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Executive Summary

way for this ambitious, but inspirational, human endeavour, with Europe’s Aurora programme an important contributor.

The International Space Station, the largest collaborative space programme yet undertaken, will also be available well into the next decade for life sciences research related to long-duration human spaceflight, and as a test bed for future exploration technologies.

Until now, space exploration has largely been funded by the taxpayers. This is beginning to change, as entrepreneurs begin to play a significant role in space tourism and the utilisation of space. A number of companies have already announced plans to develop reusable vehicles for suborbital tourist flights. It seems likely, therefore, that new opportunities will arise for private enterprise to play an ever-increasing role in a future exploration programme.

The European long-term strategy for space exploration will be based on key themes, grouped in four categories, which are of particular significance for Europe:

The advancement of scientific knowledge: Life and • its co-evolution with the planetary environment; Lunar observatories; Life sciences.Innovation and economic development: Applied • microgravity research; Entrepreneurial activities; Space services.Support for the European political project: • European ambitions; the Lisbon strategy; Global partnership. Public constituencies, which recognises the • necessity to engage the general public.

As these catagories show, space exploration should not simply be regarded as a technological or scientific endeavour, but as a highly visible, inspirational project that will have tremendous social and economic impact throughout Europe and the world.

50 years ago, humanity made its first tiny step into the Universe. Since then, many thousands of spacecraft and more than 450 people have been launched into orbit. Although most of the missions have been designed to operate in near-Earth space, several hundred robotic ambassadors have been despatched to distant worlds, and 12 people have walked on another world.

Having reached its 50th anniversary, the Space Age has reached some degree of maturity. Many nations now recognise space as a highly visible activity that enhances their prestige in the international arena. At the same time, space is becoming a key driver for educational, economic, scientific and technological advancement. Against this background, it is essential that Europe, with its great heritage of exploration and broad experience of space activities, maintains its status as a leading space-faring nation.

There are four destinations that offer suitable destinations for human explorers: the Moon, Mars, near Earth objects and the Earth-Moon Lagrangian points. Each of these has a unique environment and offers different challenges and opportunities for human explorers, and each has the potential to capture the imaginations of the general public and inspire future generations of scientists and engineers.

Although the United States remains by far the largest investor in space activities, many countries have expressed an interest in a collaborative exploration programme that will incorporate a return to the Moon. This awareness of the value of space exploration as a global, societal project, was demonstrated earlier this year, when 14 space agencies published a joint document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination”, which sets down initial steps for mutual collaboration.

Many robotic lunar missions from the United States, China, Japan, India and Europe are already planned or under way. Once the ability to survive on the Moon and utilise the alien lunar environment has been demonstrated, the way will be open for the first human expeditions to Mars. Once again, robotic precursor missions will be necessary to pave the

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Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Foreword: Daniel Sacotte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Foreword: Dr. Walter Döllinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1. Space Exploration: The Story so far . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 The History of Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Europe’s Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2. The Innovations Roadmap for European Space Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3. European Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 The Advancement of Scientific Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Life and its Co-evolution with the Planetary Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Astronomical Observatories on the Moon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Innovation and Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Applied Microgravity Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Entrepreneurial Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Space Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Support for the European Political Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 European Ambitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 The Lisbon Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Global Partnership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Public Constituencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4. Exploration Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The International Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 European Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 National Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Private Enterprise Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Epilogue: The Impact of Human Space Exploration on Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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Foreword

Exploration Conference in Berlin will make clear, there are many nations – including the emerging space powers of Asia – who intend to utilise their space programmes as a means of advancing their science and technology. It is vital that Europe is not left behind, and that we grasp the opportunities offered by such an inspirational, ambitious endeavour.

Space exploration has the potential to strengthen and diversify European economies and to further the aims of the Lisbon Strategy by encouraging the development of a knowledge-driven society. By playing to its considerable strengths and taking advantage of its established skills, Europe has the capability to become a leading player in any future exploration programme. It is our task to identify how this can be done, so that European contributions to such an ambitious endeavour will provide major benefits for the citizens of Europe and beyond.

Daniel Sacotte, Director of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and Exploration Programmes, ESA

50 years ago, the world watched in wonder as the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, soared around the Earth every 90 minutes, transmitting a repeating signal that left a huge imprint on people’s consciousness and imaginations. However, Sputnik was a product of the Cold War, a superpower rivalry that provided the main motivation for space exploration for many years.

During the last five decades, the space industry has grown and flourished, offering new technologies that have revolutionised our society and way of life. Yet there is so much more that could be achieved if we only have the vision to grasp the possibilities offered by the final frontier. Through space exploration and human spaceflight, humanity has, for the first time, the opportunity to answer age-old questions about the origins of life on Earth and its possible presence on other planets, to go beyond the limits of today’s knowledge, to extend known boundaries and eventually expand human presence in the Solar System.

Europe’s fundamental desire to build upon its heritage of exploration remains as strong as ever. In a multi-polar world where many new competitors are emerging, it is essential that Europe becomes a major participant in the space exploration enterprises of the next half century in order to remain a member of the league of nations that are driving and influencing global societal development.

Although the United States will remain the foremost investor and leader in space exploration for the foreseeable future, sustained human missions beyond low Earth orbit will be not possible with the resources of any single nation. There will inevitably be opportunities for many other countries to make major contributions to a global programme, and it is imperative that Europe is in a position to play a key role in such a pioneering technological endeavour.

Earlier this year, despite their different backgrounds, interests and capabilities, 14 space agencies published a joint document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination”, which set down initial steps for mutual collaboration. However, as this document and the speakers at the International Space

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Foreword

Given its leading qualifications in the field of astronautics, exploration gives Europe the chance of becoming an even more attractive international partner: A fair collaborator in the international field that aims for real partnership and integration.

Germany and Europe are excellently placed for a program of exploration, no matter whether it is managed by Europe alone or in global cooperation. Together, Germany’s industry, the DLR institutes and the research landscape in general constitute a broad scientific and technological potential, offering excellent know-how that is recognized worldwide. Furthermore, DLR considers the education dimension of exploration to be highly important.

Besides, exploration is associated with certain basic cultural aspects. Astronautics expands the intellectual horizon as well as the physical range of mankind considerably beyond the confines of our home planet, giving us not only technological progress but also the chance of gratifying our immanent wish to expand our sphere of existence. The future that we are planning and shaping during this conference will show whether Europe will retain the position of importance in this field which it enjoys in the cultural history of the world to this day. As Karl Kaiser, a political scientist, so poignantly put it, ‘If space should be populated only by Americans, Russians, Japanese and maybe Chinese by the end of the 21st century, this would have a symbolic significance of a profoundly political nature.’

Dr. Walter Döllinger, Director of Space Programes, DLR Space Agency, Bonn

Looking behind the intimate borders of Europe, discoverers like Vasco da Gama, Christopher Columbus or Alexander von Humboldt provided the intellectual and physical engine of growth for human endeavours during the past 500 years. A mere 50 years ago another age of exploration began, once again with a quest for scientific knowledge. The human step into space was and still is a significant incident in our evolution. The achievements of the last 50 years were astonishing indeed, ranging from the Earth’s first artificial satellite Sputnik to the landing of the European spaceship Huygens on Titan.

Exploration opens a door to the future in astronautics. The point is to create a new strategy in which various fields of astronautics are pooled so as to broaden the boundaries of human existence in our solar system. The intention is to focus cooperation among established disciplines in order to further enhance the visibility of astronautics, its opportunities and results in large segments of our society. Exploration will pursue a comprehensive approach incorporating scientific, technological, political, and cultural aspects. Robotic technologies are crucial for the preparation and support of human missions. The International Space Station ISS will not only serve as a multidisciplinary research laboratory, but also as a test-environment for exploration-relevant technologies.

This approach is necessary to find answers to fundamental questions relating to our existence, and to widen the operating range of mankind at the same time. Specifically, interest will focus on

basic research into, among other things, the birth • of the universe and the spread of life in it and, more specifically, in our solar system;scientific research in a wide range of disciplines • will push the borders of our knowledge and generate new applications;technology development and technology transfer • into other areas (spin-offs);exploration of new resources in the vicinity of • Earth and their possible later exploitation; andcultural, societal and political impacts of these • activities on Earth, particularly in international cooperation.

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1. Space Exploration: The Story so far

20th century explorers who risked life and limb to reach the North and South Poles and the summit of Everest.

Today, the spirit of past European explorers lives on in the desire to learn more about humanity’s place in the Universe, something that can only be achieved by venturing forth to visit and study new worlds. For the first time in history, technology has reached a state of sophistication that enables us to compare the evolution of our planet with its neighbouring worlds, to catalogue the resources of these worlds, and to search for the answers to such fundamental questions as “How did life evolve?” and “Are we alone?”

The History of Space Exploration

Future space exploration will inevitably be founded upon the remarkable technological and scientific achievements of the first 50 years of human and robotic exploration. In that brief period, humans have walked on the Moon and brought back hundreds of kilos of lunar samples. They have assembled space stations in low Earth orbit, sent robotic explorers to every planet in the Solar System, built sophisticated space observatories and developed powerful expendable and reusable space vehicles.

Apollo 12 mission © NASA

“Explore”: (1) travel through an unfamiliar area in order to learn about it; (2) inquire into or discuss in detail; (3) examine by touch. (Oxford English dictionary definitions)

“Space exploration”: Extend access and a sustainable presence for humans in Earth-Moon-Mars space, including the Lagrangian Points and near-Earth objects.

Throughout its existence, the human race has been driven by a desire and a drive to explore. Our prehistoric ancestors overcame advancing ice sheets, competition for resources and intimidating physical barriers to settle eventually in every continent other than Antarctica. Today, there are few corners of the globe where humanity has not left its mark.

There are many reasons for exploration. In many cases, it was largely motivated by population pressure allied to a need for virgin land and natural resources. However, in the background there has always been the search for knowledge and the desire to find out what lies in the next valley or on the other side of the ocean. Many of the great episodes of exploration have begun in Europe. Examples include the Vikings, who sailed west to Greenland and North America in their longships; Christopher Columbus, who sought a shorter route to the riches of Cathay; and the

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that ESA Member States developed Spacelab, a modular research facility that flew on 22 Shuttle missions between 1983 and 1998.

ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter on ISS

With 22 flights in various configurations, Spacelab enabled scientists to take advantage of the unique microgravity conditions to conduct pioneering research in many different disciplines. European astronauts also participated in various groundbreaking Shuttle missions involving the Hubble Space Telescope, the Tethered Satellite, the Eureca retrievable satellite and the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. At the same time, ties with the former Soviet Union were strengthened, providing opportunities for European astronauts to gain experience of long-term spaceflight on board the Salyut and Mir space stations.

European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) and ISS

After the dramatic successes of the Apollo lunar programme 1969-1972, the advent of the Space Shuttle led to an increasing emphasis on microgravity research and commercialisation of low Earth orbit. At the same time, the introduction of increasingly advanced, automated spacecraft brought about a revolution in such fields as telecommunications, meteorology, Earth observation and navigation.

Alongside the exploitation and utilisation of near-Earth space, many nations recognised the importance of discovering the true nature of Earth’s neighbours. Why are they so different from our blue planet? Have they always been hostile to life as we know it? Is there a possibility that life ever evolved on these worlds – or even that some simple form of life exists somewhere out there today?

From the 1970s onwards, robotic human ambassadors have studied each of the eight major planets, along with various asteroids and comets. Spacecraft have been despatched by the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe and Japan to make controlled landings on the Moon, Venus, Mars, Titan, asteroids Eros and Itokawa, as well as Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Some of these have carried sophisticated laboratories, others have deployed mobile rovers. In addition to the cases of lunar rocks returned by the Apollo astronauts, automated spacecraft have been designed to bring back samples of extraterrestrial material.

Europe’s Contributions

Since the early years of the Space Age, Europe has played a significant role in mankind’s endeavours to explore other worlds and understand the Universe in which we live. In the early 1970s, NASA invited Europe to participate in its crewed Shuttle programme, with the result

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Ariane 5

At the same time, the European space science programme has played an increasingly important role in the exploration and knowledge of the Solar System and beyond. Since 1986, European spacecraft have gone into orbit around the Moon, Venus and Mars, and made an historic landing on Saturn’s satellite Titan. In 2014, after a 10-year odyssey beyond the orbit of Jupiter, ESA’s Rosetta mission will fly alongside and land on a comet.

Since 1978, more than 30 astronauts from ESA member states have flown on 48 missions. Many of these flights have been the result of Europe’s decision to become a major partner in the International Space Station (ISS) programme. Among the many contributions to the programme are the Columbus laboratory, the Automated Transfer Vehicles, Multipurpose Logistics Modules, two ISS Nodes and the Data Management System for the Russian segment. In addition, Europe is providing specialist scientific facilities, including a Microgravity Science Glovebox and various refrigerators and freezers.

Artists impression of European Columbus module

At the same time, Europe has developed its own autonomous access to space through the Ariane launcher programme. Today, the heavy-lift Ariane 5 can carry a payload of two large commercial satellites, and a modified version will soon launch the first ATV on a rendezvous and docking mission to the ISS.

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2. The Innovations Roadmap for European

Space Exploration

(1) Robotic exploration of Mars will lead ultimately to the implementation of programmes to bring selected samples from Mars back to Earth. Through this activity, it will be possible to learn more about Mars and its environment and to demonstrate the entire transportation sequence, including return from Mars to the Earth’s surface.

(2) Prolonged human operations in space, particularly in low Earth orbit with utilisation of the ISS. Through this activity we will learn how to sustain human health in space and discover ways to improve the efficiency and safety of human transport and operations in space.

Although a detailed roadmap has yet to be defined, it is clear that a future European space exploration programme will be built upon the extensive experience gained by ESA Member States in robotic and human spaceflight. A number of key capabilities must be developed in order to make it possible for European citizens to set foot on the Moon and eventually explore Mars.

The preparation of human missions to Mars can be broadly subdivided into three parallel activity lines to be followed throughout the next 20 years:

Capability roadmap for European space exploration

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One of the most fundamental requirements will be the development of safe, reliable transportation systems that can not only carry crews to lunar orbit, but also deliver them safely to precise locations on the surface and then return them to Earth. Other innovations, such as in situ resource utilisation and robotic astronaut assistance will also be a priority.

Precurser robotic missions will play an important role, preparing the way for humans to establish long-term bases on the Moon and conduct extensive exploration of Mars. Building upon the orbiter and lander programmes already developed for lunar and Martian studies, informed decisions will be made concerning the architectures required for human habitation and surface operations. The ExoMars rover is already under development, as the first mission of ESA’s Aurora programme. Also envisaged as a long-term objective is a Mars Sample Return mission.

© NASA/RPIF/DLR

(3) Human missions to the Moon. Through this activity we will learn how to transport crews efficiently and safely to and from planetary surfaces; how to utilise local resources to reduce dependency of cargo transport from Earth; how to implement sustained surface exploration activities based on a human-robotic partnership in order to maximise the effectiveness of costly and limited crew time; and to protect humans in deep space against the radiation environment.

Moon south pole © USGS

With the continuing availability of the International Space Station (ISS) for at least another 8 to 10 years, it will be possible to demonstrate some important enabling capabilities necessary for future human missions beyond low Earth orbit. After the installation of the Columbus laboratory and other science facilities on the ISS, it will be possible, for example, to investigate measures that will improve long-term astronaut health, evaluate advanced closed loop environmental systems, and try out new EVA systems. New crew transportation vehicles equipped with autonomous rendezvous and docking systems may also be flown and tested in low Earth orbit, prior to their utilisation in deep space.

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3. European Themes

Habitability and Life Beyond Earth: to increase • the knowledge of life, its evolution, and its environment; Sustainable Human Life in Space: to create • innovation to support and improve human living conditions; Sharing the Space Adventure and Benefits: • to foster broader engagement and a robust support base, sharing benefits in the form of awareness, education, inspiration, security and commercialisation.

The European long-term strategy for space exploration will be based on four strategic cornerstones that have been developed after extensive consultations with the scientific community; politicians and institutional organisations; industrialists and innovators and the general public. The cornerstones are:

Europeans in Space: to support European • projects and policy objectives, and position Europe as a visible strategic partner;

The European interests in space exploration have been derived from an extensive stakeholder consultation process with the European scientific community, political representatives, industry and European public organisations. The chart shows the relevance of the resulting twelve key themes in respect to the target destinations LEO/Earth, Moon and Mars. Due to their nature the themes can be characterised as either driving or enabled by space exploration. For some, this character changes over time. All themes generate a significant beneficial impact on society.

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The Advancement of Scientific Knowledge

Three major themes have been identified for the science domain area: (1) Life and its Co-evolution with the planetary environment; (2) Lunar observatories; (3) Life sciences.

Life and its Co-evolution with the Planetary Environment

Overarching Goal: To understand the fundamental questions regarding the origins and evolution of life in the Solar System, as well as the ways in which they interact.

The origin and evolution of life is necessarily dependent on the origin and evolution of its host planetary environment. However, the presence of life has the ability to modify the planetary environment in which it evolves. For example, the presence of large amounts of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere is the direct result of the spread of photosynthetic organisms some 2 billion years ago. Life on other bodies, should it exist, may have had a similar impact. One example is the possible biogenic origin for methane gas found on Mars.

There are many fundamental questions that remain to be answered. What were conditions like in the early Solar System? How did life arise if Earth was initially molten and sterile? Where did the water and organics necessary for life come from? Although all evidence of this era has been erased on Earth, the Moon may still preserve some of this information. The lunar surface and the underlying regolith act as a natural “museum” in which the records of asteroid or comet impacts and solar activity are preserved. Comets and asteroids, the debris left over from the formation

Using these cornerstones as a basis, four categories that are of particular significance for future European space exploration have been identified:

(1) The advancement of scientific knowledge;(2) Innovation and economic development; (3) Support for the European political project; (4) Public constituencies.

The relevance of the key themes under those categories is displayed in the chart on page 11.

As these catagories recognise, a technological roadmap alone will not result in the creation of a successful, long-term space exploration programme for Europe. Such an ambitious enterprise will only be possible if it receives substantial funding and widespread support from politicians, scientists, private enterprise and the general public. In order to achieve this, it will be essential to grab the attention and backing of key stakeholders and decision-makers.

Important as it is to present an inspiring vision that promises a lasting legacy of achievement, it is also vital to emphasise the potential of space exploration to benefit the European economy and society as a whole. Some research is already being undertaken in areas such as applied research, life and physical sciences. Such research will be considerably enhanced by the completion of the ISS and the extension of space activities to low lunar orbit and the surfaces of the Moon and Mars. At the same time, there will be great potential for new advances and discoveries as scientists establish observatories and laboratories on the Moon and search for life on the red planet.

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The study of the co-evolution of life and planetary environments is a key driver for the ESA Exploration Strategy, influencing the future roadmap and requirements for advanced architectures, such as hardware capable of in situ dating of rocks, detection of biogenic molecules, and deep drilling.

Living organisms and the surface upon which they live are inseparable from each other. Planets evolve geologically, thus influencing also the

evolution of organisms. On the other hand, on Earth, living organisms influence the composition of the atmosphere, thus influencing further evolution of larger and more complex organisms.

Frances WestallCNRS Orleans

of the planets, also offer important clues to the origins of biogenesis. Each of these is a potential source of water and organic molecules, the basic building blocks of life.

Mars is thought to be one of the most favourable places for alien life to have evolved since conditions may once have been warmer and wetter than they are today. Over the last 3 billion years, Mars has evolved away from its former benign and the surface of Mars no longer seems favourable for life as we know it. However, there is a possibility that life established itself underground, where liquid water could persist and conditions were less hostile.

Mars north pole © NASA/JPL

An understanding of life’s origins and evolution, and the answer to the age-old question “Are we alone?” are fundamental problems that have puzzled humanity since time immemorial. Apart from their scientific importance, these themes are also of broad cultural significance. If evidence of extraterrestrial life (past or present) is found on Mars, it would have an enormous impact on society.

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“Mars presently offers the best chance to find extraterrestrial life, extinct or extant. In addition, Mars kept the record of the early evolution of a terrestrial planet and,

possibly, the beginning of life. The planet offers a laboratory to study fundamental geophysical processes, which are more typical of most other planets and moons in the solar system - in many cases better than what we can study on Earth.”

Tilman SpohnDLR German Aerospace Center

Astronomical Observatories on the MoonOverarching Goal: To use the Moon to perform groundbreaking astronomical observations that are either impossible or severely degraded from locations on Earth or in orbit.

At present, almost all astronomical observations are made by Earth-based instruments or orbiting space observatories, such as the Hubble Space Telescope. Only a few, limited observations have been made from the surface of other worlds.

With its extremely sparse atmosphere, the Moon would appear to be an ideal location for many kinds of astronomical observatories. If a human presence is established on the Moon, it would seem logical to take advantage of the available workforce and infrastructure to establish such research facilities, despite the challenges presented by the lunar environment, such as the ubiquitous presence of fine dust and extreme temperature cycles.

Mars

The fourth planet from the Sun has fascinated scientists, novelists, artists and the general public for centuries. This fascination has extended into the modern technological age. When the Mars Pathfinder rover landed on the red planet, a record number of hits were counted on the mission web sites.

Although Mars is noticeably colder than our world, it is also the most Earth-like member of the Solar System. A visitor to Mars would experience changing seasons and a day which lasts only a little longer than a terrestrial day. Its polar ice caps grow in the winter and shrink each summer. Clouds of ice particles and dust storms appear in the thin Martian atmosphere, while numerous small “dust devils” meander over the plains.

Mars comes closer to Earth than any of the planets apart from Venus, although its distance varies considerably during each opposition. At its closest, Mars may approach to within 55 million km of Earth, but during the furthest oppositions it comes no closer than 100 million km.

There are no obvious signs of life on Mars, although the climate was warmer and wetter a few billion years ago. At the present time, the surface atmospheric pressure is so low (less than 1% of that on Earth) that liquid water cannot exist on the surface. Yet some channels seem to be just a few days or weeks old.

© ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum)

Are there natural reservoirs of liquid water or ice in cavities just beneath the surface? If so, do they harbour primitive organisms? One major task for human explorers will be to look for answers to the age-old question, “Are we alone?”

With a surface area equal to all of the landmasses on Earth, there will also be plenty to explore for geoscientists. Mapping the inventory of potentially exploitable minerals and probing the interior with seismic surveys will be major enterprises. Even the two small moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, may offer opportunities for mining.

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architecture capabilities, together with a highly capable communications infrastructure. This, in turn, would provide the necessary infrastructure that would enable the deployment and operation of unique lunar observatories.

“Looking at the Moon we learn about the origin of the Solar System. Looking from the Moon we learn about the origin of the universe.”

Heino FalckeUniversity of Nijmegen

Life Sciences

Overarching Goals: (a) In order to enable human exploration, provisions must be made to maintain health and to provide medical support. (b) If human beings are involved in exploration missions, the outstanding opportunity to increase knowledge of life sciences through fundamental investigations would be made possible.

Microgravity research related to the life sciences has been taking place on board the Shuttle and various space stations for several decades. This research will continue and grow in importance as further laboratory facilities are added to the ISS by 2010. However, the fact remains that, in order to enable humans to conduct exploration beyond Earth orbit, ways must be found to maintain astronauts’ long-term health and provide better medical support. Significant preparatory work will be required in order to develop this core capability.

Studies have shown that most astronomical observations at different wavelengths (visible, infrared, ultraviolet, etc.) are possible from the Moon, although these generally do not offer a competitive advantage over orbiting facilities. However, astronomical observations at radio wavelengths may particularly benefit from such a location since the Moon’s far side is sheltered from terrestrial radio interference and could provide a platform for antennae that may cover an area of several square kilometres.

Radio interferometry – the linking of separate instruments so that they offer a similar capability to a much larger instrument – would be of particular significance on the Moon in the low frequency part of the radio spectrum. One major objective would be the detection of the “Dark Ages”, the time before the first stars and galaxies began to form.

The first ever view of the formation of the original stars and galaxies would offer major insights into the origins of our Universe – a discovery of great intellectual significance. Such observations are currently exceedingly difficult due to the distortion of cosmic radio waves with a frequency between 30-100 MHz by the ionosphere. At even lower frequencies the view of our universe is completely blocked from Earth. Large, free-flying interferometric arrays of the size required appear not feasible, therefore, a lunar telescope is the only sensible option.

Other areas of astronomical research that would benefit from a lunar location include observations of cosmic rays and fundamental particles, especially neutrinos. Space-based systems in these areas are essentially precluded since a very large collecting area is required.

The key driver for this theme would be the establishment of lunar transportation and surface

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psychological challenges are also likely to arise during such extended missions, such as mutations of microbes in isolated habitats which may affect human health, equipment etc. This means that the interaction of astronauts with their environment must be characterised and controlled.

The degree of difficulty in meeting these goals will inevitably be influenced by all decisions made concerning the overall exploration architecture. At the same time, different strategies for maintaining crew health and performance will have marked impact on the overall exploration architecture.

Future fundamental research on human physiology, psychology and other life science topics will be required in order to contribute to a deeper understanding of the observed crew reactions, no matter which destination is foreseen for exploration. Beyond the basic requirement of supporting astronauts during long-term missions, there is no doubt that the pursuit of this theme will enhance knowledge about fundamental human physiology and medicine. This deeper understanding will be applicable to life sciences back on Earth, where space-related advances and medical spin-offs will be of considerable benefit to the general population.

“Space life sciences is an indispensable cornerstone in a successful and sustainable space exploration program. Europe has gained a leading position in this field.”

Gerda Horneck DLR German Aerospace Center

At the same time, the involvement of humans in exploration missions to the Moon or Mars will offer outstanding opportunities to increase our knowledge of life sciences through a variety of fundamental investigations associated with the particular conditions on these distant destinations.

Any exploration setting will provide new, unique characteristics that will be of interest to life scientists. Such exploration activities will improve our general understanding of human survival and adaptation to different environments. Knowledge gathered in one location, such as the Moon, is also likely to be relevant for subsequent exploration targets. An example of the latter is the influence of exposure to different levels of partial gravity on different worlds.

Furthermore, prolonged exposure to the space environment induces a variety of physical and psychological changes. Exploration missions will involve long-duration flights during which crews will experience prolonged exposure to microgravity, radiation and space sickness, as well as feelings of isolation and difficulty in communication with Earth. Other medical and

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“There is little doubt that a return to the Moon will vastly enhance our knowledge of the Solar System and our place within it. The primary scientific importance of the Moon arises from the fact that it has an extremely ancient surface, which preserves a record of both the early geological evolution of a terrestrial planet and of the space environment in the inner Solar System from billions of years ago. Significant benefits of lunar exploration can also be identified for the life and astronomical sciences. In addition, experience gained on the Moon would naturally support longer term aspirations to send people to Mars later in the century.”

Ian CrawfordUniversity of London

Crater Copernicus on Moon © NASA

The MoonThe Moon is Earth’s nearest neighbour, only three days away by spacecraft, and the logical first destination in a future exploration programme. Its surface area is similar in size to the continents of Australia and Africa combined, most of which has never been visited by astronauts. Everywhere we

look there are impact craters – clear evidence that the Moon (and, by implication, the Earth) has been struck by asteroids and comets throughout its history.

The lunar environment presents many challenges to robotic and human explorers. Too small to hold onto an atmosphere, its lifeless, powdered surface is constantly bombarded by solar and cosmic radiation, as well as incoming meteors.

Learning to live on the Moon will be an important step in extending human presence beyond the Earth. Studies are already well under way to determine the most suitable sites for future bases. A number of locations with almost permanent sunlight have been identified near the lunar poles, where water ice may exist in nearby, permanently shaded craters. Such ice could be used for washing, cooking and growing crops, as well as production of oxygen for breathing and rocket fuel.

The Moon is seen as a “way station” where we can learn how to live on an alien world in preparation for a future mission to Mars. The introduction of in situ resource utilisation and closed loop environmental control systems will be a major step on the road to permanent settlement of the Moon and Mars, with potential benefits for society back on Earth.

Commercial utilisation of the Moon, whether through tourism or exploitation of its mineral resources, is likely to be important in the coming decades. Meanwhile, scientists are already keen to take advantage of a return to the Moon to establish astronomical observatories that will be able to conduct important studies that are not possible on Earth, with the potential to make exciting new discoveries.

The Moon is also a natural archive, preserving in its rocks a record of the main events that have taken place in the Solar System during the last 4.5 billion years. Historical records of meteor impacts, solar activity and other external influences can still be found on the lunar surface or buried in the lunar regolith. Seismic surveys and drilling deep into the crust can also provide new insights into the formation of the Moon, the size of its hypothetical metal core and the nature of its interior.

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Examples of areas with great potential for microgravity research are: preventive medicine, better understanding of human physiology, pharmaceuticals, botany, bacterial bio-kinetics, artificial ecosystems, new alloys, metal/chemical foams, smart materials, nano-technologies, rocket motors and jet engines. Other applications already under development on Earth might be enhanced by their use in space, e.g. bio-contamination protective systems, advanced diagnostic and self-diagnostic devices, and telemedicine/remote surgery.

Nearly all the outcomes of microgravity research will have a positive impact on society and the global economy. Everything pertaining to health and medical advances (e.g. research into mental and neurological diseases), will greatly assist the quality of life of aging populations with consequent effects on the general economy. A similar impact could be experienced with reference to telemedicine for dispersed populations.

The space exploration programme will provide a wealth of opportunities for future applied research through the design of staging posts in LEO, at the Earth-Moon Lagrangian points or in low lunar orbit, as well as planetary surface infrastructures, such as human-tended laboratories. At the same time, applied research related to the effect of low gravity environments on the Moon

Innovation and Economic Development

Three top level themes have been identified for the economy domain area: (a) Applied microgravity research; (b) Entrepreneurial activities; (c) Space services.

Applied Microgravity Research

Overarching Goal: Secure long-term European access to microgravity facilities in order to develop innovative techniques, technologies and products, and to enable space exploration.

Applied research in microgravity is already performed by many countries through the use of different platforms such as parabolic flights in specially adapted aircraft, sounding rockets, space capsules and facilities on the International Space Station (ISS).

There is significant potential for further growth if the user community can be assured of continued research opportunities in space and possible improvements in the conditions for research (e.g. logistics and facility accessibility, automation and access to crew time). However, it is essential to secure long-term access to applied research facilities in the microgravity environment for the European user community also beyond the lifetime of the International Space Station.

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Entrepreneurial Activities

Overarching Goal: Enable the emergence of a space tourism industry in Europe in order to ensure the subsequent sustainability of permanent tourism and the presence of the media and entertainment industries in space.

One of the major themes associated with European space activities has been the involvement and promotion of private enterprise. This will continue and intensify as the future development of space exploration and human spaceflight supports the emergence of new European entrepreneurial activities. This support will eventually lead to the development of a permanent, thriving, emergent industry that includes space tourism, media and entertainment activities.

Space tourism is already a fact of life as wealthy individuals pay for visits to the ISS, flights to the edge of space in jet aircraft and visits to ground-based facilities. Since the successful flight of the privately owned SpaceShipOne in 2004, companies such as Virgin Galactic and EADS have begun to invest substantial sums in the development of suborbital spaceflight.

SpaceShipOne (courtesy of Virgin Galactic)

As new infrastructures are introduced as part of the future space exploration programme, the number and variety of space tourist destinations

and Mars will be of direct relevance to the exploration programme, as well as of general biomedical interest. Technological advances will also generate new markets on Earth, e.g. research into hydroponics – plant culture using nutrient-rich water without the presence of soil, the production of new materials and alloys, and cleaner jet engines.

”Microgravity is really a strange environment which, despite the initial troubles it may cause in space, becomes eventually a friendly and

useful tool that you wish you could take back on Earth with you in your daily life. I am proud to have initiated the first parabolic flight programme in Europe based on a Caravelle and now on the Airbus ZERO-G (A300) operated by Novespace for the benefit of thousands of researchers in a wide range of disciplines some of which are even not in need to go higher in space for their research. It has proven so far very productive for science and technology and I hope it will soon be also accessible to the general public through dedicated commercial flights in order to better sensitise the tax payer to the benefits of the space programme.”

Jean-François ClervoyNovespace; ESA Astronaut

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inspiring the development of new transportation concepts and energy sources applicable on Earth. In addition, there will almost certainly be a “knock-on effect” that will impact the legal, fiscal, financial and insurance sectors of the economy, as well as education and culture.

In order to facilitate the emergence of a dynamic private space sector in Europe, it will be essential to create the conditions for a sustainable industry. Government support is likely to be highly beneficial in encouraging the emergence of such entrepreneurial activities.

Space Services

Overarching Goals: (a) Use the Moon as a source of natural resources and industrial raw materials; (b) Use specific areas of outer space as safe havens and operational hubs; (c) Provide in-space infrastructures and services to support space exploration and make it sustainable.

A future space exploration programme will facilitate the development of a sustainable, service-based space economy. Although this may be based initially on government-funded customers, it will increasingly involve investors and users from the private sector. Examples of activities which are strategically significant for sustained human activities in space and also well suited to be privately provided services include exploitation of in situ natural resources, in-space servicing, communication, navigation and logistic services.

One of the most important requirements of exploring space beyond the Earth is the in situ utilisation of local resources. This includes not only the direct exploitation of local raw materials, but also the introduction of sophisticated mining, processing and manufacturing techniques that result in the local production of food, propellants, and hardware.

and opportunities will increase. These could take many forms, including such activities as “virtual” tourism on other worlds, space video games and competitions such as races involving remotely controlled lunar rovers.

The media will also have an important role to play by satisfying the public demand for more information. The mass media and industry may also be encouraged to meet a growing demand for new forms of entertainment, ranging from virtual reality to 3D movies.

Space tourism: cabin interior © EADS Astrium / photo C. Mériaux 2007

The future expansion of entrepreneurial activities into space will offer a broad range of new opportunities for public-private partnerships and contribute to enhancing the sustainability of space exploration. However, private companies may soon develop their own independent capabilities and facilities as space tourism, sport, competitions, media and entertainment activities become a sector of huge economic importance and entrepreneurial ventures lead to the creation of multinational consortia.

Private investments may also generate new technologies, technical solutions and products that will help to solve the problems related to transportation on the Moon and Mars, whether tele-controlled, robotic or manned, while

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With the growth in the space infrastructure beyond low Earth orbit will come a requirement for large-scale, in-space servicing (and possible assembly in orbit) of future space observatories and other facilities. Such in-space servicing would extend the lifetime and overall profitability of high-value space assets. Similarly, the demand for telecommunication and navigation services will grow tremendously with the expansion of exploration activities.

Another area that is likely to expand rapidly is the provision of logistics to automated and human-occupied facilities in Earth orbit or beyond. This could involve government-supported development of commercial space transportation services or some other activities such as operation of space refuelling depots.

What does seem certain is that innovative techniques, technologies and products or systems developed for the exploration programme will also have many applications back on Earth. Examples include automated manufacturing and assembly plants, and advanced power stations that may help to solve global energy problems and reduce pollution.

“The worldwide space exploration activities in the fields of automated and human undertakings are pointing to a

sustainable presence of humans in space - far beyond our Earth’s orbit. Space will be a place for humans to daily live and work. This new era will lead to a demand for new services in the form of infrastructures, logistics, transportation and investments, in space as well as on other celestial bodies like our Moon. Now is the time for governments and industries to prepare the European space sector for the upcoming challenges and to ensure European participation in future markets.”

Manfred FuchsOHB-System AG

The variety of technological and investment opportunities will attract large, non-space industrial enterprises in many traditional fields, e.g. civil engineering, mining, petro-chemicals, transportation, electricity production and telecommunications, as well as those dedicated to sophisticated technologies such as nano-components, optical devices and autonomous robots. This will trigger an inflow of private capital alongside the commercial development of lunar natural resources and products. The positive impact of this activity on the global economy can hardly be overestimated.

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”Asteroids are fascinating objects for a whole variety of reasons. Scientifically, we need to understand exactly how they came about - how do they fit into our understanding

of how the Solar System formed. And there is even the suggestion that some asteroids may have carried the organic molecules to Earth from which life ultimately developed. In the future, it might even be that asteroids will provide some of the raw materials which will be used in space to build space stations or rockets. And ultimately we can be pretty sure that an asteroid will threaten our very existence here on the Earth. Bearing that fact in mind, we have the responsibility to find out all we can about asteroids - we may well have the capability to do something to destroy or deflect the threatening object - but only if we truly understand how they are ‘built’.“

John ZarneckiOpen University

Near-Earth Objects

The Solar System contains countless billions of pieces of natural debris – comets, asteroids, meteors, ice and dust particles – left over from the formation of the Solar System. Most of the rocky material is found in the asteroid belt, between Mars and Jupiter, but many thousands of asteroids travel through the inner Solar System, posing a potential threat of collision with Earth. These are known as near-Earth objects (NEOs).

Asteroid Itokawa © ISAS/JAXA

The precise number of NEOs is unknown. It has been estimated that 1,000 to 1,200 of these are larger than 1 km across - big enough to wipe out our civilisation if one of them hits the Earth. There may be about 20,000 medium-sized NEOs capable of devastating a small country or generating a 500 metre high tsunami. Not only do these small bodies represent the most significant impact threat to Earth, but they are scientifically important in their own right, and represent potential resources for further exploration and exploitation. Some asteroids are rich in iron and nickel. Others are mainly carbon and may even contain diamonds. They may also provide an ideal intermediate deep-space destination on the road to Mars, since much of the infrastructure developed for earlier destinations, such as the Moon, can be utilised with modest modifications.

Rosetta

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will, therefore, be important to demonstrate European assertiveness on the international scene by conducting a highly visible, ambitious programme of exploration and human spaceflight activities. Such a policy could also contribute to the European drive towards an independent strategic posture in foreign affairs and security matters.

Space exploration and human spaceflight have traditionally been used by the superpowers as a means of impressing the world with their technological capabilities and global ambitions. Such high profile, prestigious activities represent one of the most efficient and visible ways of affirming an assertive global position in a peaceful manner, associating leadership with a willingness to cooperate with other nations. This policy remains at the core of the current US space exploration vision, and it is increasingly being adopted by emerging powers such as China and India as a demonstration of their intention to play a greater role in world economic and political affairs.

BepiColombo

Faced with this reality, it is imperative that Europe strives to increase political unity and that the European Union takes on the attributes and capacities of a sovereign entity, united or

Support for the European Political Project

Three themes have been identified for the political domain area: European ambitions; Lisbon strategy; Global partnership.

European Ambitions

Overarching Goals: (a) Enable the European Union to take the role of a unified organisation in major undertakings of global value; (b) Demonstrate increased European assertiveness in international affairs by conducting an ambitious space exploration programme; (c) Contribute towards an independent European strategic posture in foreign affairs and security matters.

Cassini-Huygens

Future space exploration will involve significant collaboration between space-faring nations. However, it is essential that Europe plays a lead role in this pioneering endeavour, not only in the technological sense, but also with regard to the influence a unified Europe can exert. It

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The Lisbon Strategy

Overarching Goal: Support the goal of the EU Lisbon agenda by making Europe the most competitive and the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world through inspiration, education, research and innovation, as demonstrated by the quality and quantity of European science and technology.

The Lisbon Strategy, also known as the Lisbon Agenda or Lisbon Process, is the main development plan of the European Union. It was set out by the European Council in Lisbon in March 2000 and adopted for a 10 year period. The Lisbon Strategy was designed to deal with the low productivity and stagnation of economic growth in the EU, together with new challenges such as globalisation, an ageing population and increasingly rapid technological change. Its broad aim is to “make Europe the most competitive and the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world”.

The main areas covered by the Lisbon Strategy are economic, social, and environmental renewal and sustainability. The Strategy is based on innovation as the engine for economic change, with an emphasis on the “learning economy” and investment in people. This can be achieved through inspiration, education, research and innovation, leading to a significant improvement

federated. Europe must find a way of showing to itself and to the rest of the world that it is still a major global power, which is unified, assertive, ambitious, and able to provide people, products and services of the highest quality.

“Exploration of the Solar System and human spaceflight are closely linked components of ambitious space programmes, which are unthinkable outside of

the European framework. Europe has already all the competencies to be one of the world leaders of space exploration. It is the inescapable responsibility of the current generation of public authorities to provide the European space sector with the vision and the means to support and maintain its leadership position.”

Henri RevolMember of the French Senate;President of the Parliamentary Office of Evaluation ofScientific and Technological Choices

One way of achieving this recognition and status is to enlarge Europe’s strategic priorities in space to include exploration and human spaceflight. This would mean that Europe puts itself in a position to control its operations and access in near-Earth and cis-lunar space, with full participation and relative independence in key areas of the space exploration programme. The success of such a programme would help to promote awareness of a common identity among European member states and citizens, and to demonstrate increased confidence in the future capabilities and role of Europe in the 21st century.

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in which a stronger EU economy will drive job creation and act as a magnet for foreign, high-skilled scientists and investors. At the same time, the excitement of space exploration will encourage more European students at all levels to adopt academic courses and careers in science and engineering, thus stimulating the European scientific lifeblood and stopping or reversing the “brain drain” towards the USA.

Support for this view comes from the example of the US Apollo programme in the 1960s, which saw a qualitative and quantitative increase of the science and technology workforce and a dramatic increase in the motivation of young people in these areas.

Global Partnership

Overarching Goal: Enhance European diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships through the development of new or existing partnerships with the USA and emerging world powers, particularly Brazil, Russia, India and China.

As mentioned above, European involvement in a global space exploration programme has the potential to provide significant support for the growth of a knowledge-based economy, but such a programme could also be important in strengthening Europe’s international position in other ways. In particular, space exploration is likely to enhance Europe’s diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships through the development of partnerships with the USA and emerging world powers.

For historical, cultural and political reasons, international relationships with the United States are recognised as extremely important for European countries. Space is one of the more visible examples of this cooperation. Maintaining the bilateral relationship that has existed since the

in the quality and quantity of European science and technology.

With the support of European bodies and Member States, the development of advanced R&D activities and a knowledge-based economy would provide the basis for future commercial success. In this respect, the space sector, particularly the challenging missions of exploration and human spaceflight, offers unique possibilities.

The European space exploration programme will be able to support the goals of the Lisbon Strategy by fostering innovation through scientific and technologically challenging space missions that will also increase the visibility of space and interest in space activities, particularly for young people.

”To succeed in the space business we need cutting edge technology and exceptional people that have to surpass themselves. Exploring outer space is a tough

job and the knowledge we gain in this endeavour could help humankind to solve other difficult problems on our planet: space can contribute to shape Europe as the most advanced knowledge-based society.”

On. Dr. Umberto GuidoniMember of the European Parliament

An ambitious space exploration programme will provide new opportunities for research and innovation in Europe, creating a chain reaction

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nations in committing themselves to space exploration and human spaceflight.

In a time of globalisation and rapidly shifting international relationships, it is essential that Europe maintains and develops its diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships with other countries. At the same time, Europe must ensure that any cooperative endeavour ensures a considerable degree of autonomy and independence, particularly in such a strategic domain as space exploration.

Technological partnerships with emerging (or re-emerging) powers in space exploration and human spaceflight could be a way to develop strong economic and strategic relationships with these countries. It could also be a positive factor in integrating these countries into the international community and preventing dangerous technological proliferation. This approach was successfully implemented by the United States with Russia in the 1990s, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union.

In a multi-polar world, improved diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships between Europe, the USA, Russia and the emerging world powers will be of prime importance. Taking into account the economic and strategic rise of new international powers, space exploration would be a key area in which cooperation could bring together these disparate nations.

1970s is an excellent way of exhibiting Europe’s willingness to work with the USA and of easing the sometimes strained relations with its major ally.

”Space Exploration opens up new opportunities of technological development and knowledge that to this day one cannot even fathom. Europe cannot

afford to shy away from playing a major role in this endeavour.

The resources necessary to embark on such ambitious programmes and the parallel necessity to complete other important European programmes – such as Galileo and GMES – require a global approach. Thanks to the synergy with other countries involved in such projects, it would allow on one hand to have access to the necessary resources and on the other to avoid isolation from the international community and the emerging countries.”

On. Ing Marco AiraghiCamera Dei Deputati, Italia

Europe also has a history of space cooperation with Russia, Canada and Japan. In recent years, some preliminary exchanges of expertise and knowledge have been made between ESA and China, with the potential for further collaboration in the future. This breaking down of barriers is important because the new, emerging strategic powers are joining the traditional space-faring

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Public constituencies

Overarching goal: Since space exploration is a long-term endeavour, a strong base of public support is essential to ensure the sustainability of this undertaking. Various constituencies must be nurtured and continuously strengthened, especially the younger generation.

Space activities, and particularly human spaceflight, have become part of European culture and an accepted norm. However space exploration plans remain far removed from the public’s everyday consciousness. It is therefore necessary to raise the general public’s level of interest in space exploration, and it is of paramount importance for Europe to foster the exploration culture across generations and nurture public constituencies for long-term space exploration.

Because major societal and political changes will undoubtedly take place in the course of any long-term space exploration, a strong base of public support for the initiative must be continuously reinforced. However, space exploration needs to be convincingly communicated to the general public, rather than a narrow spectrum of the population. The conditions of a cultural and societal support to space exploration should not solely rely upon the fascination of space, which proved short-lived in the case of the Apollo

Earth-Moon Lagrangian Points

In the field of space exploration, any means of saving propellant – and thus reducing mass and cost – is to be welcomed. A number of locations within the Earth-Moon system and the Solar System have been identified as sites where spacecraft can maintain position with very little expenditure of fuel to “tweak” their orbits. These are named the Lagrangian points, (often abbreviated to L1 to L5) after the French scientist, Joseph Louis de Lagrange, who first identified them in 1772.

Solar observatories, such as ESA’s SOHO spacecraft, use the L1 Sun-Earth point about 1.5 million km away on the sunward side of Earth. A number of future observatories, such as ESA’s Herschel and Planck and the NASA-ESA James Webb Space Telescope, will use the L2 Sun-Earth point, about 1.5 million km from the Earth on the planet’s night side.

Planck

It will obviously be advantageous to develop human capabilities for assembly and servicing such important facilities. The Lagrangian points also offer energy-efficient “gateways” to other destinations. One possibility is to locate a space station at the L1 Earth-Moon point, where astronauts could assemble and service advanced telescopes or hardware being prepared for launch towards the Moon or Mars.

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humanities – history, philosophy, anthropology and the arts, as well as the social sciences, political science, economics and law – cannot be neglected as it will increasingly become intertwined with and support future space exploration plans. It is therefore vital that Europe grasps the opportunities offered by involving those disciplines in the future long-term exploration undertakings.

“Big visions require broad public support. The European public not only needs, but is also ready, to be moved by a new vision for space. This vision can not be based on technology

alone, but must also answer to a longing for an emotional and cultural crystallisation point.”

Kai-Uwe SchroglEuropean Space Policy Institute (ESPI)

programme, for example. Europe’s message should therefore be effective in securing long-term public commitment to human spaceflight and space exploration, and a strategic, multifaceted communication approach has to be taken and revisited periodically.

Beyond being a matter of programmatic survival, fostering Europe’s public support is a fundamental duty for European space agencies. The general public needs to be engaged from the beginning to ensure that the overall rationale for European long-term space exploration activities is well understood and shared. To be successfully adopted, the strategy must reflect the larger culture in which it operates, and public ownership of this agenda must be broadly recognised and addressed. By constantly addressing the needs of education, space exploration will galvanise interest and inspire the public, allow active participation in the adventure and harness European brain power (not only scientific and technical).

The ability to raise the general public’s level of interest in space exploration can create cultural and societal conditions favourable to European plans. Space exploration, particularly human spaceflight, is a challenging, co-operative endeavour that offers opportunities to further strengthen European ties, foster European identity and define European values and priorities. It will also allow for enhancement of the European cultural sphere. Raising public awareness by linking space exploration and cultural activities makes sense, given Europe’s rich cultural heritage, in order to build a sense of ownership across Europe.

Space exploration goes beyond a technological endeavour. It will have a tremendous social and economic impact. Space activities are nowentering an era where the viewpoint of the

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4. Exploration Planning

in Canada, Germany, Italy, Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom.”

European Programmes

Europe’s plans for exploration beyond near-Earth space began in 2001, when the Aurora programme of robotic and human exploration of the Solar System was introduced at the ESA Ministerial Council. Recognised as a crucial undertaking for Europe, Aurora’s primary objective was to develop a roadmap that would culminate with European astronauts reaching Mars within the first half of this century, preceded by a return to the Moon.

The Aurora Programme aims to establish the ability of Europe to participate as a recognised partner in future robotic and human international space exploration endeavours. The key element of the current Aurora programme is ExoMars, a robotic rover mission intended to search for evidence of life on Mars. This mission, currently scheduled for launch in 2013, may eventually be followed by an automated Mars Sample Return programme.

The International Context

Since the proclamation of President Bush’s Vision for Space Exploration in 2004, NASA’s activities have been driven by the goal to return humans to the Moon before 2020. The experience gained in establishing a human presence on the Moon will provide invaluable experience applicable to a subsequent human expedition to Mars.

Even before the announcement of this new US initiative, space agencies around the world were developing plans for robotic and human exploration missions beyond LEO. Following in the footsteps of ESA’s SMART-1 orbiter, the next few years will see a fleet of automated spacecraft despatched to the Moon by the US, China, India and Japan. At the same time, one or more robotic spacecraft will be sent to Mars during each launch opportunity of the next decade and beyond. These missions will dramatically increase our knowledge of the lunar and Martian environments and resources.

In May 2007, representatives of 14 space agencies published a joint document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination”. The Framework makes the case for a voluntary, non-binding forum (the Coordination Mechanism) in which nations can share plans for space exploration and collaborate to strengthen both individual projects and the collective effort.

As the document recognises, “Sustainable space exploration is a challenge that no one nation can do on its own. We are now entering a new wave of space exploration, one of historic significance. The United States has developed its Vision for Space Exploration; the European Space Agency has its Aurora space exploration programme. China, India, Japan and Russia have ambitious national projects to explore the Moon or Mars, while future national missions are being discussed

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inform the development of the European long-term strategy in space exploration.

Artists impression of ESA Mars Sample Return

ESA also continues the European programme for Life and Physical sciences and applications (ELIPS) utilising the International Space Station, which includes many different science and technology activities related to long-duration human spaceflight.

National Missions

In the past, European countries have participated in space exploration as partners within major international missions and programmes. Most of this involvement has been related to ESA missions, although some countries have also negotiated bilateral arrangements with other countries, notably the USA.

Although the expenditure associated with space exploration largely precludes individual European countries from developing their own missions, the advent of small, low cost satellites and miniaturisation of components has partially opened the door to such enterprises. Today, companies in Germany and the UK are actively

Artists impression of ExoMars Rover

Complementing the Aurora Programme, the ESA Member States announced the start of the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) Preparatory Programme at the end of 2006. The CSTS is intended for use in human exploration missions to the Moon (both in orbit and on the surface) via LEO assembly, in addition to supporting missions to the ISS.

In this preparatory phase, the Agency, supported by European industry, the Russian Space Agency and other interested organisations of the Russian Federation, will agree areas for joint development and operation of the CSTS. At the end of this Preparatory Programme, a preliminary design, together with a programmatic data package and proven selected technologies, will be presented to the next ESA Ministerial Council in 2008.

Meanwhile, ESA is analysing integrated high-level architectures supporting the future robotic and human exploration of Moon and Mars. The architecture analysis is driven by objectives and requirements that were derived from extensive consultations of the European scientific community, political representatives, industry and European public organisations. The stakeholder consultation activities and architecture analysis

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However, there are also opportunities for public-private projects, perhaps similar to NASA’s Commercial Orbital Transportation Services programme which offers financial support to encourage commercial companies to deliver crew and cargo to the ISS. If successful, this could open up a $7 billion market for private enterprise in the period 2010 to 2017.

There is also considerable potential to accelerate the development of many new technologies through privately financed, open competitions. Such prize competitions have been shown to be a cost effective and efficient means of stimulating technology development in space-related activities.

© EADS Astrium / images MasterImage 2007

The $10 million Ansari X Prize, won in 2004 by Scaled Composites, helped to jump start the development of commercial, suborbital transportation. In September 2007, the X Prize Foundation and Google Inc. announced the $30 million Google Lunar X Prize, with the aim of starting a commercial race to the Moon. The goal is to land a privately funded robotic rover on the Moon that is capable of completing several mission objectives, such as traveling at least 500 metres across the lunar surface and transmitting images back to the Earth.

involved in studies that may lead to national missions to the Moon. One example is Mona Lisa, a German study that includes development of a versatile lunar landing craft. Its first proposed payload is a small, autonomous research laboratory (AstroHab). The Italian Space Agency is also conducting several studies into a future lunar orbiter and surface package.

MoonLITE, © Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL)

Private Enterprise ActivitiesIn recent years, private enterprise has begun to play a significant role in the utilisation of space. One of the most promising areas appears to be space tourism, which has the potential to evolve into a multibillion euro industry. Several wealthy entrepreneurs have already paid substantial sums to spend a week or more on the International Space Station. While most of the entrepreneurial projects related to space tourism are of US origin, Virgin Galactic and EADS Astrium have announced plans to develop reusable vehicles for suborbital tourist flights.

Space tourism and related projects will undoubtedly broaden people’s experience and awareness of the potential of human spaceflight.

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Epilogue

industry, and concentrate their attention on the robotic missions that will dominate the various exploration programmes for the next decade, thus avoiding the need to consider the more distant future.

Few attempts have been made to recognise the human space exploration vision as what it truly will be, above all, a great adventure of mankind, strongly supported by opportunities for great science and outstanding technological achievements. However, wide public and political acceptance can only be achieved if one fully exploits the unifying potential of a global cooperation strategy, which presents human exploration as a task of all humankind. When world championships already raise so much widespread enthusiasm, how much more would the lonely travel of a small crew deep into space, the ultimate pioneering task of humankind, excite the attention and concern of the whole world. Economic arguments, often promoted in the context of human activity on the Moon, are questionable and hardly suited to raise public enthusiasm. But if all interested space agencies were to unite in the joint conception, planning and execution of human space exploration, each within its financial and technical capabilities, the huge expenses would become bearable. Above all, one must not underestimate the chances for extraordinary discoveries when human beings live on and explore another planet.

Gerhard HaerendelMax Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics

The Impact of Human Space Exploration on Society

There is no doubt that the exploration of the Solar System with robotic missions will continue to be one of the most prominent space endeavours during the next decades. Such missions not only have a strong scientific value, but they also have the ability to satisfy the curiosity of mankind. This applies in particular to the search for life and its evolution beyond our own planet. In view of its great cultural impact, its technological challenges and the opportunities for international cooperation, Solar System exploration is likely to enjoy the continued political support that is fundamental for the provision of the necessary funding.

While astronauts are still regarded as the heroes of our time and enjoy the unchanging attention of the public, in particular the youth, and research under microgravity conditions is recognised as an important branch of space science, human participation in Solar System exploration beyond Earth orbit does not seem to enjoy the same acceptance. Although it is generally believed that a human presence on the Moon, as well as eventually on Mars, will strongly widen and intensify the in situ research capabilities, there is also a widespread scepticism whether these advantages outweigh the high expenses involved in securing the safety of the astronauts.

Representatives of disciplines whose goals can be entirely achieved with unmanned missions often voice loudly their reservations. It also seems that the public is not yet prepared to face the truth about the formidable expenses implied by a serious engagement in human space exploration. For this reason, the political representatives still observe silence about cost estimates which are floating around inside space agencies and

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Nicolas Peter (European Space Policy Institute, • ESPI) for his elaboration of the theme on “Public Constituencies”;

Bernhard Hufenbach, Bill Carey, Marc Haese, • Jacqueline Myrrhe and Raffaella Pappalardo (all ESA) for developing the concept and the content of the publication and for steering the overall stakeholder consultation process with the many contributing individuals, companies and organisations which formed the basis for this work.

The document has been edited by Peter Bond and its design and layout were developed by Natasja van Kampen (Sapienza Consulting).

Images on cover page:

Moon image: © NASA/JPL Left image in row: © EADS Astrium / Image Master Image 2007 / CNES photo JP. Haigneré

This document has been prepared by the ESA Directorate of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and Exploration Programmes and published to coincide with the “Explore to Progress” International Space Exploration Conference held in Berlin 8 – 9 November 2007. The ideas and concepts outlined in this report are the results of extensive stakeholder consultations that have been conducted since 2006, building on the initial work undertaken in 2005. Selected representatives of the various stakeholder communities - science, industry, politics and the general public - have been contributing to developing the contents of this publication. A special expression of thanks is therefore given to the following:

Silvano Casini (DdeB Sarl) and Giorgio • Borriello (DdeB Sarl, Advisor), Alain Dupas and Sebastian Matte la Faveur (Collège de Polytechnique), John Zarnecki and Phil Rosenberg (Open University) for their development of stakeholder scenarios;

Acknowledgments