europe in 1900. germans and italians had gained national self- determination, but many “captive...
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EUROPE IN 1900
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Germans and Italians had gained national self-determination, but many “captive peoples”
remained
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After 1871 Germany had about 1.5 X the French population
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William I hailed as German Kaiser, Versailles, January 18, 1871
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The German victory parade down the Champs Elysées,
March 1, 1871
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“France Signing the Preliminary Peace Terms” (March 1871):Alsace & Lorraine ripped from the bosom of their mother…
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THE OUTBREAK OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1882: Bismarck forges the “Triple Alliance” of Germany, Austria, and Italy. 1894: France and Russia form the “Dual Alliance.” 1898: Germany launches a naval arms race with Great Britain.1904: Great Britain signs the Entente cordiale with France, and the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907.January 1913: diplomacy forges agreement among the Great Powers in response to the First Balkan War.July 1914: diplomacy fails after Austria accuses Serbia of responsibility for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
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“The Triple Alliance” (1883):
France and Russia are left out in the cold
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THE DUAL ALLIANCE OF OCT. 1879 (Austria+Germany, see Joll, 54-56)
ART. 1: “Should, contrary to their hope, and against the loyal desire of the two High Contracting Parties, one of the two Empires be attacked by Russia, the High Contracting Parties are bound to come to the assistance one of the other with the whole war strength of their Empires, and accordingly only to conclude peace together and upon mutual agreement.”ART. 2: “Should one of the High Contracting Parties be attacked by another Power, the other High Contracting Party binds itself hereby, not only not to support the aggressor against its high Ally, but to observe at least a benevolent neutral attitude towards its fellow Contracting Party.”ART. 3: This treaty will be kept secret, but if Russia’s armaments prove to be menacing, “the two High Contracting Parties would consider it their loyal obligation to let the Emperor Alexander know, at least confidentially, that they must consider an attack on either of them as directed against both.”
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GERMAN-RUSSIAN REINSURANCE TREATY, JUNE 1887: Did its terms conflict with those of the Dual Alliance?
ARTICLE 1: “In case one of the High Contracting Parties should find itself at war with a third Great Power, the other would maintain a benevolent neutrality towards it, and would devote its efforts to the localization of the conflict. This provision would not apply to a war against Austria or France in case this war should result from an attack directed against one of these two latter Powers by one of the High Contracting Parties.”ART. 2: “Germany recognizes the rights historically acquired by Russia in the Balkan Peninsula, and particularly the legitimacy of her preponderant …influence in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. The two courts engage to admit no modification of the territorial status quo of the said peninsula without a previous agreement between them.”ART. 3: The Bosporus & Dardanelles must be closed in wartimeART. 5: The existence & contents of this treaty will be secret
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Anton von Werner, “The Congress of Berlin, June-July 1878”(Bismarck always sought to mediate between Austria and
Russia, and to maintain good relations with Britain)
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Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) The Pilot Leaves the
Ship,Punch, March 1890
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Wilhelm II soon cancelled Germany’s nonaggression pact
with Russia.Tsar Alexander III
found that his diplomats urged friendship with
Germany, but his generals, an alliance
with France
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ARCHITECTS OF THE FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE
General Nikolai Obruchev,
Army Chief of Staff, 1881-97
(who had a French wife)
General Raoul de Boisdeffre, Deputy Chief
of Staff, 1890-94, then Chief
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Franco-Russian Military Convention of August 1892
(Joll, 56-58)
If France is attacked by Germany or by Italy supported by Germany, Russia will employ all its available forces to attack Germany. If Russia is attacked by Germany or by Austria supported by Germany, France will employ all its available forces to combat Germany. In case the forces of the Triple Alliance or of one of its members begin to mobilize, France and Russia will immediately and simultaneously mobilize all of their forces and deploy them as close to their borders as possible, as soon as the enemy mobilization is announced….The forces available for deployment against Germany will amount to 1,300,000 men on the part of France, and 700-800,000 men on the part of Russia. These forces are dedicated to combating Germany simultaneously from the East and West in the most effective manner possible.The military general staffs of the two countries will deliberate together to prepare and execute the measures outlined above….France and Russia will not conclude a separate peace. This convention will have the same duration as the Triple Alliance.
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In 1898 Germany announced a plan to build 3 battleships a
year. Wilhelm II: “Germany must wield Neptune’s trident as well as Jupiter’s scepter.”
In response Britain launched the H.M.S.
Dreadnought in 1906:
It carried ten 12-inch guns and 11-inch armor plate, and
cruised at over 20 m.p.h.
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The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale
of April 1904 resolved colonial disputes in Africa
and gradually evolved into
something like an alliance(cartoon in PUNCH to
celebrate its 10th anniversary)
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Admiral Sir John Fisher (at left),
First Sea Lord (1904-10), modernized the British fleet
Fisher converted the young Liberal,
Sir Winston Churchill, into a
champion of naval spending by 1911
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The Anglo-Russian Entente (1907) resolved disputes in Asia
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Rival nationalisms in the Balkans: The “Serbo-Croatian”
and “Macedonian” languages puzzled the linguists
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The Balkan Wars, 1912/13
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Serb machine gun team on maneuvers:Serbia won the most victories in the 1st Balkan
War against Turkey and annexed much of Macedonia
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At the London Ambassadors’ Conference (Dec 1912-Jan 1913), the Great Powers agreed to create an
independent Albania and leave “Constantinople” in Turkey
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GERMANY’S ONLY RELIABLE ALLY SUFFERED FROM GRAVE
ETHNIC TENSIONS:
Proportion of Germans in
Austria: 33%.
Proportion of Magyars in
Hungary: 54%.
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Franz Ferdinand and his wife leave for the hospital to visit their wounded aide, Sarajevo, June 28, 1914
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The chauffeur made a
wrong turn on the way to the hospital and stopped
to turn around, next
to Gavrilo Princip
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THE ARREST OF GAVRILO PRINCIP
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Chancellor Theobold von Bethmann Hollweg (1909-
17)Helmuth von Moltke the Younger (1906-
14)
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Kaiser & King Franz Josef I, born in 1830, reigned 1848-
1916
Leopold von Berchtold: Austrian foreign minister,
1912-15
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Tsar Nicholas II (1868-1918;
ruled 1894-1917)
Sergei Sazonov, Russian foreign
minister, 1910-16
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Raymond Poincaré (1860-1934),
leader of the French center-right,
premier in 1912/13, President of France,
1913-1920.
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President Poincaré confers
with Foreign Minister Sazonov in St. Petersburg,
July 20-24, 1914(no record of
their talks was made)
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British Foreign Secretary
Sir Edward Grey (1905-16),
who had a largely free hand in a Liberal cabinet
preoccupied with domestic issues
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The “Schlieffen Plan” vs. the French “Plan XVII”
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THE JULY CRISIS OF 1914June 28 Assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Bosnian South Slav nationalists
July 5-7 Hoyos Mission to Berlin; Germany promises to support Austria; Austrian cabinet agrees to issue Serbia an ultimatum (Joll, 14-15)
July 23 Austrian ultimatum to Serbia (Joll, 15-16)
July 24/25
Reactions to the ultimatum in Belgrade, St. Petersburg, & London (Joll, 18-21)
July 29 Austria shells Belgrade (Joll, 24-27)
July 30 Russia orders general mobilization (Joll, 27-8)
July 31 Germany issues 12-hour ultimatum to Russia
Aug 1 Schlieffen Plan implemented (Joll, 29-30)
Aug 2-6 Declarations of War
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THE CENTRAL POWERS VS. THE ALLIES IN WORLD WAR I