increases at increasing
the value of current density, while the roughness decreases rapidly arriving at the value of (1.8
µm) that decreased (31%) as shown in table ( 5) with a current density is (3.6728 Amp/cm2) that is
because the high value of current causes a better decrease in the peaks of the workpiece surface
and good surface cleaning and high current density distribution at all the machining surface of the
work piece.
Figure (3) the relationship between the current density on the surface cleaning
Table (5): The MRRg
Current
density
(Amp/cm2)
Workpiece Roughness
before the operation
(µm)
Workpiece Roughness
after the operation
(µm)
2.4485 3.677 2.687
2.856 3.59 2.49
3.2647 3.55 2.08
3.6728 3.48 1.855
Current
density
(Amp/cm2)
Workpiece
Weight before
the
operation (g)
Workpiece
Weight after
the
operation (g)
MRRg
(g/sec)
2.4485 639 632 0.0116
2.856 674 665 0.015
3.2647 684 673 0.0183
3.6728 648 634 0.0233
2.687 2.49
2.08 1.855
2.4485 2.856 3.2647 3.6728
surf
ace
cle
anin
g(µ
m)
Current density (Amp/cm2)
roughness
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The better declining of these values was at high current values so the value (3.6728 Amp/cm2)
gives the best decreases of the surface roughness and metal rust arrived to (46.69%) when
compared with the surface roughness before the operation. Fig (4) shows that the theoretical
surface is cleaning a increasing with current density arrived to (93.9%) at a gap size of (1mm). The
high value of current is rushing the chemical reaction in the medium of operation which gives the
best results.
Figure (4) The effect of current density on MRRg
Figure (5): The Workpiece before the operation
Figure (6): The workpiece after the operation
0.01658 0.0193
0.022113 0.0248
2.4485 2.856 3.2647 3.6728 Mat
eri
al R
em
ova
l Rat
e(g
/se
c)
current density (Amp/cm2)
MRRgth
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6. Conclusion
The following points can be concluded:
1- Poor surface cleaning is due to larger distance between tool and workpiece.
2- The dissolution rate decreases with increasing in the distance between the tool and the work
piece.
3- The gap size has an effect on the efficiency of the process. The best value that gives a high
efficiency (77.7%) is at the (1 mm) gap size.
4- Dissolution rate increases with increasing a current density and the best results were at (3.6728
Amp/cm2). The efficiency arrived to (93.9%).
References
Alwan, H. (2011). Study of Electro Chemical Machining Characteristics of Steel. MSc Thesis,
University of Technology, Baghdad.
Singh, M.K. (2008). Unconventional Manufacturing Process. New Delhi: New Age International
Publishers.
Eliyan, F., Mahdi, E., & Alfantazi, A. (2012). Electrochemical evaluation of the corrosion
behavior of API-X100 pipeline steel in aerated bicarbonate solutions. Corrosion Science,
58, 181-191.
Harle, B., & Beavers, J. (1993). Technical note: low-ph stress corrosion crack propagation in API
X-65 line pipe steel. Corrosion, 49, 861–863.
Videm, K., & Koren, A. (1993). Corrosion, passivity, and pitting of carbon steel in aqueous
solutions of HCO_ 3 , CO2, and Cl-. Corrosion, 49, 746–754.
Hirnyi, S. (2001). Anodic hydrogenation of iron in a carbonate-bicarbonate solution. Materials
Science, 37, 491–498.
Eurasian Journal of Science & Engineering
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Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
27
Engineering and Microstructures Characteristics of Low Calcium Fly
Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete
Akram S. Mahmoud1 & Ganjeena J. Khoshnaw
2 & Faten I. Mahmood
3
1Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq
2Erbil Technical institute, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq
3Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Anbar, Iraq
Correspondence: Akram S. Mahmoud, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: April 11, 2017 Accepted: May 22, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p27
Abstract: This paper reports an experimental study on some mechanical properties and durability
characteristics for geopolymer concrete. The mechanical properties were (compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength and bonding strength). While the durability characteristics included
(permeability, water absorption and exposure to sulphate attack). Also study in-depth microstructure
of concrete by the SEM test. All these tests conducted for both geopolymer and normal concrete at 28
days, to show the difference in behavior for the tow concretes. Results show that the compressive
strength for geopolymer concrete gain most of its strength at early age as compared with normal
concrete, also the results indicate that the bond performance of geopolymer concrete higher than
normal concrete by 18.7% and thus proves its application for construction. Geopolymer concrete have
good durability comparison with normal concrete, it has shown less permeability, water absorption
than normal concrete with high resistance to sulphate attack compared with normal concrete. In
addition to that SEM test results show difference in microstructure between geopolymer and normal
concrete.
Keywords: Geopolymer Concrete, Durability, Bonding Strength, SEM
1. Introduction
Environmental pollution is one of the major problems today. Manufacture of O.P.C produce 1 ton
of CO2 for all 1 tone of O.P.C (Davidovits, 1994; McCaffrey, 2002; Mehta, 2001; Malhotra, 2002).
For this reason an attention is given to industrial waste utilization to building construction due to
their advantages of greenhouse gases reduction from Portland cement production. Fly ash is
produced as a residual by the combustion of coal. Due to its availability worldwide, disposal
remains a challenge. Sustainable construction practice aims at utilizing these waste materials as
construction materials. To save the environment from global warming and to prevent further
depletion of natural resources, Geopolymer concrete (G.P.C) is an alternative as it totally replaces
cement with waste materials such as fly ash.
Geopolymer concrete consists of materials of geological origin or by – product materials such as
fly ash that is rich in silicon and aluminum (Davidovits, 1999). The name geopolymer was formed
by a French Professor Davidovits in 1978 to represent a broad range of materials characterized by
networks of inorganic molecules (Geopolymer Institute, 2010). The geopolymers depend on
thermally activated natural materials like Metakaolinite or industrial byproducts like fly ash or slag
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to provide a source of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al). These Silicon and Aluminum is dissolved in
an alkaline activating solution and subsequently polymerizes into molecular chains and become the
binder. In geopolymer concrete water is not involved in the chemical reaction of geopolymer
concrete and instead water is expelled during curing and subsequent drying. This is in contrast to
the hydration reactions that occur when Portland cement is mixed with water, which produce the
primary hydration products calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. This difference has a
significant impact on the mechanical and chemical properties of the resulting geopolymer concrete,
and also renders it more resistant to heat, water ingress, alkali–aggregate reactivity, and other types
of chemical attack (Rangan, 2008). In the case of geopolymers made from fly ash, the role of
calcium in these systems is very important, because its presence can result in flash setting and
therefore must be carefully controlled (Rangan, 2008). The source material is mixed with an
activating solution that provides the alkalinity (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide are often
used) needed to liberate the Si and Al and possibly with an additional source of silica (sodium
silicate is most commonly used). The temperature during curing is very important, and depending
upon the source materials and activating solution, heat often must be applied to facilitate
polymerization, although some systems have been developed that are designed to be cured at room
temperature (Davidovits, 2008). It can be observed from international researchers that the
geopolymer concrete has not been studied much in detail in Iraq. In this work 4 geopolymer
concrete mixes with 100% replacement of O.P.C. are studied. The production of geopolymer
concrete consist of 75% - 80% by mass of aggregate, which is bounded by a geopolymer paste
formed by the reaction of the silicon and aluminum in fly ash with the alkaline liquid made up of
sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution with addition of super plasticizer
2. Objective And Scope
The main objective of this study is evaluated durability properties and bond behavior of
geopolymer concrete mixture. In addition to that making workable and high strength geopolymer
concrete containing fly ash without use of ordinary Portland cement and to prove if the geopolymer
concrete useful in construction application.
3. Significance
This paper aims to reduce the use of ordinary Portland cement and to improve the usage of the
other by product materials such as fly ash. This product helps in reducing the carbon emissions
caused by the conventional concrete. This also produces high strength concretes with the use of
nominal mixes when compared to conventional concrete.
4. Materials Used In Experimental Program
4.1 Cement
Cement used in this study was O.P.C (type I) manufactured by mass cement company in Iraq, this
cement conforms to the Iraqi standards (Iraqi Specification, 1984). Table (1) shows chemical
composition of cement.
Table 1: Chemical composition of cement (mass %)
I.M L.O.I L.S.F SO3 MgO Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO SiO2
1.16 1.11 0.86 2.37 1.92 3.17 5.21 62.83 22.20
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4.2 Fly Ash
Fly ash used in this study was low calcium class F obtained from power station Iskanderun in
Turkey this type of fly ash conforms to ASTM C 618 (ASTM, 2005) requirement. Table (2) shows
the chemical composition of fly ash as determined by X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis
Table 2: Composition of class f fly ash as determined by (XRF) (mass %)
L.O.I Fe2O3 MnO CaO K2O SO3 P2O5 SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Na2O
3.34 11.72 0.14 7.93 1.56 0.37 0.16 47.69 25.39 1.27 0.08
4.3 Alkaline Liquid
Sodium silicate solution which is the weight ratio of SiO2/Na2O equal to 2.4, Na2O% 13.4%,
SiO2% 32.5% and water 54.1% and sodium hydroxide that is used in this work in pellet form
(NaOH with 99% purity), was dissolved in a distilled water in order to avoid the effect of unknown
contaminants in the mixing water
4.4 Super Plasticizer
The type of superplasticizer based on modified sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate
4.5 Aggregate
Natural sand was used with maximum size 4.75mm having specific gravity 2.67 and the coarse
aggregate was crushed gravel with maximum size of 14 mm. The aggregate met Iraqi standard
specification (Iraqi Specification, 1984).
5. Experimental Program
5.1 Mixing, Casting and Curing of Geopolymer Concrete
After preparation all ingredients of geopolymer mixes. It can be started to mix the dry material
(aggregate and the fly ash) together in a pan mixer for 3 minutes. Then super plasticizer was mixed
together with alkaline liquid, to form the final alkaline liquid then added to the dry materials in the
mixer and the mixing continued for another 3-4 minutes (Hardjito & Rangan, 2005; Rangan, 2010).
The fresh concrete had a cohesive consistency and was shiny in appearance, the mixture was cast in
a molds with a manual strokes in addition to a vibrating table. After casting immediately the
samples were covered by a film and left in laboratory temperature for the specified rest period
(Rangan, 2010). The specimen then cured in an oven at as specified temperature 70°C for a
selected period of time 24 hr in accordance with the specified test variables. The aim of covering
the samples was to reduce the loss of water due to excessive evaporation during curing at an
elevated temperature. The samples removed from the oven after specified curing time temperature
and kept in the molds for 5-6 hours in order to avoid drastic changes of the environment. The
specimens then removed from the molds left to air dry at room temperature until the specified age
test.
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5.2 Design Mixes
Tables (3) & (4) represent normal and geopolymer concrete mixes respectively.
Table 3: Normal concrete mixes
Mi.
No.
Coarse aggregate
Kg/m3
Fine
Agg.
cement W/C curing Slump
mm
f´c
MPa
12.5
mm
10
mm
5
mm
7
day
28
day
N.C1 300 400 495 670 400 0.36 water 6 30.7 43.6
N.C2 300 400 495 670 400 0.4 water 15 28.7 42.4
N.C3 300 400 495 670 400 0.45 water 48 27.1 40.8
Table 4: Geopolymer concrete mixes
G.C4 G.C3 G.C2 G.C1 Consisting
300
400
495
300
400
495
300
400
495
300
400
495
12.5mm
10mm
5mm
Coarse
aggregate
670 670 670 670 Sand
400 400 400 400 Fly ash
51 41 41 41 NaOH
8 8 8 8 (M)
129 103 103 103 Na2SiO3
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 S/H
0.45 0.36 0.36 0.36 A/F
1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% S.P
----- 20 30 40 E-w
1hr 1hr 1hr 1hr R.P
70C 70C 70C 70C Curing T.
44 69 172 196 Slump
38.1 29.0 22.9 22.2 f′c at 7day
38.8 30.7 23.9 22.3 f′c at 28day
M: Molarity of NaOH solution, S/H: Sodium silicate solution/sodium hydroxide solution
A/L: Alkaline liquid /fly ash, E-w: Extra water, R.P: Rest period, S.P: Superplasticizer
5.3 Mechnaical Properties of Geopolymer Concrete
The mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete include of compressive strength test was
determined according to BS 1881 (1989), using 100 mm cubes. This test conducted for normal and
geopolymer concrete at 7 & 28 days. Figures (1) & (2) represent pattern of failure for normal
concrete and geopolymer concrete respectively. Splitting tensile strength test is carried out
according to ASTM C 496 (2004), cylinder of (100x200) mm. Figure (3) represent splitting tensile
strength for geopolymer concrete. It is calculated as follows:
ft = (2P ) / (π DL) (1)
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Where: ft: Splitting tensile strength (MPa), p: Applied load at failure (N), D: Diameter of cylinder
specimen (mm), L: Length of cylinder specimen (mm)
Bonding strength conducted according to RILEM RC6 (1996), cubic specimen having
(150×150×150) mm. The that used in this test has the diameter (16) mm and the embedment was
(150 )mm. Figures (4) & (5) represent the machine of the test and the details of the specimens after
test for normal and geopolymer concrete. The bonding strength ( ) is calculated by dividing the
tensile force by the surface area of the steel bar embedded in concrete as follow
= F/(π ×d × L) (2)
Where:- F: tensile load at failure (N), d & L: diameter (mm) and embedment length (mm) of the
reinforcing steel bar respectively.
Figure 1: (a) & (b) Pattern of failure Figure 2: Pattern of failure for Figure 3: Splitting
for N.C for G.P.C strength for G.P.C
Figure 4: Pullout test machine Figure 5: A) N.C & B) G.P.C failures due to bond test
5.4 Durability of Geopolymer Concrete
5.4.1 Permeability Test
The scope of this test is to be measured the depth of penetration of water under pressure of concrete
hardening, according to the BS EN 12390 standard (2000). This test was carried out for
geopolymer and normal concrete by the of use three samples (150×150×150) mm cube size. As
shown in figures (6) & (7) the maximum depth of penetration measure in mm. Permeability
coefficient can be calculated from the equation (3) as follow:
K = L / T (3)
A B
A B
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Where :-K : Permeability Coefficient in mm/sec , L : Length in mm & T : Time in sec
Figure 5: Permeability test machine Figure 6: ( a) N.C & (b) G.P.C Permeability after test
5.4.2 Water Absorption
Water absorption test is conducted according to the specification ASTM C642 (2004). Three
samples for each type of concrete. Water absorption was calculated as follow:
Water Absorption % = [( B – A ) / A] ×100 (4)
where: A: Oven dry mass at a temperature of 105°C for not less than 24 h.
B: Saturated mass after immersing the specimen in water for not less than 48 h.
5.4.3 Sulphate Resistance Test
After 28 days the samples of geopolymer and normal concrete have been put in sulphate solution.
MgSO4.7H2O was the type sulphate that used in this study. The time of exposure of samples to the
sulphate solution was 28 days.Figures(8) & (9) show the samples during and after exposure to
sulphate solution in addition to that figure (10) represent the all samples of this study. The visual
appearance, change in weight and the residual compressive strength were measured, the change in
weight compute as follow:
Change In Weight (%)=[(B-A) /A] × 100 (5)
where:-
A:Initial weight of sample after curing period & B :weight of specimen after exposure
While the change in compressive strength was calculated as a residual compressive strength based
on the following formula:-
Residual Compressive Strength (%)= [D/C] × 100 (6)
where:-
C: Initial compressive strength ay age of 28 days & D: Compressive strength after exposure
A B
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Figure 8: Sample
during exposure
Figure 9: Samples after
exposure
Figure 10: Sample of this
study
5.5 Microstructure of Geopolymer and Normal Concrete
Using Sem Test
Figure (11) represents machine of SEM test Its name VEGA
III ,TESCAN. The test is conducted in the labs of Ministry of
Science and Technology in Iraq
6. Results and Discussions
Normal concrete mix NO. 3 is selected with Geopolymer
concrete mix NO. 4 to work all the tests among other mixes because these two mixes are equivalent
in compressive strength at 28 days age.
6.1 Mechanical Properties
Geopolymer concrete attain most of its strength at early age usually 7 days (Davidovits, 1994). Test
results show that the For 7 days the compressive strength was 98% from the 28 age test, while in
normal concrete the 7 days compressive strength were 66.4%from 28 days compressive strength as
shown in tables (3) , (4) and in figure (12). Splitting tensile strength results for normal and
geopolymer concrete at 7 & 28 days as shown in table (5). It’s shown that geopolymer concrete
splitting tensile strenghth at 7 days represent 90.2% from its value at 28 days, while in normal
concrete at 7 days splitting tensile strength represent 80.9% from its value at 28 days as shown in
figure (13).
Table 5: Splitting tensile strength results for normal & geopolymer concrete
Age
day
Normal concrete
Splitting strength MPa
Geopolymer concrete
Splitting strength MPa
7 3.4 3.7
28 4.2 4.1
Figure 11: SEM machine
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Figure 12: Compressive strength for Figure 13: Splitting strength for
N.C & G.P.C N.C &G.P.C
Bonding strength test results shown in table (6) noticed that G.P.C bonding strength higher than
bonding strength N.C by 18.7%. The higher bonding strength for geopolymer concrete may be
attributed to the high bonding between the aggregates and alkaline solution (Doguparti, 2015).
Figure (14) illustrates the difference in bonding strength between geopolymer and normal concrete.
Table 6: Bonding strength result for fly ash_ based G.P.C&N.C
Geopolymer concrete Normal concrete
P kN at
28 day
Average MPa
Average P kN at
28 day
Average MPa
Averag
88.38
89.5
11.72
11.87
69.5
76.1
9.2
10
86.82 11.51 80.0 10.6
93.29 12.4 79.0 10.4
Figure 14: Bonding strength for N.C and G.P.C at 28 day
0
10
20
30
40
50
27.1
38.1
com
pre
ssiv
e st
rength
MP
a
types of concrete
7 day
28 day
0
1
2
3
4
5
3.4 3.7
spli
ttin
g s
tren
gth
MP
a
types of concrete
7 day
28 day
0
5
10
15
N.C G.P.C
10 11.87
bon
din
g s
tren
gth
in
MP
a
Type of Concrete
N.C N.C G.P.C G.P.C
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6.2 Durability Tests
6.2.1 Permeability Test Result
Table (7) shows the test results of permeability for both G.P.C & N.C. From the results it is clear
that permeability of geopolymer concrete less than normal concrete by 64.6%. It is due to dense
microstructure of geopolymer concrete than normal concrete. Figure (15) shows the difference in
permeability for fly ash-based geopolymer concrete and normal concrete.
Table 7: Permeability test results for both G.P.C&N.C
6.2.2 Water Absorption Test Results
Water absorption test results for G.P.C & N.C are shown that geopolymer concrete water
absorption was less than normal concrete by 38% that is due to less porous nature of G.P.C.
because fly ash is fine than O.P.C. (Luhar & Khandelwal, 2015). And according to Nevill (2012)
most good concretes have an absorption value well below 10%by mass. Results are shown in table
(8) and in figure (16).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
N. C G.P.C
115
40
per
mea
bil
ity m
m
type of concrete
Geopolymer concrete
Normal concrete
Per.
mm
K.coefficient
mm/sec
Aver.
mm/sec
Per.
mm
K.coefficient
mm/sec
Aver..
mm/sec
45 1.73×10-4
1.53×
10-4
130 5.0×10-4
4.36×
10-4
45 1.73×10
-4 120 4.62×10
-4
30 1.15×10-4
90 3.47×10-4
Figure 15: Different in
permeability for N.C & G.P.C
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Table 8:
Water absorption results for G.P.C & N
Geopolymer
concrete
Normal concrete
Water
absorption
%
Averag
%
Water
absorption
%
Averag
%
2
2
2.6
3.23 1.9 3.4
2.1 3.7
Figure 16: Water absorption for N.C & G.P.C
6.2.3 Sulphate Exposure Test Results
The visual appearance for the surface of samples that exposure to sulphate attack received weight
deposits throughout the duration of exposure, these deposits were soft and Powderly as shape flaky
or needle at the early age. While the change in weight results are shown in table (9) & in figure
(17) these increasing in weight might be due to white deposits within the surface pores (Patil et al.,
2014). Table (10) & figure (18) illustrate the results of changes in compressive strength, which
refers to decrease in compressive strength for both geopolymer and normal concrete. Ca(OH) that
is produced from hydration of cement did not exist in geopolymer concrete for this reason the
attack of salts and sulphate is less in geopolymer concrete than in N.C (Mehta & Monteiro, 2006).
Table 9: Weight Gain for the fly ash-based Geopolymer Concrete and Normal Concrete immersed
in MgSO4.7H2O
Geopolymer concrete Normal concrete
Sample
No.
Wight gain
%
Average % Sample
No.
Wight
gain%
Average
%
1 1.33
0.94
1 1.5
1.64 2 0.85 2 1.6
3 0.64 3 1.7
Table 10: Compressive strength for fly ash _based Geopolymer Concrete at 28
days immersed in MgSO4.7H2O
N.C
G.P.C
0
1
2
3
4 3.23% 2%
wat
er a
bso
rpti
on %
types of concrete
Geopolymer Concrete
Normal Concrete
f´c
before
Expos
MPa
f´c
after
Exposur
MPa
F׳c
Residual
%
Change
%
f´c
befor
exposure
MPa
f´c
after
exposure
MPa
F׳c
Residual
%
Change
%
38.8
36.3 93.5 - 6.4
40.8
35.0 85.7 -14.2
37.9 97.6 - 2.31 34 83.3 -16.6
36.2 93.3 - 6.7 35.8 87.7 -12.25
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Figure 17: Weight gain for N.C&G.P.C Figure 18: Residual strength for N.C& G.P.C
6.3 Microstructure of Normal and Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Using Sem Test
N.C SEM test results are illustrated in figure (19). Figure (19)a with magnification 5000 X explain
C-S-H gel (calcium silicate hydrate), figure(19)b with magnification10000 X represent Ca(OH)2
that considers also gel, which results from the hydration of the silicate in cement and because of
its shape roofing hexagon cause weakness in resisting cement paste and the last picture(19)c with
magnification 50000 explain calcium sulphote aluminate or etrringite ( C3AH6 ,C4AH8 ) that
represents from hydration of aluminate in cement that takes the shape needle and prism shape, the
un-hydrated particle of cement seem clear white point.
A) magnification 5000X B ( magnification10000X C) magnification 50000X
Figure 19: SEM test results of normal concrete
Figure (20) illustrates geopolymer concrete SEM test results, with magnification 5000X infigure
(20)a show spaces, pores, micro cracks appeared in clear shape due to loading during compressive
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
N.CG.P.C
1.64%
0.94%
wei
ght
gai
n %
types of concrete
80
85
90
95
N.CG.P.C
85.56%
94.8%
resi
du
al c
om
pre
ssiv
e s
tre
ngt
h%
types of concrete
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strength or because shrinkage due to the water evaporation during the curing ,as well un –reacted
fly ash particles can be observed. In figure (20) b that has the magnification 10000 X can notice
crystallesxisting (needle shape particles) these consist because the concentration of sodium
hydroxide orabundant alkali solution surrounded the fly ash particles in the geopolymer paste, the
unreacted alkali precipitated formed the needle shape particles. Also the figure show gel phase and
ITZ between fly ash particles and the gel. Also fig.(20)c shows the growth of hydration product on
un-hydrated fly ash particle.
(a) magnification 5000X (b) magnification10000X C) magnification 50000X
Figure 20: SEM test results of geopolymer concrete
7. Conclusion
(1) The G.P.C mixes can be produced easily as alternative materials of concrete, also using the
same tools that are used in normal concrete
(2) Higher sustainability achievement can be acquired from fly ash _based G.P.C rather than
O.P.C, because the resistance of durability tests of G.P.C is more than N.C
(3) Compressive strength of geopolymer concrete at early age is more higher than normal
concrete, it is equivalent to approximately 1.4 to normal concrete compressive strength,
because of enhancement in physical properties of geopolymer concrete ingredient such as
the finesses, and including the pozzolanic materials.
Splitting tensile strength for G.P.C higher than N.C at age 7 days by 8.8% .
(4) Geopolymer concrete can be used as a construction material, because it have a good
compressive strength in addition other mechanical properties.
(5) G.P.C has a higher bonding strength of reinforcement than N.C it is higher by 18.7% than
normal concrete, therefore it can be used in reinforced sections and members.
(6) Fly ash _based G.PC compressive strength increase with decrease of the extra-water.
(7) Geopolymer concrete shows dense microstructure and this explain the less water
absorption and permeability than normal concrete by 38% and 64.6% respectively.
(8) SEM test studied showed that the morphology of fly ash geopolymer gel contain un-
reacted fly ash particles, micro cracks and pores embedded in a continuous matrix, but it is
show that micro structure of G.P.C more dense than N.CUSIONS
Growth of hydration
product on
unhydrated FA
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References
ASTM C 496, (2004). Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength for Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens. American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM C 618, (2005). Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash Row or Calcined Natural Pozzolan
for use in Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM C 642, (2004). Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption and Voids in Hardened
Concrete. American Society for Testing and Materials
B.V. Rangan, (2010). Proceedings of the International Workshop on Geopolymer Cement and
Concrete. Allied Publishers Private Limited, Mumbai: India.
BS 1881: Part 116, (1989). Method for Determination of Compressive Strength of Concrete
Cubes. British Standards Institution.
BS EN 12390 – 8 (2000). Standard method for depth of penetration of water under pressure.
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Davidovits, J. (1994). Global Warming Impact on the Cement and Aggregates Industries. World
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Davidovits, J. (2008). Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications. Institut Géopolymère, Saint-
Quentin, France.
Doguparti, R. (2015). A study on bond strength of geopolymer concrete. International Journal of
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Geopolymer Institute. (2010). What Is a Geopolymer? Introduction. Institut Géopolymère, Saint-
Quentin, France. Retrieved on January 29, 2010, at
http://www.geopolymer.org/science/introduction
Hardjito, D., &Rangan, B. V. (2005). Development and Properties of Low Calcium Fly Ash Based
Geopolymer Concrete. Research Report GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University
of Technology.
Iraqi Specification, No. 5/ (1984). Cement tests.
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Construction.
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concrete. SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering (SSRG-IJCE), 2(8), 1-10.
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Magazine, Special Issue, 15-19
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Mehta, P. (2001). Reducing the Environmental Impact of Concrete. ACI Concrete International, 23
(10) 61-66.
Neville, A. (2012). Properties of Concrete. 5th Edition, Wiley, New York: Longman.
Patil, A., Chore, H., & Dode, P. (2014). Effect of curing condition on strength of geopolymer
concrete. Advances in Concrete Construction, 2(1), 29-37.
Rangan, B. V (2008). Low-Calcium, Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete. Concrete
Construction Engineering Handbook. Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL
RILEM RC 6. (1996). Recommendations for the testing and of constructions material bond test for
reinforcement steel. 2pull-out test, p. 3.
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Volume 2, Issue 2; June, 2017
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5G Next Generation Mobile Wireless Technology with Massive MIMO
Continue 4G Revolution, Key Technologies and Challenges
Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen1
1Salahaddin University, College of Engineering, Electrical Engineering Department, Erbil, Iraq
Correspondence: Jalal Jamal Hamad Ameen, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: March 3, 2017 Accepted: April 19, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p40
Abstract: Mobile telecommunication system has grown very fast by motivating the companies to plan
continuously and work from first generation until fourth generation, many companies in this field
planned and started their scenarios toward fifth generation (5G) mobile, this is because of the need of
higher data rate transmission and wireless system radio network, many challenges expected will be
problem during this project, this paper is an attempt to contribute in this field to give more details
about these challenges and then toward overcome these problems in order to give continuous working
according to the time table planned which is about 2020 and beyond.
Keywords: Mobile System, 4G mobile, 5G mobile, MIMO System
1. Introduction
One of the fastest growing and most demanding communication industries is mobile
telecommunications. The stages of evolution of these systems are known as “generations”, 1G
system process began with the designs in the 1970s. The earliest systems were implemented based
on analog technology and the basic cellular structure of mobile communications. Global system for
mobile communications (GSM) was the second generation (2G) that was first used in the early
1990s in Europe. GSM provides voice and limited data services, GSM uses digital modulation
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). Adding the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) 2G
became 2.5G through which the user was able to access to the network but limited access.
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) which is third generation mobile system
(3G) has been designed with higher data rate transmission and different multiple access code,
division multiple access (CDMA) system, and Wide-Band CDMA (WCDMA) became 3.5G,
because of the demand of more higher data rate and wide access to the internet, fourth generation
(4G) starting with Long Term Evolution (LTE) and then advanced LTE has been designed which
data rate indoor and outdoor rates were 1Gbps and 100 Mbps respectively. For higher data rate
transmission, mobile companies and designers planned for fifth generation (5G) which was
expected be complemented beyond 2020. Table 1 is the major mobile evolution and standards from
1G to 5G, it is given that all different parameters and access with different technologies, 1G was
analog system, from 2G until 4G are digital, 5G also will be digital but with different features.
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Table 1: All mobile generation comparison
Source: 5G Mobile Technology by Spakal & Kadam, 2013
2. Mobile Wireless Technology
The 5G wireless communication system will be a converged system with multiple radio access
technologies integrated together. It can support a wide range of applications and services to
comprehensively satisfy the requirements of the information society by the year 2020 and beyond.
From the technology perspective, 5G will be the continuous enhancement and evolution of the
present radio access technologies, and also, the development of novel radio access technologies to
meet the increasing demand of future. 5G can be characterized as data, connectivity and user
experience (Osserian, 2013), as a technical requirement of the 5G, preliminary technical
requirements of 5G are given in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Key capabilities of 5G
Source: 5G Mobile Technology by Spakal & Kadam, 2013
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3. Major 5G Activities by Companies
Many mobile and wireless companies started their proposals and plans toward 5G, according to
their plans, about 2020 5G will be ready for the final test, for example:
a. Mobile and wireless communications enablers for twenty twenty (2020) information
society (METIS ) the European group started the project on November 2012.
b. The China IMT 2020 promotion group began the project on February 2013, the 5G –
related activities in China are primarily centered on two main for a. these two for a are the
IMT-2020 promotion group and Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) 863-5G
project.
c. Korean 5G Forum as an ambitious plan started on June 2013.
d. The Japanese ARIB established new Ad Hoc started their project on October 2013. The
association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) “2020 and beyond” Ad Hoc group
was established in September 2013 with the objective to study system concepts, basic
functions and distribution/architecture of mobile communication in 2020 and beyond,
additionally, the Tokyo Institute of Technology in cooperation with NTT DoCoMo is
currently undertaking research for a new 5G network with the intent of reaching 10 Gbps
transmission speeds.
e. The other European Union projects like 5GNOW, LTE and LTE-advanced leverage
orthogonal wave forms (OFDMA). The 5th Generation Non-Orthogonal waveforms for
asynchronous signaling (5GNOW) will investigate non-orthogonal waveform and develop
a proof of concept with hardware demonstrator, 5G PPP. The 5G Infrastructure Public
Private Partnership (5G PPP) is part of Horizon 2020. 5G PPP is a joint initiative between
the European Information and Communications Technology (ICT) industry, small/medium
enterprises (SMEs) in the research community and the European Commission to rethink
the infrastructure and create the next generation of communication networks and services
that will provide ubiquitous super fast connectivity and seamless service delivery in all
circumstances, COMBO (Convergence of fixed and Mobile Broadband access/aggregation
networks) will propose and investigate new integrated approaches for Fixed/Mobile
Converged (FMC) broadband access/aggregation networks for different scenarios.
COMBO architecture will be bases on joint optimization of fixed and mobile access /
aggregation networks around the innovative concept of next generation point of presence
(NG-POP), iJOINT (Internetworking and Joint Design of an open access and backhaul
network architecture for small cells based on cloud networks) introduces the novel concept
of RAN as a Service (RANAAS), where RAN functionality is flexibility centralized
through an open IT platform based upon a cloud infrastructure. Massive MIMO for
Efficient Transmission (MAMMOET) is to advance the development of Massive MIMO.
Mobile Opportunistic Traffic Offloading (MOTO) proposes a traffic offloading
architecture that exploits in a synergistic way a diverse set of offloading schemes. Figure 2
shows the European user equipment program structure.
f. 5G related activities in America like SWARM Lab is a research program at UC Berkeley,
Berkeley wireless research center (BWRC), Broadband wireless access and application
center (BWAC), center for wireless systems and applications (CWSA), Intel strategic
research alliance (ISRA),..etc.
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Figure 2: User equipment European 5G program structure
4. 5G Key Technologies
Mobile networks will increasingly become the primary means of network access for person to
person and person to machine connectivity, these networks will need to match advances in fixed
networking in terms of delivered quality of service, reliability and security, to do so, 5G
technologies will need to be capable of delivering fiber like 19 Gbps speeds to make possible ultra-
high definition visual communications and immersive multimedia interactions. These technologies
will depend on ultra-wide bandwidth with sub-millisecond latencies, the main 5G key technologies
can be summarized as:
a. The frequency spectrum for 5G system expected will be millimeter wave communication
30-300 GHz bands, therefore, the cell coverage will be smaller than that in 4G and more
base stations (C-Node-B), the letter C means cloud, and lower powered radio access nodes
and then picocells and femtocells.
b. MIMO system with higher order spatial multiplexing (Massive MIMO system), LTE
MIMO is 2x2 , LTE advanced is 4x4, 4G mobile is 8x8 MIMO, for 5G will be 24x24 and
higher may be about 64x64 which leads to higher size, a comparison between MIMO for
4G and expected for 5G given in results section in this paper.
c. To the boost spectral and energy efficiency, new concepts will be in 5G because traditional
methods for radio resource and interference management (RRIM) in single and two tier
networks may not be efficient.
d. Smart cities, 5G will provide the foundational infrastructure for building smart cities,
which push mobile network performance and capability requirements to their extremes,
low latency and extremely high reliability, however, there will also be essential
requirements for the likes of mobile industrial automation, vehicular connectivity and other
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applications. Applications like smart sensors and text based messaging are examples of
extremely high volume applications that will require very low data rates and will not be
sensitive to latency.
e. Necessary break through, new breakthrough in multiple access and advanced waveform
technologies combined with advances in coding and modulation algorithms are essential
for realizing continuing improvements in spectral efficiency, this will accommodate the
necessary scalability for massive connectivity and drastic reductions in access latency
multi-Carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) expected the most efficient multiple access for 5G.
5. 5G Expected Challenges
The main five expected challenges for 5G system are: great service in crowd, very high data rate,
ubiquitous things communicating (very low energy, cost, massive number of devices), mobility and
very low latency, these five challenges are summarized in Figure 3.
Figure 3: The five challenges and scenarios for 5G system
Source: The 5G and Wireless Communications System by Osserian, 2013
6. Results for Some Expected 5G Features
This paper is an attempt to contribute in 5G mobile design and plan which expected will be
completed about 2020, many conferences and papers have been done and published in related to
this field, as mentioned in this paper, the main key technologies for 5G are massive MIMO, higher
data rate (amazingly fast), lower latency compared to other mobile systems specially 4G, about
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MIMO system. Figure 4 shows the ergodic capacity (in bits/transmission) for 4G system 8x8
versus signal to noise ratio (in dB). Figure 5 shows the same relation as in Figure 4 but for 5G
MIMO system 64x64, as shown ergodic capacity in bits per transmission for 5G will be about eight
times that of 4G, this is because the higher number of channels use higher number of transmitting
and receiving antennas.
Figure 4: Ergodic capacity vs average signal to noise ratio (SNR) for 8x8 MIMO 4G system
Figure 5: Ergodic capacity vs average signal to noise ratio (SNR) for 64x64 MIMO 5G system
Another key technology is the amazing fast (higher data rate) for 5G, Figure 6 shows the
comparison between 4G and 5G expected data rates which is relation between data rate in Mbps
and signal to noise ratio (SNR). It is shown that 5G expected data rate will be about six times that
of 4G system, this is because the massive MIMO system and higher bandwidth with smarter radio
networks.
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Figure 6: Data rate vs SNR for 4G and 5G systems comparison
Because of higher frequency bandwidth for 5G system, path loss will be higher and the cell
coverage will be less compared to that in 2G, 3G and 4G. Figure 7 shows the relation between path
loss in dB and frequency, it is shown that 5G received power will be decreased because of higher
path loss, C-Node-B base stations coverage are smaller causes the use of higher number of base
stations (C-Node-B) which leads more difficult cell planning and higher interferences (co-channel
and adjacent channel interferences).
Figure 7: Received power vs cell radius for different frequencies
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7. Conclusion
Next generation mobile system (5G) will be the integration for other mobile systems, there will be
some challenges should be solved during the projects toward this system, this paper is an attempt to
contribute in this field to give more details will be needed 5G, as shown in the results, ergodic
capacity for 5G will be about eight times greater than that for 4G systems because of the use of
massive MIMO system, in addition, the data rate for 5G will be greater about six times than that for
4, but the cell radius will be smaller in 5G, therefore, higher number of base stations this is because
of higher frequency bandwidth for 5G system.
References
Jain, S., Agrawal, N., & Awasthi, M. (2013). 5G–the future mobile wireless communication
networks. Advance in Electronic and Electric Engineering, 3(5), 569-574.
Osserian, A. (2013). The 5G and Wireless Communications system. ETSI Future Mobile Summit,
World class standards. Ericson METIS project coordinator.
Singh, S., & Singh, P. (2012). Key concepts and network architecture for 5G mobile technology.
International journal of scientific research engineering and technology (IJSRET), 1(5),
165-170.
Sood, R., & Garge, A. (2014). Digital Society from 1G to 5G: A comparative study. International
Journal of Application, Innovation in Engineering and Management, 3(2), 186-193.
Spakal, R., & Kadam, S. (2013). 5G Mobile Technology. International Journal of Advanced
Research in Computer Engineering and Technology (IJARCET), 2(2), 568-571.
Taduzarov, A. (2011). Protocols and algorithms for next generation 5G Mobile systems. Network
Protocols and Algorithms, 3(1), 94-114.
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Wavelet Transform based Score Fusion for Face Recognition using SIFT
Descriptors
Musa M.Ameen1 & Bilal Ahmed
2 & Muhammed Anwar
3 & Payam M.Hussein
4
1Computer Engineering Dept., Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq
2,3,4Information Technologies Dept., Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq
Correspondence: Musa Ameen, Ishik University, erbil, Iraq. Email: [email protected]
Received: February 15, 2017 Accepted: April 12, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p48
Abstract: One of the main areas in computer vision is automatic face recognition which deals with
detecting human face autonomously. Developments and the progress in the field of face recognition
have shown that many face recognition systems and applications the automated methods outperform
humans. The conventional Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) is used in face recognition where
they provide high performances. However, this performance can be improved further by transforming
the input into different domains before applying SIFT algorithm. Hence, we apply Discrete Wavelet
Transform (DWT) or Gabor Wavelet Transform (GWT) at the input face images, which provides
denser and extra information to be used by the conventional SIFT algorithm. Matching scores of SIFT
from each subimage is fused before making final decision. Simulations show that the proposed
approaches based on wavelet transforms using SIFT provides very high performance compared to the
conventional algorithm.
Keywords: SIFT, Face Recognition, Wavelet Transform, DWT, GWT, Score Fusion
1. Introduction
Face recognition is one of the most common biometric systems. Due to its higher acceptability rate,
researchers have developed various algorithms for face recognition purpose. The process of
recognition using these algorithms has been described as a difficult task because of the similarity
nature or shapes of human faces (Betta et al., 2011). Despite the difficulties encountered in
designing these systems, several reasons contributed to the enormous attention in automatic digital
image processing and video processing in a different type of applications, which include wide
variety and availability of cheap and powerful embedded computing and desktop systems. Also, it
has been described as one of the best applications of image processing and analysis (Zou et al.,
2007). Different statistical methods and algorithms such as Principal Component Analysis or
Eigenface (PCA) (Zakariya et al., 2011), Local Binary Pattern (LBP) (Jiang & Guo, 2007) and
Independent Component Analysis (ICA) (Jiang et al., 2008) algorithms have been developed for
face recognition purposes.
Due to continuous research, a significant improvement in recognition performance is obtained over
years (Borade & Adgaonkar, 2011). Characteristic faces are more easily recognized than typical
faces. Low frequency bands contain information that determines the sex of the specific subjects,
while recognition of individuals depends on the high frequency features. The global description is
determined by the low frequency, while the finer descriptions high frequency modules give to the
finer information required for the identification procedure (Yunyi et al., 2009; Shen et al., 2007;
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Kasinski et al., 2008). The core task of this paper work is to investigate how the recognition
performance can be enhanced and speeded up. Therefore, image transformation approach is used as
a pre-processing stage before the feature extraction stage.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows; section 2 briefly describes SIFT algorithm, wavelet
transform and proposed approach, section 3 shows the results using PUT face database and
pertaining discussions, finally section 4 includes the conclusion.
2. Feature Extraction Method
2.1 Scale-Invariant Feature Transform
Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) was developed by D. Lowe (Eleyan et al., 2008). SIFT is
able to detect and extract distinctive features from different face images in order to achieve robust
and stable matching between different face images of the same subject (person) with various facial
expressions, face poses, and the features extracted form face images are scale, illumination and
rotation invariance.
Figure 1 shows four important stages involved for detecting keypoints in the SIFT algorithm.
Figure 1: SIFT features extraction process.
In the initial stage a difference of Gaussian (DoG) (Lowe, 2004) was used to detect specific
features and points which are orientations and scale invariance. In the stage of localizing key
points, they are filtered with a predefined model which is based on their stability. A few
orientations are given to the results using local image gradient. In the final stage, around each key
point region; at different selected scales measurements applied on the image gradients. Figure 2
shows examples of key points extracted with SIFT features.
Figure 2: Interest points in face image.
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2.2 Wavelet Transform
2D-DWT and GWT are mostly used as tunable filters suitable in detecting and extracting
orientation information from the image. Apart from orientation, invariant to illumination property
makes them appropriate to capture phase information of the pixels. Additionally, it is also an
effective method to capture the texture of images. A Gabor wavelet filter is a Gaussian kernel
function modulated by a sinusoidal plane wave as in Equation (1).
( )
( ) ( )
x’ = x cos θ + y sin θ, (1)
y’ = y cos θ − x sin θ,
where f is the dominant frequency of the sinusoidal plane wave, α is the sharpness of the Gaussian
along the major axis parallel to the wave, θ is the anticlockwise rotation of the Gaussian and the
envelope wave, and β is the sharpness of the Gaussian minor axis perpendicular to the wave. γ = f/α
and η = f/β are used to keep frequency and sharpness ratio in constant state. The 2D Gabor wavelet
as defined in Equation (2) has Fourier transform:
( ) ( (( )
))
(2)
Figure 3 shows the magnitude and phase of the Gabor wavelets for 1 scale and 8 angels,
respectively. At all levels the wavelet is a Gaussian bandpass filter. Gabor wavelets have various
features and properties that could be used in different ways and applications. One of the most
distinctive and important features is directional selectivity. With this feature, one can orient Gabor
wavelets in any desired direction.
Image features that are aligned in the same direction respond strongly while the features that are in
other directions respond weakly. Space frequency analysis was used to detect local features
precisely in any face image. One of the best methods that can be used between spatial resolution
and frequency resolution is Gabor functions. the maximum amount of information can be extracted
from local regions of an image by Gabor wavelets using their optimal frequency-space localization
property (Eletan et al., 2008).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3: (a) The original image, (b) the magnitude and (c) the phase of the Gabor kernels at one
scale and eight orientations
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The 2D-DWT of a signal is performed by repeating the 2D analysis filter bank on the low pass sub
image. Here, in the processing of each scale four sub images are used instead of one. 2D wavelet
transform has relation with three wavelets. Repetition of the filtering and decimation process on
low-pass outputs made multiple levels (scales).
In Figure 4 DWT transformation applied on face image, outputs four different sub images, namely;
approximate, horizontal, vertical and diagonal.
Figure 4: 2D-DWT transform on face image
3. Proposed Approach
The proposed approach uses transformation of face images using DWT or GWT. SIFT is used to
extract features from generated sub images. Figure 5 describes the block diagram of our proposed
approach.
At first stage, face images transformed by applying DWT or GWT. Application of DWT or GWT
will generate 4 sub images or 8 sub images, respectively. Gabor wavelets have various features and
properties that could be used in different ways and applications. One of the most distinctive and
important features is directional selectivity. While DWT has limited directional selectivity
restricted to four namely; approximate, horizontal, vertical and diagonal. SIFT algorithm will be
applied on these sub images to get the interest key-points. Salient features will be extracted from
key-points. After comparison with sub images stored in the database, scores will be assigned to
each subject for each sub image. At final stage, the scores obtained from each sub image will be
fused as the final score and then decision will be made based on the highest recorded score.
Figure 5: The block diagram of the proposed approach
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4. Experimental Results
Experiments are performed to evaluate the performance of the proposed approach, and the results
are compared with that of using SIFT. The dataset we used in the experiment is PUT dataset
(Kasinski et al., 2008) were images have different head pose variations and are taken at different
times. There are 100 subjects with 10 images per subject making a total of 1000 images. For most
of the experiments in each dataset, 5 randomly chosen face images is considered as the gallery
(train) set and the remaining face images are considered as the probe (test) set.
In all of the experiments, performances of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT approaches are
compared using the average results of 10 runs of the program. At each run, different randomly
gallery images were chosen for each subject. At first experiment, SIFT was applied with 50% of
images are used in probe set while the rest are used as the gallery set. The results of using different
number of subjects are shown in Table 1. Just like other biometric systems increasing the number
of subjects will affect the performance of the system. With less number of subjects, we obtained
high performance (98.4% for 10 subjects). Increasing the number of subjects degraded the
performance of the system (93.9% for 100 subjects).
Table 1: Performance of SIFT using PUT face database
# of subjects Recognition Rate %
10 98.40
30 96.73
40 96.60
60 94.40
80 94.28
90 94.38
100 93.90
Average 95.52
In second experiment, we applied 1 scale and 2 scales transformations on images, using different
transformation filters (like Daubechies wavelets). Daubechies wavelets (db1, db2, db3, …)
numbers refers to the number of vanishing moments. Basically, the higher the number of vanishing
moments, the smoother the wavelet and longer the wavelet filter. For DWT-SIFT we can conclude
that there is approximately ~4% difference between 1 scale and 2 scales transformation. The
highest score goes to (db5) which was for 1-scale (88.92%) and 2-scales were (92.15%). Figure 6
shows differences between 1-scale and 2-scales transformation with different filters.
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Figure 6: Performance of DWT-SIFT with 1-scale and 2-scales transformation
In third experiment, the performance of our proposed approach was completely different when we
applied GWT on images before extracting features from it. 1 scale and 8 orientations were used. As
the resulting 8 subimages from GWT were complex, the SIFT did not work properly on real or
imaginary parts separately. To overcome this problem, we performed our approach using the
magnitude (GWT(Mag)-SIFT) or both magnitude and phase (GWT(Mag+Phs)-SIFT) of each subimage.
The performance of proposed approach is tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2: Recognition rate of GWT-SIFT using 1 scale and 8 orientations
# of Subjects GWT(Mag)-SIFT GWT(Mag+Phs)-SIFT
10 99.80 100.00
30 99.27 99.20
40 99.25 99.15
60 99.27 99.16
80 99.39 99.36
90 99.22 99.25
100 99.07 99.09
Average 99.32 99.32
The performance of proposed approach using phase of transformed images is ~4% higher than
conventional SIFT algorithm. The rate of recognition performance of proposed approach
decreasing slowly compared to SIFT. In forth experiment, different number of subjects in gallery
set is used to test the performance of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT. As shown in Figure 7 the
performance of GWT-SIFT was always higher compared to SIFT and DWT-SIFT.
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
db1 db2 db3 db4 db5 haar
Rec
og
nit
ion
Ra
te %
Wavelet Filters
1-scale 2-scales
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Figure 7: The performance of SIFT, DWT-SIFT and GWT-SIFT with different size of subjects
5. Conclusion
In this paper, SIFT was used to extract features from face images. The approach is based on
wavelet transforms which are proposed to improve the recognition performances of SIFT
descriptor. The first approach is based on DWT namely; DWT-SIFT. The second approach is based
on GWT namely; GWT-SIFT. The DWT or GWT is applied to the image as a preprocessing stage
before conventional SIFT is applied. SIFT is applied on the obtained subband images separately.
The recorded scores from each subband image is then fused together to get the final score and
make more accurate decision. The results obtained show that the fusion of matching scores of SIFT
descriptor on the multiresolution images substantially improved the recognition performance.
References
Betta, G., Capriglione, D., Liguori, C., & Paolillo, A. (2011). Uncertainty Evaluation in Face
Recognition Algorithms. IEEE on Instrumentation and Measurement Technology
Conference (I2MTC).
Borade, S., & Adgaonkar, R. (2011). Comparative Analysis of PCA and LDA. IEEE International
Conference on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications (ICBEIA).
Eleyan, A., Özkaramanli, H., & Demirel, H. (2008). Complex Wavelet Transform-based Face
Recognition. EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal Processing, 1, 1-13.
Jiang, B., Yang, G., & Zhang, H. (2008). Comparative Study of Dimension Reduction and
Recognition Algorithms of DCT and 2DPCA. IEEE International Conference on Machine
Learning and Cybernetics.
Jiang, Y., & Guo, P. (2007). Comparative Studies of Feature Extraction Methods with Application
to Face Recognition. IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics
(ISIC).
Kasinski, A., A. Florek, A., & Schmidt, A. (2008). The PUT Face Database. Image Processing and
Communications, 13(3),59-64.
Lowe, D. (2004). Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints. International
Journal of Computer Vision, 60(2), 1-28.
Shen, L., Bai, L., & Fairhurst, M. (2007). Gabor Wavelets and General Discriminant Analysis for
Face Identification and Verification. Image and Vision Computing, 25(5), 553-563.
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Rec
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Ra
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# of subjects in gallery set
SIFT
DWT-SIFT
GWT-SIFT
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Yunyi, W., Chunqing, H., & Xiaobin, Q. (2009). Multiple Facial Instance for Face Recognition
based on SIFT Features. IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation
(ICMA).
Zakariya, S., Ali, R., & Ahmed, L. (2011). Automatic Face Recognition Using Multi-Algorithmic
Approaches. 4th International Conference IC3 on Contemporary Computing.
Zou, J., Ji, Q., & Nagy, G. (2007). A Comparative Study of Local Matching Approach for Face
Recognition. IEEE Trans. Image Processing, 16, 2617-2628.
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Developing a Novel Approach for Evaluation Performance of the
Engineering Departments Managers Using 360° Technique
Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy1 & Mohammed S. Kh. Al-Marsomi
2
1,2Department of Civil Engineering, Al-Nahrain University, Iraq
Correspondence: Faiq M. S. Al-Zwainy, Ministry of Planning, Erbil, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: February 17 , 2017 Accepted: April 23, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p56
Abstract: This paper deals with creating evaluation criteria for the planning, design, execution
managers in Housing Directorate, which is very important for the service quality in work. Results of
the study proved the possibility of the use of 360° technique in evaluating the performance of managers
in the Housing Directorate, which means the possibility of circulation in the construction sector.
Moreover, the study showed in general of gaps between self-evaluation and individual evaluation
process, which indicates the need for an organizational culture that encourages objectivity in passing
judgments and accepts the views of others. The existence of negative gaps in responses between the
parties of the evaluation process appears the manager's overstatement in the existence of the
evaluation criteria in them. Therefore, the final degree of evaluation was (4.28) v. Good for planning
manager, (4.56) excellent for design manager and (3.84) v. Good for execution manager.
Keywords: Performance of Individuals, 360 Techniques, Residential Complexes Projects
1. Introduction
Performance evaluation (PE) is necessary to measure performance of the employees and the
organization to check the progress towards the desired goals and aims. (PE) includes all formal
procedures used to evaluate personalities, contributions potentials of group members in a working
organization. PE helps to develop individuals, improve organizational performance and feed into
business planning. PE in organization is considered as a key human resource management practices
for measuring effectiveness and efficiency (Cinar & Vardarlier, 2014).
Building a performance evaluation system which aims at constant improvement, provides
appropriate feedback and directs to the career targets will enable organizations to work more
efficiently, that’s why; (PE) will have great contributions in construction sector for bringing the
construction services to the desired level (Rani et al., 2014). In order to evaluate and measure the
performance should be clarified clearly and be shared with engineers. Also, to evaluate manager’s
performance, managers should specify this performance’s qualifications and terms.
2. Methods of Performance Individual Evaluation
There are two types of measures are used in performance Individual evaluation:
a. Objective measures which are directly quantifiable.
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b. Subjective measures which are not directly quantifiable.
Figure (1) shows the method of performance evaluation that can be broadly classified into two
categories: Traditional methods and modern methods (Espinilla, 2013), the propose method in this
study was 360° technique to evaluate the performance of planning manager, design manager and
execution manager.
Figure 1: Method of Performance Evaluation (3)
3. Concept of 360° Technique
One of the newest and most popular approaches to performance evaluation is the usage of
multisource performance and feedback. What has made 360° performance evaluation system
obligatory are that many personnel in organizations start work together with a great number of
people, and emergence of the necessity for receiving more comprehensive and correct feedback
about the workers from different perspectives (Tarus, 2014), 360° review, also referred to as 360°
performance assessments or multi-rater feedback, is a method and a tool to provide employees
feedback from their peers, co-workers, clients, those who are direct reports, and direct supervisors,
thereby offering multiple perspectives of the employee’s overall job performance, this type of
evaluation helps the employee gain a better understanding of her/his skills and behaviors as they
relate to the organization’s mission, values, goals and vision, Additionally, this feedback is geared
to assist each employee in understanding her or his strengths and weaknesses, and can contribute
insights into areas of work that may need professional development (Kaur, 2013).
4. Benefits of 360° Technique
360° evaluation gives chance to all levels of employees to give their input and contributes towards
achievement of the organization goal, the 360-degree evaluation also can help the employees or
managers discover their own strengths and weaknesses (Kaur, 2013). A number of distinct benefits
can be realized from this type of evaluation, and this tool has been gaining widespread popularity
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among small businesses. Moreover, some benefits as follows (“performance management”).
a. Individuals get a broader perspective as to how they are perceived by others.
b. Can also see where the person needs to improve.
c. Enhanced awareness and relevance of competencies
d. Awareness for senior management too, as they will get to know their need for
development
e. The 360° performance evaluation system has the potential to positively effect on the
performance and productivity of managers and supervisors.
5. Components of 360° Technique
The 360° technique has five integral components, Figure 2 shows summarized of components
Figure 2: Components of 360° Technique
a. Self – Evaluation: This form of performance information is actually quite common but usually
used only as an informal part of the supervisor-employee appraisal feedback session (Rasheed,
2011). This type of evaluation makes the individual thinks of his strengths and weaknesses so as
to overcome the barriers that prevent reach to the effective performance and this becomes
effective source when supervisor and subordinates participates in set future goals for
performance and formulating development plans (“performance management”).
b. Peer – Evaluation: Peers have a unique perspective on a co-worker’s job performance and
employees are generally very receptive to the concept of rating each other, Peer ratings can be
used when the employee’s expertise is known or the performance and results can be observed.
And this evaluation contributes in 360-degree feedback as follow (Basu, 2015).
1. Peer assessment has proven to be excellent predictors of future performance.
2. Peer assessment are remarkably valid and reliable in assessment behaviors and manner
of performance, but may be limited in assessment outcomes that often require the
perspective of the supervisor.
3. The addition of peer feedback can help move the supervisor into a coaching role rather
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than a purely judging role.
c. Subordinates – Evaluation: Use the evaluation of subordinates by large and small organizations
in order to give managers feedback from the perspective view their subordinates. Moreover,
subordinates in the best position to evaluate their managers because they are in direct contact
with them and have position where they can observe many of the related behaviors performance
(Basu, 2015).
d. Customer – Evaluation: There are two key to use evaluate of customers in judging the
performance of individuals, the first key relates to the work requirements when the work was
required to provide service directly to the customer whenever possible to judge the performance
of the individual through the customer evaluate , The second key relates to the organization
goal when it collecting information about the product or service desired by customers,
contribute customers evaluate in determining the requirements of human resources, which
require a change such as training and reward system towards improving customer service
(McCarthy, 2012).
e. Supervisor – Evaluation: Evaluations by superiors are the most traditional source of employee
feedback. This form of evaluation is conduct by supervisors to evaluating the performance of
manager by senior managers. And this evaluation contributes in 360-degree feedback as follow
(Rasheed et al., 2011).
1. The first-line supervisor is often in the best position to effectively carry out the full
cycle of performance management: Planning, Monitoring, Developing, Appraising,
and Rewarding.
2. The superiors have the authority to redesign and reassign an employee’s work based on
their assessment of individual and team performance.
3. Most Federal employees feel that the greatest contribution to their performance
feedback should come from their first level supervisors
6. Applications of 360° Technique In Management
During the last few years, the use of 360° technique has increased in human resources and has
demonstrated some degree of success. The following literature review provides the importance of
360° technique and reveals that 360° technique has been used successfully in building of individual
performance evaluation system.
Fadime and Pelin (as cited in Cinar & Vardarlier, 2014), in a study on 360° performance
evaluation, which is one of the current and problematic subjects of the human resources
applications, is analyzed and supported by an empirical research. At this study, in which the
theoretical information is discussed, briefly includes the necessity of the performance evaluation in
classical terms and its benefits to the organizations, 360° performance evaluation and feedback
system; there is an empirical practice including the discussion of the views for creating a 360°
performance evaluation criteria and feedback system to evaluate the performances of the nurses
working in a training research hospital
Kipchumba (as cited in Tarus, 2014), the study findings revealed that the 360° affects organization
performance, which suggests that there is a significant relationship between the organizational use
of 360° appraisal tool and its performance. The study recommends that the organizations evaluate
the outcomes of 360° appraisal tool and compare with the past tools. It would be beneficial to
incorporate 360° feedbacks into a larger performance management process, but only with clear
communication on how the 360° feedback will be used. The study contributes largely to the
improvement of performance in local authorities by ensuring that the activities identified take into
consideration the needs of the authorities and individuals. Its findings and recommendations are
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also important to the management when planning for performance appraisal sessions as well as in
reviewing individual performance. The study also sheds light on the strengths, weaknesses and
opportunities of the 360° feedback system.
Savneet (as cited in Kaur, 2013), through this study, an attempt had been made to understand and
present the methodology behind the 360° performance appraisal and how it can be implemented in
organizations. Various benefits and disadvantages of introducing this method into organizations
have also been listed down. The available literature provides an overview regarding how this
method is beneficial for increasing the overall efficiency of the employee as an individual and the
firm as a whole, and as a result performance improves and training and development leads to real
opportunities for promotion within the company. Employees are also motivated and can have a
positive knock-on effect in areas like customer service.
Tamanna (as cited in Basu, 2015), stated that 360° feedback is considered to be one of the method
of performance Appraisal system which reduces the subjectively of a traditional supervisor
appraisal. In a 360° appraisal system, the employee’s performance is evaluated by his supervisors,
his peers, his internal/external suppliers and his subordinate managers and leaders within
organizations use 360° feedback surveys to get a better understanding of their strengths and
weaknesses. 360° feedbacks can be considered as one of the attribute of performance management
system which is goal oriented and focused on present as well as future performance
Salah et al. (as cited in McCarthy, 2012) in a study focused on using feedback 360° in appraisal of
performance of heads scientific departments in college of Economics and Administration, which
adopted on questionnaire to realize target of study. After the distribution of the questionnaire, the
results were conducted to analyze and calculate averages. The study reached a negative gap
between the responses of the parties in evaluation process of individuals which shows gave their
evaluation in the view of the others parties it higher than it is in fact the field from their
perspective.
Based on the results of the studies reviewed in the literature, 360° technique has a good
performance in many studies in performance evaluation of individuals and there is no study about
this technique in the specialization of project management in Iraq and outside Iraq. So, consider
this study is the first and a novel approach in project management.
7. Methodology of 360° Technique
In order to realize the target of this study, methodology of 360° technique consists of five steps: In
this study, in order to serve as a model for evaluate the performance of managers in a construction
sector, what is intended is to create evaluation criteria from previous studies and literature, this
survey in past studies has led to finalize the list of criteria of performance evaluation included in
the questionnaire, this criterion as follows:
a. Intelligence: In this criteria included the characteristics to provide the capacity to
accommodate the sensitive information and perform the required analyzes to draw the right
results and make good decisions.
b. Leadership: It is the ability to see the overall aspect of the project at all times so that takes
it upon itself to ensure that there will be no ambiguity about his work as a project manager.
c. Productivity: It is the ability to optimum utilization of resources and the ability to ensure
the success of projects.
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d. Communication: It is the personal relations and communications and its relevance to the
entire project?
e. Ethics: They are the determinants that put by the organization on its decisions so that these
determinants are ethical determinants.
Based on professional experience of researcher in the construction sector has been selected these
five criteria for being most impact in the construction sector.
8. Sample and Collecting Data
This study was conducted by a methodology which is based on questionnaire. This study covers
three managers who have served in different departments in Housing Directorate (planning, design
and execution) to evaluate their performance. Data were collected through an evaluation workshop
in two stages by researcher, the first stage (Individuals) includes a head of Housing Directorate,
department engineer., site engineer., planning engineer., design engineer, and senior manager in
department to evaluate the performance of managers who were selected in the study, the second
stage (Self) includes only managers who were selected to conduct self-evaluation for them. Table
(1) shows the qualification of research sample.
Table 1: Qualification of Research Sample
9. Evaluate Scale
Questionnaire that was prepared for collecting data includes a set of five questions for each
criterion to give a description of the behaviors and capacities required to work (as shows in
appendix A), where used the Likert scale (five scale) for each question in criterion.
a. Unsatisfactory (poor)
b. Marginal (mediam)
c. Meets Requirements (good)
d. Exceeds Requirements (very good)
e. Outstanding (excellent)
10. Data Analysis
After collecting the responses, the process of analysis and evaluation data are beginning and can
No. Functional grade Function position Type of evaluation Experience years
1 Expert Company manager Supervisor 35
2 Chief Eng. Senior manager Peer 30
3 Engineer Site Eng. Subordinates 5
4 Engineer Planning Eng. Subordinates 8
5 Engineer Design Eng. Subordinates 7
6 Engineer Quality Eng. Customer 14
7 Senior Eng. Planning manager Self 25
8 Chief Eng. Design manager Self 32
9 Senior chief Eng. Execution manager Self 22
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follow the traditional methods in the analysis process, particularly use the process of calculating the
arithmetic average of the self-evaluation and individual's evaluation in preparation to see how
much the gap by subtracting the average of the self-evaluation than the average of individual's
evaluation to know the evaluation degree of individuals to assess the self-evaluation response (7).
Moreover, the researcher used the radar figure in analysis to shows how much the gap at each
criteria. Table (2) shows summary of the final degree of individual evaluation in this study.
Table 2: Evaluation Degree
11. Research Result
The results of models were divided into three parts:
11.1 Planning Manager
Table (3) shows the result of evaluation performance model of planning manager that it gets by
researcher from evaluation workshop that was included in the first stage planning manager (self-
evaluation) and in the second stage a head of Directorate, senior manager, department Eng. and
planning Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation individual average for
assess self-evaluation was very good (4.28), this refers to the agreement of evaluation workshop on
the absence of the weaknesses in any of the evaluation criteria in performance of planning manager
because exceeding half the rang of the study scale at the level of single criteria or average.
Table 3: Result of Performance Evaluation of Planning Manager
Figure (3) shows the radar shape to see how much the gap in each criteria between self-evaluation
and individual evaluation, where notes that all the differences in the evaluation criteria were
negative, this meaning that the planning manager gave himself an evaluation in the view of the
scale 1 2 3 4 5
Average interval 0.5 - 1.5 1.5 - 2.5 2.5 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.5 4.5 - 5
Evaluation degree poor mediam good Very good excellent
(A) (B) (C)Average
interval
Evaluation
different5-ǀCǀ
B-A
Intelligence 4.4 3.2 -1.2 3.8 V. good
Leadership 5 4.2 -0.8 4.2 V. good
Productivity 5 4.6 -0.4 4.6 Excellent
Communication 4.6 4.2 -0.4 4.6 Excellent
Ethics 4.6 3.8 -0.8 4.2 V. good
Average 4.72 4 -0.72 4.28 V. good
CriteriaEvaluation
degreeSelf-
evaluation
Individual's
evaluation
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individuals higher than it is in fact in the field from their perspective.
Figure 3: Different in Evaluation of Planning Manager
11.2 Design Manager
Table (4) shows the result of evaluation performance model of design manager that it gets by the
method pervious same but the first stage in evaluation workshop included the design manager (self-
evaluation) and in the second stage included a head of Directorate, senior manager, department
Eng. and design Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation individual
average for assess self-evaluation was excellent, as indicated in table a pact both stages of the
evaluation workshop on absence of weaknesses in the performance of design manager
Table 4: Result of Performance Evaluation of Design Manager
Figure (4) shows the radar shape for evaluation of design manager, where notes that the differences
in the evaluation criteria were three negative and two positive, this meaning that the design
manager gave himself an evaluation in the view of the individuals that it is reasonable in fact from
their perspective.
(A) (B) (C)Average
interval
Evaluation
different5-ǀCǀ
B-A
Intelligence 4 4.8 0.8 4.2 V. good
Leadership 5 4.6 -0.4 4.6 Excellent
Productivity 4.4 4.8 0.4 4.6 Excellent
Communication 4.6 4.2 -0.4 4.4 V. good
Ethics 4.6 4.4 -0.2 4.8 Excellent
Average 4.52 4.56 0.04 4.56 Excellent
CriteriaEvaluation
degreeSelf-
evaluation
Individual's
evaluation
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Figure 4: Different in Evaluation of Design Manager
11.3 Execution Manager
Table (5) shows the result of evaluation performance model of execution manager that it gets by
the method pervious same but the first stage in evaluation workshop included the execution
manager (self-evaluation) and in the second stage included a head of Directorate, senior manager,
department Eng. and site Eng. (individual's evaluation). Where the final degree of evaluation
individual average for assess self-evaluation was very good, as indicated in table a pact both stages
of the evaluation workshop on absence of weaknesses in the performance of execution manager.
Table 5: The Result of Performance Evaluation of Execution Manager
Figure (5) shows the radar shape for evaluation of the execution manager, where notes that often
the differences in the evaluation criteria were negative, this meaning that the execution manager
(A) (B) (C)Average
interval
Evaluation
different5-ǀCǀ
B-A
Intelligence 4.6 3.4 -1.2 3.8 V. good
Leadership 4.8 3.2 -1.6 3.4 good
Productivity 4.6 3.6 -1 4 V. good
Communication 5 3.2 -1.8 3.2 good
Ethics 4.6 4.8 0.2 4.8 Excellent
Average 4.72 3.64 -1.08 3.84 V. good
CriteriaEvaluation
degreeSelf-
evaluation
Individual's
evaluation
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gave himself an evaluation in the view of the individuals higher than it is in fact in the field from
their perspective.
Figure 5: The Different in Evaluation of Execution Manager
12. Conclusion
Results of the study proved the possibility of the use of 360° technique in evaluating the
performance of managers in the Housing Directorate, which means the possibility of circulation in
the construction sector. Moreover, the study showed in general of gaps between self-evaluation and
individual evaluation process, which indicates the need for an organizational culture that
encourages objectivity in passing judgments and accepts the views of others. The existence of
negative gaps in responses between the parties of the evaluation process appears the manager's
overstatement in the existence of the evaluation criteria in them. Therefore, the final degree of
evaluation was (4.28) v. good for planning manager, (4.56) excellent for design manager and (3.84)
v. good for execution manager
References
Basu, T. (2015). Integrating 360-degree feedback in to performance appraisal tool and development
process. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 17(1), 50-61.
Çınar, F., & Vardarlıer, P. (2014). Establishment of individual performance evaluation system in a
health business and a pilot practice. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 150, 384-
393.
D. McCarthy, D. (2012). The Great Leadership Development and Succession Planning Kit. Cork:
1st Ed. Enabled, Book Baby, 2012.
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Espinilla, M., de Andrés, R., Martínez, F. J., & Martínez, L. (2013). A 360-degree performance
appraisal model dealing with heterogeneous information and dependent criteria.
Information Sciences, 222, 459-471.
Kaur, S. (2013). 360 Degrees performance appraisal-benefits and shortcoming. International
Journal of Emerging Research in Management and Technology, 2(6), 83-88.
Performance Management, “The 360 Degree Feedback. Advantages, Disadvantages & Design”,
Human Resource in a Nutshell, 26th October 2011.
Rani L., Kumar N., & Sushil K. (2014). Performance appraisals research: A study of performance
appraisals practices in private banks. Journal of Research in Commerce & Management,
3(1), 108-113.
Rasheed S., Dahsh E., & Radhi J. (2011). Evaluating the performance of heads of scientific
departments using the entrance feeding reverse 360 degrees. Periodical of Management
and Economics - University of Qadisiya, 10-21.
Tarus B. (2014). Effectiveness of the 360-degrees appraisal tool in human resource practice in
Kenya. Journal of Marketing and Business Management, 3(1) 10-21.
Appendix –A- (Questionnaire of 360-Degree Performance Evaluation)
1 = Unsatisfying, 2= Marginal, 3 = Meets Requirements, 4 = Exceeds Requirements, 5=
Outstanding
Intelligence 1 2 3 4 5
Ability to anticipate project performance within the near future
Distinguished by his ability to make fast and accurate decisions
to facilitate works flow and project closure
Learns from former mistakes and never repeats them
Ability to put acquired knowledge into application
Has the ability for creativity and innovation in a way that
achieves the maximum use of resources
Leadership 1 2 3 4 5
Never affected by side talks and rumors
Has a unique ability to find solutions for day to day work
problems
Delegates authorities to colleagues
Has and effective extrovert personality that leaves a positive
impact on the rest of the team
Shows a strong commitment to the company
Productive efficiency 1 2 3 4 5
Distributes tasks to individuals according to their qualifications
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Carefully manages financial resources
Has the ability to train a team in terms of projects management
Follows up the training skills the his team have received
Makes sure to keep an eye even on the smallest details in the
project
Connectivity and communication 1 2 3 4 5
Ability to communicate with team members
Ability to encourage and motivate his co-workers
Good listener to his co-workers
Shares work related information with colleagues by himself
without the need to tell him to do so, and feels ok with that
attitude
Characterized by tact and smooth behavior within his work
environment
Work ethics 1 2 3 4 5
Characterized by professional work ethics and ability to
preserve work sensitive details
Makes sure to ask for manpower dues and rights
Treats the staff with equality and equity without any biased
behavior
Commitment to dates and deadlines
Does not abuse taking advantage of his powers and authorities
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Raising Environmental Awareness among Young Generation Using Social
Media: A Case “Green It at Ishik University”
Mehmet Ozdemir
1 & Rasha Alkabbanie
2
1 Ishik University, Faculty of education, Biology Department, Erbil, Iraq
2 Ishik University, Faculty of Engineering, Erbil, Iraq
Correspondence: Mehmet Ozdemir, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq.
Email: [email protected]
Received: March 9, 2017 Accepted: April 21, 2017 Online Published: June 1, 2017
doi: 10.23918/eajse.v2i2p68
Abstract: The paper examines the role of social media in creating environmental awareness,
responsibilities or issues of among young generation (especially Higher education students). The
authors attempted to determine whether there are present and how can be developed environmental
awareness or issues behavior on social networking sites like Facebook. The campaign was designed
based on a practical model and implemented in a case study of 3rd
grade of computer engineering
department in Ishik University. The Social media platform (Facebook) formed the technological
foundation of the campaign. Throughout the campaign prepared information about environmental
awareness or responsibilities documentation was distributed by means of these Facebook to selected
students in the case study. Issues related to environmental management as well as suggested strategies
to deal with them was also communicated to the target students. In order to determine the growth of
awareness related to environmental issues and to get feedback on the campaign benefits and problems,
two surveys were applied before and after implementation process. Massages (campaign prepared
information) were posted at regular periods (one mouth) throughout the Facebook. The findings
revealed that Social Media was found to be ineffective method of raising the environmental awareness
among the higher education students in Kurdistan.
Keywords: Social Media, Facebook, Awareness, Campaign, Green ICT, Young Generation, And
Students
1. Introduction
The continues increasing ratio of population and the rapid developments in industry have bad
effects on the environment and lead to remarkable climate changes (Bostrom et al., 1994).
Therefore, the need of increasing the environmental awareness has risen especially among the
young generations (Kaplan & Liu, 2004). This awareness can be improved through many ways and
methods. Social Media is being used for raising the awareness and knowledge of several issues and
cases. The aim of this paper is to examine the role of social media in creating environmental
awareness -especially Facebook- among Ishik University students.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Global Community and Globalization
Day by day the global challenges are increasing, the most common challenges are: climate change,
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extreme poverty and inequality, financial and economic crisis, food crisis, water scarcity, energy
security, migration, population growth and demographic shift, urbanization and health pandemics
and infectious diseases (Gelsdorf, 2010).
Globalization facilitates the spread of existing technologies and the emergence of new
technologies, often replacing existing technologies with more extractive alternatives; greener
technologies may also be spurred (Najam & Runnalls, 2007). Although that technology extracts
more from nature and uses the natural resources in a considerable amount but can also become
cleaner and helps to preserve the resources and raise the environmental awareness. As students
learn about social sciences, they become more aware of their part in global communities, thus their
conceptual understandings develop (Smith, 2009).
2.2 Environmental Responsibility
Environmental responsibility has been considered to be “in the public interest” and external to
private life (Mazurkiewicz, 2010). Governments have a recognizable role in assuring
environmental management and preserving a safe environment. Also, they have directed the private
sector to adopt environmentally sound behavior through regulations, sanctions and occasionally,
incentives (Mazurkiewicz, 2010). At its simplest, the definition of sustainability involves (i) the
needs of present generations and the needs of future generations and (ii) environmental and social
justice (Gray, 2005).
Regarding the educational institutions, the students need to be environmentally responsible
citizens. The education system shall provide opportunities within the classroom and the community
for students to engage in actions that deepen this understanding (Canadian Ministry of Education,
2009). So, the students shall be aware of the environmental aspects especially the Environmental
Sustainability which is meeting the resource and services needs of current and future generations
(Morelli, 2011). So all the members of the society are responsible about preserving and saving the
environment and being unaware of the environmental obligations does not relieve anybody of his
or her liability.
2.3 Raising Environmental Awareness
There are a lot of methods used nowadays to raise the environmental awareness. Some researchers
see that this awareness involves translating the technical language of a natural science or related
field into terms and ideas that a non-scientist can readily understand (Minkova, 2000). Other
researchers concluded that raising the awareness shall be through Educational events, Campaigns,
establishing goals and Selecting information (Minkova, 2000). The pedagogical strategy helps to
keep the natural environment into focus and in the foreground of the teaching-learning process (
Hadzigeorgiou & Skoumios, 2013). Other studies claim that environmental education is crucial
and an irreplaceable element which should be developed. Even if it cannot change the world
immediately, it has an important role to play (Cerovsky, 2013).
2.4 Role of Social Media in Raising Environmental Awareness
Social networks can provide different kinds and levels of information that are important to us
(Krätzig & Warren-Kretzschmar, 2014). Some researchers found that social media provides
enormous opportunities to encourage environmental activism (Arbatani & Labafi, 2016). The
study” (Mooney & Winstanley, 2013) found that harnessing the pro-social aspects of Twitter could
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prove a useful tool in informing the public better about environmental problems.
In addition to increasing environmental awareness, social media can also be employed to serve
environmental communication. A great many international NGOs or organizations have already
stressed the importance of these new media for awareness-raising campaigns. For instance, the
European Commission’s successful 2010 campaign on biodiversity had a strong social media
component (BIO Intelligence Service for EECN, 2011). Furthermore, Greenpeace is one of the
environmental projects has been using social media actively to advertise its campaigns.
Also, the phenomenal success of the Earth Hour in 2010, which became the largest social
movement in history (WWF, 2010), with over a billion people from over 128 different countries
turning off their lights for an hour, could partly be attributed to the extensive social media used
(Lokhandwala & Koshy, 2010).
On the other hand, some researchers found that social media does not seem to be a replacement for
other traditional interventions, such as holding frequent face-to-face meetings. At best, social
media may be considered as a supplement to a more intensive social-based intervention (Vigrass,
2015). Additionally, some studies state that there are serious threats for individuals and society in
using social media platforms and thus a need for a sensible social media interaction (Zeitel-Bank &
Tat, 2014).
So, future research is also needed to examine the success of social media based communication in
eliciting behavior change and the overall effectiveness of various social media applications within
the environmental fields (Hempel, 2014).
2.5 Green ICT
Recently, ICT has been widely favored for environment protection. Green ICT can be defined as
the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using and disposing of computers, servers and
associated subsystems-such as monitors, printers, storage devices and networking and
communications systems efficiently and effectively, with minimal or no impact on the environment
(Ozturk et al., 2011).
Green IT is a broad concept involves pollution prevention at the beginning and end of a product’s
life-cycle, product stewardship to minimize the environmental footprint during use, adoption of
clean technologies to reduce pollution, and development of environmentally friendly competencies
(Ansari et al., 2010).
Various statistics have been produced indicating that the Carbon Footprint from data centers is
equal to or higher than that from the aircraft industry (reckoned by many to be around 2% of global
emissions) (Crooks et al., 2009). In the wake of global warming and concerns over its impact due
to environmental degradation, there is an urgent need for the IT industries/practitioners to come
forward and integrate a green agenda into their industrial/manufacturing and business models
(Agrawal & Agarwal, 2012).
Some researches insist on improving the idea that (ICT) industry needs to further improve its
environmental performance, and its applications have very large potential to enhance performance
across the economy and society (Reimsbach-Kounatze, 2009).
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2.6 Social Media in Iraq and Kurdistan
The global trends of the intensive using of the social media are mirrored in Iraq, where, despite low
Internet penetration,39 there are over 2.3 million Facebook users. This represents nearly 8% of the
population. Facebook’s growth curve in Iraq is particularly steep, with more than 700,000 users
joining the site in 2012. Over 40% of Iraq’s Facebook users are between 18 and 24 years old. Iraqis
between the ages of 25 and 34 are the second-largest age group to access the social networking site,
and nearly three quarters of all Iraqi users are men (Internews Europe, 2012).
Internet services have managed to reform the relation between Kurds in the diaspora and social
connections in many ways. It has helped the Kurdish community in diaspora to reconnect with their
fellow Kurds both in the diaspora and in their homeland, which used to be very difficult before the
development of communication technology.
Through Facebook, Kurds could build their own groups and participate in various groups to gather
academic knowledge and to be socially active. This also leads to a strong association and
fellowship between the Kurds (Jacob, 2013).
The study by (Gallup, 2014) states that Kurdish Iraqis are particularly likely to use social networks
weekly or more. Facebook is by far the most popular social networking site in Iraq, with almost all
one-week social media users (94.3%) having accessed it within seven days. The next most popular
are Google+ at 41.8% and Twitter at 25.8%.
3- The Research Methodology
First, a campaign was initiated at the computer engineering department at Ishik University to cover
a sample of students. The campaign started with presenting some facts and information related to
“Green Computing and IT” through a seminar presented by an expert in Computer Engineering.
After the seminar, a Pre-Study Questionnaire was implemented in a case study of 3rd grade
students (35 students), then the survey was analyzed and the initial awareness level of Green IT
was concluded.
Meanwhile, a Facebook Page was created to be the Social Media approach in this experience. The
page was named “Green ICT at Ishik University” (the profile photo is shown in Fig. 1). The sample
students were informed about this page and were asked to “LIKE” the page. Weekly-based posts
were posted through this page.
Figure 1: The official profile photo of the Facebook page of “Green ICT at Ishik University”
Some posts were in plain text while others were informative images and videos. Through the posts,
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some information related to the causes and effects of ICT related pollution and some recent facts
and numbers regarding green ICT were presented to the sample students. This process was
continuing for about one month. Some samples of these posts are shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2: Samples of the Posts posted in the Facebook Page
When the month was over, a Post-Study Questionnaire was implemented on the same students and
the Post-campaign awareness level was observed. The awareness levels (Initial and the Post-
Campaign) ware compared to each other and some conclusions were reached. Fig. 3 illustrates the
steps followed in the study.
Figure 3: Study Chart
4- Results and Discussions
4.1 Participant Profile
The sample was drawn from the higher education students. The sample was (35) students of 3rd
Starting the Campaign
Holding a Seminar about Green ICT
Applying Pre-Study Survey
Analysing the Pre-Study Survey
Creating the Facebook Page
Posting on Weekly Base
Asking the Students to LIKE the page
Applying the Post-Study Survey
Analysing the Post-Study Survey
Comparing the Awarness Levels
and reaching conclusions
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grade of computer engineering department in Ishik University. Their age ranged between 20-23
years old. The gender distribution is : 40% Females and 60%Males as shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 4: The gender distribution of the participants
4.2 Most Preferred Social Media Platform
It was observed – and as it is shown in Fig. 5- that Facebook is the predominant social media
platform it was the most preferred platform for about 38% of the participants, followed by
YouTube with 26% and Instagram with17%. For the rest of participants, the most preferred social
media platform was either Snapchat or Twitter. However, LinkedIn platform was not chosen by
any of the participants.
Figure 5: Shows the distribution of the most preferred social media platform for the participants
4.3 General Average of Awareness about Green ICT
By analyzing both the Pre-Study Survey and the Post-Study Survey, it was shown that the average
awareness level about the green ICT that the participant had got before the campaign was 19%.
After applying the case using the Facebook Page, the awareness level was increased by only 1% to
60%
40% Males
Females
6%
38%
26%
0%
17%
13% Twitter
YouTube
Snapchat
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become 20%. These averages indicate clearly that using social media in raising the awareness
regarding the environmental issues was not useful at all.
Fig. 6 shows the awareness level before and after conducting the study.
Figure 6: The awareness level (%) about green ICT before and after the study
4.4 Social media to be used in improving the environmental awareness
As it is illustrated in Fig. 7, the survey analyzing shows that only 7% of the participants prefer the
social media to be used in raising the awareness regarding the environmental issues versus 93%
think that social media is not an effective tool in spreading the knowledge about the environment
and its related cases and facts.
Figure 7: Average of students who prefer/don’t prefer Social Media to be used in improving the
Environmental Awareness
19 20
BEFORE AFTER
7%
93%
Prefer
Don't Prefer
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5. Conclusions
1. Social Media was found to be ineffective method for raising the environmental
awareness among the higher education students in Kurdistan
2. Higher education students in Kurdistan prefers the educational methods over the
social media for being informed about the environmental issues
3. The Level of Awareness and knowledge about Green ICT is very low among the
higher education students in Kurdistan.
References
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Appendixes
Appendix “A”: Pre-Study Questionnaire
General Information :
You are : ⃝ Male . ⃝ Female .
The Most Social Media Platform you use: ⃝ Twitter ⃝ Facebook ⃝ YouTube ⃝ LinkedIn ⃝ Instagram ⃝ Snapchat
1-the data centers produce ……. of the world’s CO2 emissions.
⃝ 0.1%
⃝ 0.3%
⃝ 0.5%
⃝ 1%
2-for 10 minutes video viewing on YouTube, …….. of CO2 is produces
⃝ 0.4 g
⃝ 0. 3 g
⃝ 1 g
⃝ 2 g
3-Among the followings, which operating system is the most green?
⃝ Windows Vista
⃝ Windows XP
⃝ Linux
⃝ Apple's OS X
4-Do you know how to change your printer settings to use less papers, if yes, then how?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
How ?
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5-which option is more environmental to deal with your old computer
⃝ Keep using the computer as long as possible, to avoid it from becoming e-waste.
⃝ Replacing with more modern computer
⃝ No difference, the most important is to use the power-save mood
⃝ None of the above
6-the Laptop uses ……….. as much energy as a desktop
⃝ 20%
⃝ 50%
⃝ 10%
⃝ 70%
7-Dose the “Screen Saver Mode” save energy, and why?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
The Reason :
8-Intel’s Core 2 Duo desktop processor is ……….. more energy efficient than its single-core predecessor
⃝ 20%
⃝ 40%
⃝ 70%
9- Constantly shutting down and restarting your computer during the day would consume more energy than just leaving it running.
⃝ True
⃝ False
10-how much percent (%) is the CO2 emissions by ICT industry of the global average ?
It is ………. %
11-Do you know what Kyoto Protocol is ?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
12-Do you know what is Cradle to Cradle® concept?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
13- What does this logo mean when it is on a device ?
It means that ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
14-do you know what is EPEAT ?
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⃝ Yes
⃝ No
It is : …………………………………………………………………….
15-what does this logo refers to ?
It refers to ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
Appendix “B”: Post-Study Questionnaire
1-the data center with 1000 servers will use enough electricity in a single month to power
⃝ About 1500 home for a year
⃝ About 150 home for a year
⃝ About 25000 home for a year
⃝ About 15000 home for a year
2-the average employee wastes about ………… worth of printer paper an ink each year through unnecessary printing.
⃝ 10$
⃝ 85$
⃝ 35&
⃝ 150$
3-if all commuters work from home one day a week ……………. Billion fewer gallons of oil would be used each year.
⃝ 4.3
⃝ 2.4
⃝ 10.7
⃝ 5.8
4-a computer with only screen saver uses more power than a computer uses only sleep mode
⃝ True
⃝ False
⃝ The same
⃝ No comparing
5-the data centers produce ……. of the world’s CO2 emissions.
⃝ 0.1%
⃝ 0.3%
⃝ 0.5%
⃝ 1%
6-how much percent (%) is the CO2 emissions by ICT industry of the global average ?
It is ………. %
7-to make one desktop computer, it takes over ………….. kilogram of water
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…………….
8-less than 500,000 tons of electronic equipment becomes disposed each year
⃝ True
⃝ False
9- did you LIKE the page on Facebook named “Green ICT at Ishik University” ?
⃝ Yes
⃝ No
10- how many posts did you SHARE form the Facebook page “Green ICT at Ishik University”?
⃝ 0
⃝ 2
⃝ More than 4
11- do you prefer Social Media to be used in improving the Environmental Awareness
⃝ Yes
⃝ No