European Renaissanceand Reformation,1300–1600

By the 16th century, the humanistic ideas of the Italian

Renaissance were spreading throughout Europe. The Holy Roman

Empire, though formally in control of northern Italy, had little

power outside Germany. The map at the right shows Europe in

1500. Use the map to help you answer the questions below.

1. What were the borders of the Holy Roman Empire?

2. How was Italy divided at the time?

3. What does the map show in Italy that is different from the restof Europe?

4. How might the growth of cities have affected Italian culture?

Connect History and Geography

1300Renaissance begins in Italy.

1455Gutenberg Bibleprinted.

For more information about the European Renaissanceand Reformation . . .

CLASSZONE.COM

By 1527, King Henry VIII of England wassure that his queen was too old to beara son. Anne Boleyn caught his eye.Anne was pretty and young enough tohave children. When the pope refusedto end Henry’s first marriage, Henrystarted his own church. An Englisharchbishop ended Henry’s marriage,and Anne became Henry’s second wife.

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Holy Roman Empire

Europe, 1500

1513Machiavelli writesThe Prince.

1534 Henry VIII becomeshead of England’s church,breaking ties with Rome.

1555Peace of Augsburg endsreligious wars in Germany.

1558Elizabeth Irules England.

1564William Shakespeare born.

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Interact with History

You are a historian looking at primary sources from theRenaissance. One of them is this painting by Jan van Eyck.

Chancellor Rolin, a powerful government official inBurgundy (later part of France), asked the artist to paint thisportrait. You are analyzing it to discover Rolin’s values andhow he wanted to be viewed by others. You can also use theart to learn about the times.

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Renaissance artistsportrayed theimportance ofindividuals.Chancellor Rolin iskneeling to showrespect, but hewears a fur-trimmedrobe that shows hishigh status.

Van Eyck includedmany details simplyfor the sake ofbeauty. Theseinclude the fancydesign on the floor,the folds of Mary’scloak, and thescenery outside thearches.

Renaissance artistswere influenced by classical art. The columns andarches show classical influence.

Van Eyck used arecentlyrediscoveredtechnique calledperspective,which makesdistant objectslook smaller thanclose ones. Healso used oilpaints, a newinvention.

What do we learn fromart?

This paintingshows the infantJesus and hismother Mary in15th centuryEurope. Byportraying biblicalcharacters intheir own time,Renaissanceartists showedthe importance ofreligion in theirlives.

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EXAMINING the ISSUES

• What does art tell us about thevalues and beliefs of the societythat produced it?

• What does art show about howpeople of that society viewedthemselves?

• How does art reflect a society’sstandards of beauty?

As a class, discuss these questions. Inyour discussion, review what you knowabout art in other places such as Egypt,India, China, and Benin.

As you read about the Renaissance,notice what the art of that time revealsabout European society.

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SETTING THE STAGE During the late Middle Ages, Europeans suffered from bothwar and plague. Those who survived wanted to enjoy life. As a result, they questionedthe Church, which taught Christians to endure suffering to get a heavenly reward.They also questioned the structures of medieval society, which blocked socialadvancement. Educated people gradually began to reject medieval values and look tothe classical past for ideas.

Italy’s AdvantagesThe years 1300 to 1600 saw an explosion of creativity in Europe.Historians call this period the Renaissance (REHN•ih•SAHNS). Theterm means rebirth—in this case a rebirth of art and learning. TheRenaissance began in northern Italy around 1300 and later spreadnorth. One reason northern Europe lagged behind is that France andEngland were locked in the Hundred Years’ War. Italy also had threeadvantages that fostered the Renaissance: thriving cities, a wealthy mer-chant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.

Urban Centers Overseas trade, spurred by the Crusades, had ledto the growth of large city-states in northern Italy. The region alsohad many sizable towns. Thus, northern Italy was urban while therest of Europe was still mostly rural. Since cities are often placeswhere people exchange new ideas, they were an ideal breedingground for an intellectual revolution.

The bubonic plague struck these cities hard, killing up to 60 per-cent of the population. This brought economic changes. Because therewere fewer laborers, survivors could demand higher wages. In addi-tion, the reduced population shrank opportunities for business expan-sion. Wealthy merchants began to pursue other interests, such as art.

Merchants and the Medici Milan, Florence, and other Italiancity-states ran their own affairs. Each collected taxes and had its own army. Becausecity-states were relatively small, a high percentage of citizens could be intenselyinvolved in political life. Merchants were the wealthiest, most powerful class, and theydominated politics. Unlike nobles, merchants did not inherit social rank. Success inbusiness depended mostly on their own wits. As a result, many successful merchantsbelieved they deserved power and wealth because of their individual merit. Individualachievement was to become an important Renaissance theme.

Florence came under the rule of one powerful family, the Medici (MEHD•ih•chee).They had made a fortune in trade and banking. Cosimo de’ Medici was the wealthiestEuropean of his time. In 1434, he won control of Florence’s government. He did notseek political office for himself, but instead influenced members of the ruling council bygiving them loans. For 30 years, he was virtually dictator of Florence.

European Renaissance and Reformation 417

A. PossibleAnswers Because ifhe were elected, hemight lose his office;by staying behind thescenes, he could tryto influence whoeverheld office.THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferences Why doyou suppose Cosimode’ Medici preferredto rule from behindthe scenes rather thanopenly?

BackgroundFlorence lost up to55,000 out of a popu-lation of 85,000.

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance

1TERMS & NAMES

• Renaissance• humanism• secular• patron• perspective• vernacular

MAIN IDEA

The European Renaissance, a rebirth oflearning and the arts, began in Italy inthe 1300s.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Renaissance ideas about classicalstudies, art, and literature stillinfluence modern thought.

Other Renaissances

A Renaissance can be a rebirth of the arts and learning at any time in history. For example, the Tang (618–907) and Song(960–1279) dynasties in Chinaoversaw a period of great artisticand technological advances.

Like the Italian Renaissance,the achievements of the Tang andthe Song had roots in an earliertime—the Han Dynasty (202 B.C. toA.D. 220). After the Han collapsed,China experienced turmoil.

When order was restored,Chinese culture flourished. TheChinese invented gunpowder andprinting. The most famous Chinesepoets of all time wrote literarymasterpieces. Breakthroughswere made in architecture,painting, and pottery. In manyways, the Tang and Song periodwas a true Renaissance.

SPOTLIGHTON

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Cosimo de’ Medici died in 1464, but his family retained control ofFlorence. His grandson, Lorenzo de’ Medici, came into power in 1469.He became known as Lorenzo the Magnificent. Like his grandfather,Lorenzo ruled as a dictator yet kept up the appearance of having anelected government. Although the Medici did not foster true republi-can government, they aided the Renaissance by supporting the arts.

Classical Heritage Renaissance scholars looked down on the artand literature of the Middle Ages and wanted to return to the learn-ing of the Greeks and Romans. One reason the Renaissance began in Italy is that artists and scholars drew inspiration from the ruins ofRome that surrounded them.

In the 1300s, scholars studied ancient Latin manuscripts, whichhad been preserved in monasteries. Then, when Constantinople fellto the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Byzantine scholars fled to Rome withancient Greek manuscripts—which Italian scholars had assumedwere lost forever.

Classical and Worldly ValuesAs scholars studied these Greek works, they became increasinglyinfluenced by classical ideas. These ideas helped them to develop a new outlook on life, which had several characteristics.

Classics Lead to Humanism The study of classical texts led tohumanism, which focused on human potential and achievements.Instead of trying to make classical texts agree with Christian teachingas medieval scholars had, humanists studied them to understandancient Greek values. Humanists influenced artists and architects tocarry on classical traditions. In addition, humanists popularized thestudy of subjects common to classical education, such as history, lit-erature, and philosophy. These subjects are called the humanities.

Enjoyment of Worldly Pleasures In the Middle Ages, some reli-gious people had proved their piety by wearing rough clothing andeating the plainest foods. However, humanists suggested that a per-son might enjoy life without offending God. In Renaissance Italy, the

wealthy openly enjoyed material luxuries, fine music, and tasty foods.Most people remained devout Catholics. However, the basic spirit of Renaissance

society was secular—worldly and concerned with the here and now. Even church lead-ers became more worldly. They lived in beautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, andwore expensive clothes.

Patrons of the Arts In addition to seeking pleasure, Renaissance popes beautifiedRome by spending huge amounts of money for art. They became patrons of the arts by financially supporting artists. Renaissance merchants also were patrons of the arts.Wealthy families such as the Medici generously supported artists. By having their portraits painted or by donating public art to the city, the wealthy demonstrated theirown importance.

The Renaissance Man Renaissance writers first introduced the idea that some peo-ple were artistic geniuses. Though genius was rare, all educated people were expectedto create art. In fact, the ideal individual strove to master almost every area of study. Aman who excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal man.” Later ages calledsuch people “Renaissance men.”

A book called The Courtier (1528) by Baldassare Castiglione (KAHS•teel•YOH•nay)taught how to become such a person. A young man, said Castiglione, should be

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingCauses What werethe three advantagesthat caused theRenaissance to startin Italy?B. Answer Italy hadmany cities, wherepeople couldexchange ideas; thecities were run bymerchants, who sup-ported the arts; Italianscholars and artistshad access to classi-cal art and literature.

BackgroundThe words humanistand humanities comefrom the Latin wordhumanitas, whichreferred to the literaryculture that everyeducated personshould know.

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Medici Family

Giant banks with branches in manycities are nothing new. The Medicibank had branch offices not onlythroughout Italy but also in themajor cities of Europe.

A rival family grew so jealous ofthe Medici that they plotted to killLorenzo (see bust below) and hisbrother Giuliano. As the Mediciattended Mass, assassins murderedGiuliano at the altar. Drawing hissword, Lorenzo escaped to a smallroom and held off his attackers untilhelp arrived. Then he had the killersbrutally, publicly executed.

More positively, Lorenzo was agenerous patron of the arts whocollected many rare manuscripts.Eventually the Medici family madetheir library available to the public.

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charming, witty, and well educated in the classics. He should dance, sing,play music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a skilled rider,wrestler, and swordsman. Above all, he should have self-control:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TLet the man we are seeking be very bold, stern, and always among thefirst, where the enemy are to be seen; and in every other place, gentle,modest, reserved, above all things avoiding ostentation [showiness] andthat impudent [bold] self-praise by which men ever excite hatred and dis-gust in all who hear them.BALDASSARE CASTLIGLIONE, The Courtier

The Renaissance Woman According to The Courtier, upper-class womenalso should know the classics and be charming. Yet they were not expected to seekfame. They were expected to inspire art but rarely to create it. Upper-class Renaissancewomen were far better educated than the women of the Middle Ages. However, mostRenaissance women had less influence than medieval women had.

A few women, such as Isabella d’Este, did exercise power. Born into the rulingfamily of the city-state of Ferrara, she married the ruler of another city-state, Mantua.She brought many Renaissance artists to her court and acquired an art collection thatwas famous throughout Europe. She was also skilled in politics. When her husbandwas taken captive in war, she defended Mantua and won his release.

Renaissance Revolutionizes ArtSupported by patrons like Isabella d’Este, dozens of talented artists worked in north-ern Italy. As the Renaissance advanced, artistic styles changed. Medieval artists usedreligious subjects and tried to convey a spiritual ideal. Renaissance artists also oftenportrayed religious subjects, but they used a realistic style copied from classical mod-els. Greek and Roman subjects also became popular.

Following the new emphasis on individuals, painters began to paint prominent citi-zens. These realistic portraits revealed what was distinctive about each person. Inaddition, artists such as the sculptor and painter Michelangelo(MY•kuhl•AN•juh•LOH) glorified the human body. (See page 420.)

New Techniques Donatello (DAHN•uh•TEHL•oh) made sculpture more realistic by carving natural postures andexpressions that reveal personality. He revived a classicalform by carving the statue David. It was the first Europeansculpture of a large, free-standing nude since ancient times. Renaissance artists, such as the painter Masaccio(muh•SAH• chee•oh), also rediscovered the technique ofperspective, which indicates three dimensions.

C. Possible AnswerBecause merchantswere proud of theirindividual achieve-ments, they wantedtheir portraits to showthem as distinctiveindividuals.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. SynthesizingMerchants believed intheir own individualmerit. How did thisbelief affect artisticstyles?

Perspective is a technique that creates theappearance of three dimensions. Classicalartists used perspective, but medievalartists abandoned the technique. In the 1400s, Italian artists rediscoveredperspective. Since then, it has remained animportant part of Western art.

Perspective is based on an opticalillusion. As parallel lines stretch awayfrom a viewer, they seem to drawtogether—until they meet at a spot onthe horizon called the vanishing point.

Perspective in Paintings

vanishing pointhorizon

Marriage of the Virgin (1504), Raphael

This is a 19th-century engravingof the Renaissancewriter BaldassareCastiglione.

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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Renaissance Art

Michelangelo–Renaissance ArtistLike Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti was a trueRenaissance man. He excelled at almost every area of study.Michelangelo was a painter, a sculptor, an architect, and a poet.

Michelangelo is most famous for the way he portrayed thehuman body in painting and sculpture. Influenced by classical art,he created figures that are forceful and show heroic grandeur andpower. By doing this, he explored the Renaissance theme ofhuman potential.

St. Peter’s BasilicaAs an architect, he designed thisdome to top St. Peter’s Basilica

[Church] in Rome. Michelangelobegan working on the church

in 1546. It still wasn’tfinished when he died in

1564. Another architecthad to finish the dome.

Sistine ChapelFrom 1508 to 1512, Michelangelo paintedthe ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.This detail shows the Biblical prophetJoel. Many of the panels show classicalinfluences, such as the two youths whostand behind Joel instead of angels. Likemany Renaissance artists, Michelangeloblended Christian and Greek ideals.

DavidInfluenced by classical statues,Michelangelo sculpted David from 1501to 1504. Michelangelo portrayed theBiblical hero in the moments just beforebattle. His posture is graceful, yet hisfigure also displays strength. Thestatue, which is 18 feet tall, towersover the viewer. This conveys a senseof power.

Clarifying How does the workof Michelangelo show that hewas influenced by Renaissancevalues? Explain.

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R3

Researching Look throughbooks on 20th century art to findartists who work in more than onemedium, such as painting andsculpture. Share your findingswith the class.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

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European Renaissance and Reformation 421

Leonardo, Renaissance ManLeonardo da Vinci (LAY•uh•

NAHR•doh duh•VIHN•chee) was apainter, sculptor, inventor, and sci-entist. A true “Renaissance man,”he was deeply interested in howthings worked. He studied how amuscle moves or how veins arearranged in a leaf. He filled hisnotebooks with observations andsketches of new inventions, and heincorporated his findings in his art.

Among his many masterpieces,Leonardo painted one of the best-known portraits in the world, theMona Lisa. The woman in the por-trait seems so real that many writershave tried to explain the thoughtsbehind her slight smile. Leonardoalso produced a famous religious painting, The Last Supper. It showsthe personalities of Jesus’ disciplesthrough facial expressions.

Raphael Advances RealismRaphael (RAF•ee•uhl) was youngerthan Michelangelo and Leonardo.He learned from studying theirworks. One of Raphael’s favoritesubjects was the Madonna andchild. Raphael often portrayed theirexpressions as gentle and calm.

In his greatest achievement,Raphael filled the walls of PopeJulius II’s library with several paint-ings. One of these, School of Athens (page 414), conveys the classical influence of theRenaissance. It shows classical and Renaissance figures together. Listening to Greekphilosophers are Raphael and Michelangelo, among others.

Women Painters Although Renaissance society generally restricted women’s roles, afew Italian women became painters. Sofonisba Anguissola (ahng•GWEES•soh•lah) wasthe first woman artist to gain an international reputation. She is known for portraits ofher sisters and of prominent people such as King Phillip II of Spain. ArtemisiaGentileschi (JAYN•tee•LEHS•kee) trained with her painter father and helped with hiswork. In her own paintings, Gentileschi painted pictures of strong, heroic women.

Renaissance Writers Change LiteratureRenaissance writers produced works that not only reflected their time, but also usedtechniques that writers rely on today. Some followed the example of the medievalwriter Dante. He wrote in the vernacular, his native language, instead of classicalLatin. Dante’s native language was Italian. In addition, Renaissance writers wroteeither for self-expression or to portray the individuality of their subjects. In theseways, writers of the Renaissance began trends that modern writers still follow.

VocabularyMadonna: a term forMary, the mother ofJesus; it comes froma former Italian titlefor women, meaning“my lady.”

BackgroundDuring most of theMiddle Ages, educatedEuropeans wroteeverything in Latin.

Leonardo da Vinci

1452–1519

Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks—andlife—are mysterious in many ways.Some 3,500 pages closely coveredwith writings and drawings survive,but these may be only one-fourth ofwhat Leonardo produced.

His writing is clear and easy toread—but only if you look at it in amirror. He wrote backwards in“mirror-writing.” No one knows whyhe took the time to do this.

Leonardo planned scholarlyworks that he never wrote, and heplanned great feats of engineeringthat were never built. Only 17 of hispaintings survive, and several ofthose were unfinished. The drawingabove is the only self-portrait knownto exist. And yet the work thatLeonardo did produce is so amazingthat his reputation as one of theworld’s geniuses is secure.

Raphael

1483–1520

One of the artists influenced byLeonardo, Raphael began his careerearly. His father, Giovanni Santi, wasa painter, and Raphael learned thebasics of his art in his father’sstudio. At a young age, Raphaelwent to study with a painter namedPerugino. He stayed there about tenyears and then went to Florence.

In 1508, Raphael was asked byPope Julius II to work for him inRome. Raphael created a series ofmagnificent frescoes, paintingsdone on wet plaster, for the pope’sprivate rooms in the Vatican.

Raphael, unlike many of hisfellow artists, was easy to like.When he died on his 37th birthdayafter a short illness, manyRomans—including the pope andhis court—were stricken with griefand went into mourning.

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Petrarch and Boccaccio Francesco Petrarch (PEE•trahrk) was one of the earliestand most influential humanists. He was also a great poet. Petrarch wrote both inItalian and in Latin. In Italian, he wrote sonnets—14-line poems. They were about amysterious woman named Laura, who was his ideal. (Little is known of Laura exceptthat she died of the plague in 1348.) In classical Latin, he wrote letters to his manyimportant friends.

The Italian writer Boccaccio (boh•KAH•chee•oh) is best known for the Decameron,a series of realistic, sometimes off-color stories. The stories are supposedly told by agroup of worldly young people waiting in a villa to avoid the plague sweeping through

Florence. The humor of the Decameron is cutting. Boccaccio presents the follies ofhis characters—and all humans—with some sarcasm.

Machiavelli Advises Rulers The Prince (1513), by Niccolò Machiavelli (MAK•ee•

uh•VEHL•ee), also examines the imperfect conduct of human beings. He does so inthe form of a political guidebook. In The Prince, Machiavelli examines how a ruler

can gain power and keep it in spite of his enemies. In answering this question,he began with the idea that most people are selfish, fickle, and corrupt.

To succeed in such a wicked world, Machiavelli said, a princemust be strong as a lion and shrewd as a fox. He might have to trickhis enemies and even his own people for the good of the state. InThe Prince, Machiavelli was not concerned with what was morally

right, but with what was politically effective:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TEveryone admits how praiseworthy it is in a prince to keepfaith, and to live with integrity and not with craft. Neverthelessour experience has been that those princes who have donegreat things have held good faith of little account, and haveknown how to circumvent the intellect of men by craft, and inthe end have overcome those who have relied on their word.NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI, The Prince

Women Writers The women writers who gained fame in the Renaissance usuallywrote about personal subjects, not politics. Yet, some of them had great influence.Vittoria Colonna exchanged sonnets with Michelangelo and helped Castiglione pub-lish The Courtier. Her own poems are often very personal. For example, when herhusband was away at war, she wrote to him, “Your uncertain enterprises do not hurtyou; / but we who wait, mournfully grieving, / are wounded by doubt and fear.”

Toward the end of the 15th century, Renaissance ideas began to spread north fromItaly to countries such as France, Germany, and England. Northern artists andthinkers would adapt the Renaissance ideals in their own ways.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. SupportingOpinions Do youthink Machiavelli isright in his view thatrulers must trick peo-ple and ignore moral-ity? Explain.D. PossibleAnswers Yes,because leaderssometimes have tohurt individuals to dowhat is best for astate; No, there isnever a good reasonto abandon one’smorals.

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NiccolòMachiavelli, shownhere with his handon a book, wasmuch more than justa cynical politicalthinker. He was alsoa patriot, a poet, anda historian.

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a big-idea outline like theone below, record the main ideasfrom the section about the ItalianRenaissance.RenaissanceI. Italy’s advantages

A.B.C.

II. Classical and worldly values

3. SUPPORTING OPINIONS

Name three people from thissection whom you regard as a“Renaissance man” or a“Renaissance woman.” Explainyour choices.

THINK ABOUT• the idea of the “universal man”• Castiglione’s description of such

a person • which people from this section

seem to match that description

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution How did theRenaissance revolutionizeEuropean art and thought?

THINK ABOUT• changes in ideas since

medieval times• changes in artistic techniques• changes in artistic subjects

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Renaissance• humanism• secular• patron• perspective• vernacular

Section Assessment1

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SETTING THE STAGE The work of such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,and Raphael showed the Renaissance spirit. All three artists demonstrated an interestin classical culture, a curiosity about the world, and a belief in human potential. Theseideas impressed scholars and students who visited Italy. Merchants also carried theseideas when they traveled out of Italy. By the late 1400s, Renaissance ideas had spreadto northern Europe—especially England, France, Germany, and Flanders.

The Northern Renaissance BeginsBy 1450 the population of northern Europe, which had been shattered by the bubonicplague, was beginning to recover. In addition, the destructive Hundred Years’ War be-tween France and England ended in 1453. Many cities grew rapidly. Urban merchantsbecame wealthy enough to sponsor artists. This happened first in Flanders, which wasrich from long-distance trade and the cloth industry. Then it happened in other countries.

As Section 1 explained, Italy was divided into city-states. In contrast, Englandand France were unified under strong monarchs. These rulers often sponsored thearts. For example, Francis I of France purchased Renaissance paintings. He alsoinvited Leonardo da Vinci to retire in France, and hired Italian artists and archi-tects to rebuild his castle at Fontainebleau (FAHN•tihn•BLOH). When completed,Fontainebleau became a showcase of the French Renaissance. Because of mon-archs like Francis, royal courts played a major role in intro-ducing Renaissance styles to northern Europe.

As Renaissance ideas spread out of Italy, they min-gled with northern traditions. As a result, thenorthern Renaissance developed its own char-acter. Many humanists there were more inter-ested in religious ideas than in the secularthemes popular in Italy. The Renaissanceideal of human dignity inspired some north-ern humanists to develop plans for socialreform based on Christian values.

Artistic Ideas SpreadIn 1494, a French king claimed the throneof Naples in southern Italy and launched aninvasion through northern Italy. As the wardragged on, many Italian artists and writersleft for a safer life in northern Europe. Withthem, they brought the styles and tech-niques of the Renaissance. In addition,artists who studied in Italy also carriedRenaissance ideas north.

BackgroundFlanders was a regionin northern Europe. Itincluded part ofFrance and part of theNetherlands. The peo-ple of Flanders arethe Flemish.

A. Answer By mak-ing Italian artists fleenorthTHINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses How did thewar in Italy spreadthe Renaissance?

The NorthernRenaissance

2TERMS & NAMES

• Utopia• printing press• Gutenberg Bible

MAIN IDEA

In the 1400s, northern Europeans beganto adapt the ideas of the Renaissance.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Renaissance ideas such as theimportance of the individual are astrong part of modern thought.

Albrecht Dürerpainted Adorationof the Trinity afterreturning fromstudying in Italy.

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B. Answer It spreadfrom the North toItaly, instead of mov-ing from Italy to theNorth.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. ContrastingHow was the development andspread of oil paintingdifferent from manyother Renaissance developments?

German Painters Perhaps the most famous person to do this was the German artistAlbrecht Dürer (DYUR•uhr). The son of a goldsmith, Dürer decided to become apainter. After serving an apprenticeship, he traveled to Italy to study in 1494.

After returning to Germany, Dürer produced woodcuts and engravings that becameinfluential. Many of his prints portray religious subjects such as the one on page 423.Others portray classical myths. He also painted realistic landscapes and a self-portrait inwhich he portrayed himself as a Renaissance man. The popularity of Dürer’s work helpedto spread Renaissance styles. His work inspired other German artists.

Dürer’s emphasis upon realism influenced the work of anotherGerman artist, Hans Holbein (HOHL•byn) the Younger. Holbeinspecialized in painting portraits that are almost photographic indetail. He enjoyed great success in England, where he painted por-traits of King Henry VIII and other members of the royal family.

Flemish Painters As in Italy, wealthy merchant families inFlanders were attracted to the Renaissance emphasis on individual-ism and worldly pleasures. Their patronage helped to make Flandersthe artistic center of northern Europe.

As in Italy, the Renaissance in Flanders was marked by an interestin realism. The first great Flemish Renaissance painter was Jan vanEyck (yahn van YK). Van Eyck lived from sometime in the late1300s to 1441 and worked at the height of the Italian Renaissance.

Oil-based paints had recently been developed. Van Eyck usedthem to develop techniques that painters still use. Because oil paintdoes not dry quickly, it can be blended more easily than other paints.By applying layer upon layer of paint, van Eyck was able to create avariety of subtle colors in clothing and jewels. Oil painting becamepopular and spread to Italy.

Flemish Peasant Life

The Flemish painter Pieter Bruegeloften portrayed peasants. Many ofhis paintings provide informationabout peasant life in the 1500s.

Peasant Wedding (1568), shownbelow, portrays a wedding feast ina rough but clean barn. The bridesits under the paper crown hangingon a piece of green cloth. Twoyoung men who may be herbrothers are pouring drinks andpassing out plates.

Who, then, is the groom?Possibly the man sitting across thetable from the bride and leaningback on a three-legged stool.

Children and at least one doghave come to the party. The coupleto the right of the bride and the manon the far right with a sword aredressed more elegantly than theother guests. They may be wealthytownsfolk related to the groom.

Daily Life

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European Renaissance and Reformation 425

In addition to new techniques, van Eyck’s paintings display unusually realisticdetails and reveal the personality of their subjects. His work influenced later artists innorthern Europe.

Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the work of Pieter Bruegel (BROY•

guhl) the Elder. Like van Eyck, Bruegel was interested in realistic details and individualpeople. He captured scenes from everyday peasant life such as weddings, dances, har-vests, and the changing seasons. Bruegel also produced paintings that illustrated proverbsor taught a moral. Some of his paintings protested harsh Spanish rule over his country.

In all his work, Bruegel’s rich colors, vivid details, and balanced use of space give asense of life and feeling. He was also very skillful in portraying large numbers of peo-ple. Not only did Bruegel produce a large number of paintings, he inspired two sonsand three grandsons to also became painters.

Northern Writers Try to Reform SocietyJust as Italian art influenced northern European painters, so did Renaissance ideasinfluence the writers and philosophers of northern Europe. These writers adopted theideal of humanism. However, some gave it a more religious slant. Because of this,some northern humanists are also called Christian humanists.

Christian Humanists The best known of the Christian humanists were DesideriusErasmus (DEHZ•ih•DEER•ee•uhs ih•RAZ•muhs) of Holland and Thomas More ofEngland. The two were close friends.

Born in Rotterdam, Erasmus received honors from princes, kings, and cardinals forhis brilliant writings. In 1509, while he was a guest in More’s house, Erasmus wrotehis most famous work, The Praise of Folly. This book poked fun at greedy merchants,heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests. Although some ofErasmus’s most stinging barbs were aimed at the clergy, his work is strongly Christian.Erasmus believed in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules. Hethought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible.

Also concerned with society’s flaws, Thomas More tried to show a better model. In 1516, he wrote the book Utopia about an imaginary land inhabited by apeace-loving people. In Greek, Utopia means “no place,” but in English ithas come to mean an ideal place because of More’s book. In Utopia,greed, corruption, war, and crime had been weeded out. Because theUtopians weren’t greedy, they had little use for money:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TGold and silver, of which money is made, are so treated . . . that no onevalues them more highly than their true nature deserves. Who doesnot see that they are far inferior to iron in usefulness since withoutiron mortals cannot live any more than without fire and water?THOMAS MORE, Utopia

The French humanist François Rabelais (RAB•eh•LAY) provided acontrast to Erasmus and More in several ways. They wrote in Latin,while Rabelais wrote his comic adventure Gargantua and Pantagruelin vernacular French. More secular than either Erasmus or More,Rabelais believed that human beings were basically good. They shouldlive by their instincts rather than religious rules. As he told of the wildadventures of the giants Gargantua and Pantagruel, he poked fun at his society.Rabelais’s humor was uproarious and earthy, although he made many serious pointsabout the nature of humanity, education, and government.

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare wrote in Renaissance England. Manypeople regard him as the greatest playwright of all time. Shakespeare was born in

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences Whatpoint do you thinkMore was makingabout his ownsociety?C. PossibleAnswers That theywere too greedy orthat they loved moneytoo much.

The Christianhumanist ThomasMore wrote about anearly perfectsociety calledUtopia. He did thisto show his ownsociety how toimprove.

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1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about 90 miles north-west of London. By 1592 he was living in London and writingpoems and plays.

His works display a masterful command of the English languageand a deep understanding of human beings. He revealed the souls ofmen and women through scenes of dramatic conflict. His mostfamous plays include the tragedies Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet,Romeo and Juliet, and the comedy A Midsummer Night’s Dream.Many of these plays frankly examine human flaws. However,Shakespeare also had one of his characters deliver a speech thatexpresses the Renaissance’s high view of human nature:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TWhat a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite infaculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable in action,how like an angel in apprehension [understanding], how like a god!the beauty of the world; the paragon of animals.WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Hamlet

Like many Renaissance writers, Shakespeare revered the clas-sics and drew on them for inspiration and plots. One of his greattragedies, for example, tells the story of the assassination of JuliusCaesar—the Roman general and statesman.

The Elizabethan Age The Renaissance in England is also calledthe Elizabethan Age, for Queen Elizabeth I. She reigned from1558 to 1603. Elizabeth was well-educated and knew French,Italian, Latin, and Greek. In addition to running a kingdom (seepage 432), she also wrote poetry. As queen, she patronized artistsand writers. Poet Edmund Spenser dedicated his long poem TheFaerie Queene (1590) to her with these words: “To the most high,mighty, and magnificent Empress, renowned for piety, virtue, andall gracious government, Elizabeth.”

Printing Spreads Renaissance IdeasOne thing that helped spread Renaissance ideas throughoutEurope was a new invention that adapted Chinese technology. TheChinese had invented block printing, in which a printer carved aword or letter on a wooden block, inked the block, and then used itto print on paper. Around 1045, Bi Sheng invented movable type,

or a separate piece of type for each character in the language. However, since theChinese writing system contained thousands of different characters, most Chineseprinters found movable type impractical.

Gutenberg Invents the Printing Press During the 13th century, block-printeditems reached Europe from China. European printers began to use block printingto create whole pages to bind into books. However, this process was too slow tosatisfy the Renaissance demand for knowledge and books. Johann Gutenberg, acraftsman from Mainz, Germany, reinvented movable type around 1440. Themethod was practical for Europeans because their languages have a very smallnumber of letters in their alphabets.

Gutenberg then invented the printing press. The printing press is a machine that presses paper against a tray full of inked movable type. Using this invention,Gutenberg printed a complete Bible, the Gutenberg Bible, in about 1455. It wasthe first full-size book printed with movable type.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. SummarizingState at least twoways in whichShakespeare’s workshowed Renaissanceinfluences.D. PossibleAnswers He wrotein vernacular English;he had a characterexpress a high view ofhuman nature; hewrote about classicalsubjects.

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William Shakespeare

Shakespeare’s plays were verypopular in London in the 1600s. Theyare popular today as well, but theyappear in many places besidesLondon. Shakespearean festivalsare regularly held in such places as Stratford-upon-Avon, England;Stratford, Ontario, Canada; andAustin, Texas.

Even though he has been deadfor almost 400 years, Shakespeareis one of Hollywood’s favoritewriters. In the 1990s, two filmversions of Hamlet hit the theaters,as did a version of Romeo andJuliet. The poster below is from the1990 version of Hamlet, starring MelGibson and Glenn Close.

CONNECT to TODAY

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European Renaissance and Reformation 427

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. RecognizingEffects What werethe major effects ofthe invention of theprinting press?E. Answers Booksbecame affordable;books were publishedon many subjects;new ideas spread;writing in vernacularlanguages increased;people formed theirown opinions aboutreligion.

2. TAKING NOTES

On a time line like the one below,show important events in theNorthern Renaissance.

Which of the events do you thinkwas most important? Explain.

3. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS

Choose one NorthernRenaissance figure. Explain howhe or she was influenced byRenaissance ideas.

THINK ABOUT• the influence of humanism• the use of new techniques• the concept of the Renaissance

man or woman

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural Interaction Workingin a small team, reproduce a mapof Europe in 1500. On the map, usearrows, pictures, and captions toshow the spread of Renaissanceideas and developments. Includenot only the spread of ideas northfrom Italy, but also innovationsthat spread southward fromnorthern Europe.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Utopia• printing press• Gutenberg Bible

Section Assessment2

Only 46 copies ofthe Gutenberg Bible still exist inthe world. Becauseof this, each copy is consideredpriceless. A part ofa page is shownabove.

Printing Spreads Learning The printing press had arevolutionary impact on European society. It enabled aprinter to produce hundreds of copies, all exactly alike,of a single work. For the first time, books were cheapenough that many people could buy them. Printing

spread quickly to other cities in Europe. By 1500, presses in about 250 cities hadprinted between 9 and 10 million books.

New ideas spread more quickly than ever before. At first printers produced manyreligious works. Soon they began to provide books on other subjects such as travelguides and medical manuals. The availability of books encouraged people to learn toread and so caused a rise in literacy.

Writing in vernacular languages also increased because even people who could notafford a classical education could now buy books. Printers produced the Bible in thevernacular, which allowed more people to read it. People began to interpret the Biblefor themselves and to become more critical of priests and their behavior. This eventu-ally led to demands for religious reform.

The End of the Renaissance In both Italy and northern Europe, the Renaissancehad stirred a burst of creative activity. Artists in both regions studied classical culture,praised individual achievement, and produced works using new techniques. Duringthe 1600s, new ideas and artistic styles appeared. Nonetheless, Renaissance idealscontinued to influence European thought. For example, the Renaissance belief in thedignity of the individual played a key role in the gradual rise of democratic ideas.

• 2700 B.C., Egyptians write books on papyrus scrolls.

• 1000 B.C., Chinese make books by writing on strips of bamboo.

• A.D. 300, Romans write on sheets of parchment (treated animal skin).These are sewn together intobooks.

• 800, Irish monks hand-write andhand-illustrate The Book of Kells.

• About 1455, Gutenberg prints thefirst complete book on a printingpress—similar to the one shown at left.

History of Book Making

1400 1600

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SETTING THE STAGE By the tenth century, the church in Rome had come to domi-nate religious life in northern and western Europe. However, the Roman CatholicChurch had not won universal approval. Over the centuries, rulers, scholars, andmembers of the clergy criticized church practices. Even though church leaders madeseveral important reforms during the Middle Ages, the problems lingered.

Causes of the ReformationBy 1500, additional forces weakened the Church. The Renaissance emphasis on thesecular and the individual challenged Church authority. The printing press spreadthese secular ideas. In addition, rulers resented the popes’ attempts to control them.In Germany—divided into many competing states—it was difficult for the pope or theemperor to impose central authority. Finally, northern merchants resented payingchurch taxes to Rome. Spurred by political and social forces, a new movement forreligious reform began in Germany. It then swept much of Europe.

Problems in the Catholic Church Critics of the Church claimed that its leaderswere corrupt. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spentextravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. Pope Pius II admitted, “If the truthbe confessed, the luxury and pomp of our courts is too great.” Another pope, AlexanderVI, publicly admitted that he had several children. These popes were too busy pursuingworldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties.

The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests and monks were so poorly edu-cated that they could scarcely read, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly

vows by marrying, or by gambling or drinking to excess.

Early Calls for Reform Influenced by reformers, people had cometo expect higher standards of conduct from priests and church lead-ers. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John Wycliffe of England andJan Hus of Bohemia had advocated church reform. They denied thatthe pope had the right to worldly power. They also taught that the

Bible had more authority than Church leaders. In the 1500s,Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas

More added their voices to the chorus of criticism.In the 1490s, an Italian friar named Girolamo

Savonarola (jih•RAHL•uh•MOH SAV•uh•nuh•ROH•luh)came to Florence. He preached fiery sermons calling

for reform. In 1497, the people of Florenceresponded to Savonarola by burning their worldlypossessions, such as gambling equipment, in agiant bonfire. Only a year later, the Florentinesturned against Savonarola, and he was executedfor heresy.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses How didpolitical, social, andeconomic forcesweaken the Church?A. AnswersPolitical—Rulersresented the popes’attempts to controlthem and Germanywas not unified;Social—Printing pressspread Renaissanceideas that challengedChurch authority;Economic—Merchantsresented payingChurch taxes.

Luther Starts the Reformation

3TERMS & NAMES

• indulgence• Reformation• Lutheran• Protestant• Peace of

Augsburg• annul• AnglicanMAIN IDEA

Martin Luther’s protest over abuses inthe Catholic Church led to the foundingof Protestant churches.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Nearly one-fourth of the Christians intoday’s world are Protestants.

As this portraitshows, the friarGirolamoSavonarola was aserious-mindedman. Disapprovingof the worldlyvalues of his time,he urged the peopleof Florence to giveup their luxuries.

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European Renaissance and Reformation 429

Luther Challenges the ChurchAlthough some reformers died for their beliefs, their calls for changelived on. In addition, many Europeans were reading religious worksfor themselves and forming their own opinions about the Church.The atmosphere in Europe was ripe for reform by the early 1500s.

Martin Luther The son of a miner, Martin Luther became a monkin 1505. From 1512 until his death he taught scripture at theUniversity of Wittenberg in the German state of Saxony. All hewanted was to be a good Christian, not to lead a religious revolution.

In 1517 Luther decided to take a public stand against the actions ofa friar named Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St.Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. Anindulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing thepenalty—such as saying certain prayers—that a priest imposed forsins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God’s right to judge.Unfortunately, Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indul-gences, they could buy their way into heaven.

The 95 Theses Luther was troubled by Tetzel’s tactics. He wrote 95Theses, or formal statements, attacking the “pardon-merchants.” OnOctober 31, 1517, he posted his theses on the door of the castlechurch in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him.Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer. Quickly,Luther’s name became known all over Germany. His actions began theReformation, a movement for religious reform. It led to the foundingof Christian churches that did not accept the pope’s authority.

Soon Luther went far beyond criticizing indulgences. He wanted afull reform of the Church. His teachings rested on three main ideas:

• People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgive-ness. The Church taught that faith and “good works” wereneeded for salvation.

• All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words ofthe Bible. The pope and church traditions were false authorities.

• All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did notneed priests to interpret the Bible for them.

The Response to LutherLuther himself was astonished at how rapidly his ideas spread and attracted followers.Many rulers and merchants had been unhappy with the Church for political and eco-nomic reasons. They saw Luther’s protests as an excuse to throw off Church control.

The Pope’s Threat Initially, the Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply asa rebellious monk who needed to be punished by his superiors. However, as Luther’sideas became increasingly radical, the pope realized that the monk was a seriousthreat. In one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested thatChristians drive the pope from the Church by force.

In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunicationunless he took back his statements. Luther did not take back a word. Instead, his stu-dents at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope’sdecree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther.

The Emperor’s Opposition A devout Catholic, the Holy Roman emperor alsoopposed Luther’s teaching. Although only 20 years old, Emperor Charles V controlled

BackgroundThe door of the churchserved as a type ofbulletin board for theUniversity ofWittenberg. If schol-ars wanted to debatea subject, they wouldpost their opinions onthe door.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SynthesizingReview the list ofLuther’s teachingsabove. Which of thesepoints help you tounderstand why hefelt it was all right todefy the pope?B. Possible AnswersHe thought the popewas a false authority.He thought allChristians were equal,so the pope had nopower to damn him.

Martin Luther

1483–1546

Martin Luther was sometimesunhappy as a child. Like manyparents of that time, his father andmother were very strict. Luther latertold stories of their beating him.

In one way, fear led Luther to become a monk. His fatherwanted him to go to law school,but at the age of 21, Luther wascaught in a terrible thunderstorm.Lightning struck close to him.Convinced he would die, he criedout, “Saint Anne, help me! I willbecome a monk.”

Even as a monk, Luther feltsinful, lost, and rejected by God. Heconfessed his sins regularly, fasted,and did penance. However, bystudying the Bible, Luther came tothe conclusion that faith alone wasthe key to salvation. Only then didhe experience peace.

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a vast empire, including Germany. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms in1521 to stand trial. German princes and bishops crowded into the hall to witness thetestimony. Told to recant, or take back his statements, Luther refused.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TI am bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word ofGod. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to goagainst conscience. I cannot do otherwise, here I stand, may God help me. Amen.LUTHER, quoted in The Protestant Reformation by Lewis W. Spitz

A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edictof Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no onein the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned.However, the ruler of the state where Luther lived disobeyed the emperor. For almosta year after the trial, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony sheltered Luther in one ofhis castles. While there, Luther translated the New Testament into German.

Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of his ideaswere already being put into practice. Priests dressed in ordinary clothes and called them-selves ministers. They led services in German instead of in Latin. Some ministers hadmarried, because Luther taught that the clergy should be free to wed. Instead of continu-ing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had become a sepa-rate religious group, called Lutherans.

The Peasants’ Revolt Some people began to apply Luther’s revolutionary ideas tosociety. In 1524, German peasants, excited by reformers’ talk of Christian freedom,

demanded an end to serfdom. Bands of angry peas-ants went about the countryside raiding monaster-ies, pillaging, and burning.

The revolt horrified Luther. He wrote a pam-phlet urging the German princes to show the peas-ants no mercy. With brutal thoroughness, theprinces’ armies crushed the revolt. They massacredas many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed byLuther, many peasants rejected his religious leader-ship. However, through writings and lectures,Luther remained influential until the end of his life.

Germany at War In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northernGerman princes supported Lutheranism. While some princes gen-uinely shared Luther’s beliefs, others liked Luther’s ideas for selfishreasons. They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Churchproperty and to assert their independence from Charles V.

In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreedto join forces against Luther’s ideas. Princes who supported Luthersigned a protest against that agreement. These protesting princescame to be known as Protestants. Eventually, the term Protestantwas applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches.

Still determined that his subjects remain Catholic, Holy RomanEmperor Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes ofGermany. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to forcethem back into the Catholic Church.

Weary of fighting, Charles ordered all German princes, bothProtestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. At thatmeeting, the princes agreed that the religion of each German statewas to be decided by its ruler. This famous religious settlement,signed in 1555, was known as the Peace of Augsburg.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. DrawingConclusions Whywould Luther and hisfollowers want theBible and sermons tobe in German?C. Possible AnswerIf people were tointerpret the Bible forthemselves, they hadto know what itsaid—and most peo-ple did not knowLatin.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. AnalyzingMotives Explain thedifferent motives thatGerman princes hadfor becomingLutheran.D. PossibleAnswersReligious—becausethey agreed withLuther; economic—togain property by seiz-ing lands owned bythe Catholic church;political—to gainmore independencefrom their Catholicemperor

Witch Hunts

Soon after the Reformation began,the number of people executed forbeing witches rose dramatically.From 1561 to 1670 in Germany, 3,229people accused of witchcraft wereburned at the stake, as theengraving above shows. Between1559 and 1736 in England, almost1,000 witches were put to death.Eighty percent of the peopleaccused of witchcraft were women.

Some historians think thatpeople felt so frightened by theongoing religious conflicts theyblamed them on witches. Otherhistorians believe that religiousreformers stirred up negativefeelings about women that had longbeen part of Western culture. Allagree that those executed forwitchcraft were innocent victims.

SPOTLIGHTON

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England Becomes ProtestantThe Catholic Church soon faced another great challenge to its authority. UnlikeLuther, the man who broke England’s ties to the Roman Catholic Church did so forpolitical and personal, not religious, reasons.

Henry VIII Wants a Son When Henry became king of England, he was a devoutCatholic. Political needs soon tested his religious loyalty. He needed a male heir.Henry’s father had become king after a long civil war. Henry feared that a similar warwould start if he died without a son as his heir. He and his wife,Catherine of Aragon, had one living child—a daughter, Mary—butno woman had ever successfully claimed the English throne.

By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherinewould have no more children. He wanted to divorce her and take ayounger queen. Church law did not allow divorce. However, thepope could annul, or set aside, Henry’s marriage if he could findproof that it had never been legal in the first place. Excuses werefrequently found to annul royal marriages if they produced no heirs.In 1527, King Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but thepope turned him down. The pope did not want to offend Catherine’spowerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

The Reformation Parliament Henry solved his marriage problemhimself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it topass a set of laws that ended the pope’s power in England. ThisParliament is known as the Reformation Parliament.

In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn (BUL•ihn), who wasin her twenties. Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine.In 1534, Henry’s break with the pope was made complete whenParliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This act made theEnglish king, not the pope, the official head of England’s Church.

Consequences of Henry’s Changes Soon after making himselfsupreme head of the Church of England, Henry closed all Englishmonasteries. He seized their wealth and lands. The monasteries hadowned perhaps 20 percent of the land in England, so this act vastlyincreased royal power and enriched Henry’s treasury.

Henry did not get the male heir he sought immediately. AfterAnne Boleyn gave birth to a girl, she fell out of Henry’s favor.Eventually, he ordered her imprisoned in the Tower of London andlater beheaded in 1536. Before his death, Henry married four moretimes. His third wife gave him a son named Edward.

BackgroundThe pope had takenthe losing side in awar against EmperorCharles V, who wasnow holding him pris-oner. The pope did notdare annul Henry’smarriage to Charles’saunt.

1516 DaughterMary is born.

1509 Henry VIIIbecomes king.

1529 Henry breaks with pope; beginsProtestant Anglican church.

1533 Henry marries Anne Boleyn;daughter Elizabeth is born.

1536 Anne Boleynis beheaded.

1547 Henry dies; his sixthwife outlives him; Edward VIbegins six-year rule;Protestants are strong.

1537 Henry’s third wifehas son, Edward. She

dies from complications.

1540-1542 Henry divorces fourthwife and beheads fifth wife.

1553 Catholic Mary Ibegins rule and kills

Protestants.

1558 Elizabeth I begins rule; sherestores Protestant church.

1527 Henry asksthe pope to end

his first marriage;the pope refuses.

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1500 1560

Henry VIII’s Family Causes Religious Turmoil

Henry VIII

1491–1547

When Henry became king in 1509,he was young, strong, handsome,and intelligent. He loved sports,literature, music, and food. He alsoloved his Roman Catholic faith.

In 1521, he wrote a pamphletattacking Martin Luther and histeachings. Impressed by Henry’sloyalty, the pope gave him a specialtitle, “Defender of the Faith.”

Even Henry’s religious actionswere driven by political ambition.One of his motives for defendingCatholicism was to keep up withhis fellow European monarchs.Earlier popes had granted Spanishmonarchs the title “CatholicSovereigns” and French monarchsthe title “Most Christian.” AlthoughHenry was proud of his papalhonor, eventually his political needsdrove him to break with the Church.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Using a cause-and-effect graphiclike the one below, show the maincause and several effects ofLuther’s action in posting the 95Theses.

Which effect do you think had themost permanent impact? Explain.

3. SUPPORTING OPINIONS

Who do you think had a betterreason to break with the Church,Luther or Henry VIII? Support youranswer with details from the text.

THINK ABOUT• why Luther criticized the Church• what Henry asked the pope to do

for him• the Church’s response to Luther• the pope’s response to Henry

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Revolution Which of Luther’sideas do you think might havemotivated the peasants to revolt in1524? Explain.

THINK ABOUT• Luther’s criticisms of the Church• what change the peasants

demanded• the actions the peasants took

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• indulgence• Reformation• Lutheran• Protestant• Peace of Augsburg• annul• Anglican

Section Assessment3

After Henry’s death in 1547, each of his three children eventually ruled. This cre-ated religious turmoil. Edward VI became king at age nine and ruled only six years.During his reign, the Protestants gained power. Edward’s half-sister Mary ruled next.

She was a Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule ofthe pope. Mary had many Protestants killed. England’s next ruler wasAnne Boleyn’s daughter, Elizabeth.

Elizabeth Restores Protestantism Inheriting the throne in 1558,Elizabeth I returned her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559,Parliament followed Elizabeth’s request and set up a national churchmuch like the one under Henry VIII. This was to be the only legalchurch in England. People were required to attend its services orpay a fine. Parliament declared that Elizabeth was head of theChurch of England, or Anglican Church.

Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderateCatholics and moderate Protestants might both accept. As a conces-sion to Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed tomarry. They could deliver sermons in English, not Latin. As a con-cession to Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trap-pings of the Catholic service such as rich robes and golden crucifixes.Under Elizabeth, the Book of Common Prayer was revised to besomewhat more acceptable to Catholics.

The Spanish Armada While Elizabeth was able to restore religiouspeace to her country, she soon faced the threat of invasion from theking of Catholic Spain. Philip II planned to attack England for sev-eral reasons. One reason was that Elizabeth had supportedProtestant subjects who rebelled against him. In 1588, Philip assem-bled an invasion force of 130 ships, 8,000 sailors, and 19,000 soldiers.This force—known as the Spanish Armada—reached the southwestcoast of England on July 29. However, bad weather and the Englishfleet defeated the Spanish completely.

Although Elizabeth’s reign was triumphant, she had some difficul-ties. Money was one problem. In the late 1500s, the English beganto think about building an American empire as a new source ofincome. (See Chapter 19.) While colonies strengthened Englandeconomically, they did not enrich the queen directly. The queen’sconstant need for money would carry over into the next reign andlead to bitter conflict between the monarch and Parliament. In themeantime, other countries experienced bloody religious conflicts.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. RecognizingEffects How didHenry VIII and histhree children causereligious turmoil inEngland?E. Answer Undertheir rule, Englandswitched back andforth from Catholic toProtestant to Catholicto Protestant again.Many people werepersecuted and mar-tyred, by both Henryand Mary.

432 Chapter 17

Elizabeth I

1533–1603

Elizabeth I was the third of HenryVIII’s children to rule England. Likeher father, Elizabeth had a fiercetemper and a robust nature. Athleticas a girl, she showed amazingenergy and strength into her sixties.

When the Spanish Armadathreatened England, Elizabeth rodeinto the camp of soldiers preparingto defend their country. For thisoccasion, she wore her brightestred wig adorned with two whiteplumes that were easy for all to seeabove the soldier’s long pikes.

From her horse, Elizabeth gaveencouragement to her soldiers:

I know I have the body of aweak and feeble woman, but Ihave the heart and stomach ofa king, and a king of England,too, and I think foul scorn [of]. . . any prince of Europe [who]should dare invade the bordersof my realm.

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Lutherposts the

95 Theses.cause

effect

effect

effect

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SETTING THE STAGE Under the leadership of Elizabeth I, the Church of Englandremained similar to the Catholic Church in many of its doctrines and ceremonies.Meanwhile, other forms of Protestantism were developing elsewhere in Europe.

Calvin Begins Another Protestant ChurchIn 1521, the year Luther stood trial at Worms, John Calvin was a 12-year-old boy.Born in France, Calvin grew up to have as much influence on Protestants as Lutherdid. Calvin would give order to the new faith that Luther had begun.

Calvin and His Teachings In 1536, Calvin published a book calledInstitutes of the Christian Religion. This work expressed Calvin’sideas about God, salvation, and human nature. It also created a sys-tem of Protestant theology.

Calvin taught that men and women are sinful by nature. TakingLuther’s idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went on tosay that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called thesefew the “elect.” He believed that God has known since the beginningof time who will be saved. This doctrine is called predestination.The religion based on Calvin’s teachings is called Calvinism.

Calvin Runs Geneva Calvin believed that the ideal governmentwas a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead theircity. When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-gov-erning city of about 20,000 people.

Calvin and his followers ran the city according to strict rules.Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing orplayed card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, orbanish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached differentdoctrines might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants,Calvin’s Geneva was a model city of highly moral citizens.

Calvinism Spreads One of the admiring visitors to Geneva was apreacher from Scotland named John Knox. When he returned homein 1559, Knox put Calvin’s ideas to work in Scottish towns. Eachcommunity church was governed by a small group of laymen calledelders or presbyters (PREHZ•buh•tuhrs). Followers of Knox becameknown as Presbyterians. In the 1560s, Protestant nobles led byKnox succeeded in making Calvinism Scotland’s official religion.They also deposed their Catholic queen in favor of her infant son.

Elsewhere, Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adopted theCalvinist form of church organization. One reason Calvin isconsidered so influential is that many Protestant churches today

BackgroundThe deposed queenwas Mary, Queen ofScots—Elizabeth I’scousin and heir. ManyEnglish Catholicswanted Mary to rule.Eventually, Elizabethhad Mary executedfor taking part in plotsagainst her.

The ReformationContinues

4TERMS & NAMES

• predestination• Calvinism• theocracy• Presbyterian• Anabaptist• Catholic

Reformation• Jesuits• Council of Trent

MAIN IDEA

John Calvin and other Reformationleaders began new Protestant churches.The Catholic Church also made reforms.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Many Protestant churches began duringthis period, and many Catholic schoolsare the result of Catholic reforms.

John Calvin

1509–1564

Unlike Luther, Calvin wrote littleabout his personal life. A quiet boy,he grew up to study law andphilosophy at the University of Paris.Early in the 1530s, he came underthe influence of French followers ofLuther. When King Francis I orderedthese Protestants arrested, Calvinfled. Eventually, he made his way toGeneva, Switzerland.

Calvin and his followers rigidlyregulated morality in Geneva.Perhaps because of this, Calvinismis often described as strict andgrim. However, Calvin taught thatpeople should enjoy God’s gifts. Hewrote that it was not

anywhere forbidden to laugh,or to enjoy food, or to add newpossessions to old . . . or to bedelighted with musicalharmonies, or to drink wine.

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS

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Madrid

Seville

Barcelona

Avignon

Geneva

Worms

Munster

Paris

London

Edinburgh

Wittenburg

Augsburg

Venice

Vienna

Rome

NaplesConstantinople

8° W

8° E

16° E

0°

16° W

42° N

50° N

58° N

ATLANTICOCEAN

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

N o r t hS e a

Ba l t i cS ea

SPAIN

FRANCE

SWEDEN

POLAND

AUSTRIA

HU

NG

AR

Y

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

SWISS

CONFEDRATION

ITALIAN

STATES

PAPAL

STATES

GERMAN

STATES

NAPLES

DENMARK

NORWAY

ENGLAND

IRELAND

SCOTLAND

NETH

ERLA

ND

S

PO

RT

UG

AL

RCRC

RC

L

L

LL

M

M

M

A

AA

A

AA

L

C

C

CC

C

C

C

C

C

M

MM

0 400 Miles

0 800 Kilometers

Dominant ReligionRoman CatholicLutheranAnglicanCalvinist

Eastern OrthodoxMuslimMixture of Calvinist,Lutheran and RomanCatholic

Minority Religion

Roman CatholicRCAnabaptistA

LutheranL

CalvinistCMuslimM

Religions in Europe, 1560

trace their roots to Calvin. Over the years, however, many of them have softenedCalvin’s strict teachings.

In France, Calvin’s followers were called Huguenots. Hatred between Catholicsand Huguenots frequently led to violence. The worst outbreak of fury occurred inParis on August 24, 1572—the Catholic feast of St. Bartholomew’s Day. At dawn,Catholic mobs began hunting for Protestants and brutally murdering them. The mas-sacres spread to other cities and lasted six months. Thousands, perhaps up to 12,000,Huguenots were killed.

Other ReformersProtestants taught that the Bible is the source of all truth about religion and that allpeople should read it to discover those truths. As Christians began to interpret theBible for themselves, new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief.

The Anabaptists One such group baptized only those persons who were oldenough to decide to be Christian. They said that people who had been baptizedas children should be rebaptized as adults. These believers were called Ana-baptists from the Greek for “baptize again.” Anabaptists also taught that churchand state should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars. They sharedtheir possessions. Viewing Anabaptists as radicals who threatened society, bothCatholics and Protestants persecuted them. Yet, the Anabaptists survived andbecame the forerunners of the Mennonites and the Amish. Their teaching influ-enced the later Quakers and Baptists, who split from the Anglican church.

Women of the Reformation Many women played prominent roles in theReformation, especially from 1519 to 1580. For example, Marguerite ofNavarre, the sister of King Francis I, protected John Calvin from being

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. AnalyzingCauses How didProtestant teachingcause further divi-sions in the Christianchurch?A. Answer Byemphasizing that allChristians shouldinterpret the Bible forthemselves, theProtestants openedthe door to many dif-ferent sets of belief.This led to many dif-ferent churches.

G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which European countries became mostly Protestant and which remained mostly Catholic?2. Location Judging from the way the religions were distributed, where would you expect

religious conflicts to take place? Explain.

Although Catholic,Marguerite ofNavarre heldunorthodox,mystical personalbeliefs. Shesupported the callfor reform in theChurch.

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executed for his beliefs while he lived in France. Other noblewomen played similarroles in protecting reformers.

Several wives of reformers also achieved fame. Katherina Zell, married to promi-nent reformer Matthew Zell of Strasbourg, once scolded a minister for speakingharshly of another. The minister responded by saying that she had “disturbed thepeace.” Katherina Zell answered his criticism sharply:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TDo you call this disturbing the peace that instead of spending my time in frivolousamusements I have visited the plague infested and carried out the dead? I have visitedthose in prison and under sentence of death. Often for three days and three nights Ihave neither eaten nor slept. I have never mounted the pulpit, but I have done morethan any minister in visiting those in misery.KATHERINA ZELL, quoted in Women of the Reformation

Luther’s wife Katherina von Bora played a more typical, behind-the-scenes role.However, her young life was unusual. Sent to a convent at about age 10, Katherina hadtaken the vows of a nun by 16. Inspired by Luther’s teaching, she escaped from her con-vent. Some stories claim she escaped by hiding in an empty barrel that had containedsmoked herring.

After marrying Luther, Katherina had six children. She managed the familyfinances, fed all who visited their house, and supported her husband’s work. She submitted respectfully to Luther but also argued with him about woman’s equal rolein marriage. Their well-run household became a model for others to follow.

As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization becamemore formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women’s activities to the homeand discouraged them from being leaders.

The Catholic ReformationWhile Protestant churches won many followers, millions remained true toCatholicism. Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within the CatholicChurch to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation.One great Catholic reformer was Ignatius (ihg•NAY•shuhs) of Loyola.

Ignatius of Loyola Ignatius grew up in his father’s castle inLoyola, Spain. The great turning point in his life came in 1521 whenhe was injured in a war. During his recovery, Ignatius thought abouthis past sins and about the life of Jesus. His daily devotions, hebelieved, cleansed his soul. In 1522, he began writing a book calledSpiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation,prayer, and study. Ignatius compared spiritual and physical exercise:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TJust as walking, traveling, and running are bodily exercises, preparingthe soul to remove ill-ordered affections, and after their removal seek-ing and finding the will of God with respect to the ordering of one’sown life and the salvation of one’s soul, are Spiritual Exercises.IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA, Spiritual Exercises

For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the popemade Ignatius’s followers a religious order called the Society of Jesus.Members of the order were commonly called Jesuits (JEHZH•u•ihts).

The Jesuits concentrated on three activities. First, they foundedsuperb schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were rigorouslytrained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits’ secondmission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism, so they sentout missionaries. Their third goal was to stop Protestantism from

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whywas it easier forwomen to take part inthe earlier stages ofthe Reformation thanthe later stages?B. PossibleAnswers In the ear-lier stages, mostchurches did not haveformal leaders whocould tell womenwhat to do. Once menbegan to have formalleadership roles, theydid not want to sharetheir authority withwomen.

Jesuit Missionaries

The work of Jesuit missionarieshas had a lasting impact aroundthe globe. By the time Ignatius diedin 1556, about a thousand Jesuitswere working in Europe, Africa,Asia, and the Americas. Two of themost famous Jesuit missionaries ofthe 1500s were Francis Xavier, whoworked in India, and Matteo Ricci,who worked in China.

One reason the Jesuits hadsuch a permanent impact is thatthey founded schools, colleges,and universities throughout theworld. For example, the Jesuitstoday run about 45 high schoolsand 28 colleges and universities inthe United States. Two of these areBoston College and MarquetteUniversity.

GlobalImpact

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spreading. The zeal of the Jesuits over-came the drift toward Protestantism inPoland and southern Germany.

Reforming Popes Two popes of the1500s took the lead in reforming theCatholic Church. Paul III, who was popefrom 1534 to 1549, took four importantsteps toward reform. First, he directed acouncil of cardinals to investigate indul-gence selling and other abuses within theChurch. Second, he approved the Jesuitorder. Third, he used the Inquisition to seek out and punish heresy in papalterritory. Fourth, and most important, he

decided to call a great council of Church leaders to meet in Trent, in northern Italy.In the years between 1545 and 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops andcardinals agreed on several doctrines:

• The church’s interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.

• Christians need faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued.

• The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life.

• Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. (But the false selling of indulgences was banned.)

Another reforming pope, Paul IV, vigorously carried out the council’s decrees. In1559, he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith.This list was known as the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughoutEurope were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including Protestant Bibles) andburn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, 10,000 books were burned in one day.

Legacy of the Reformation The Reformation had enduring effects. Protestantchurches flourished, despite religious wars and persecutions. Because of theReformation, religion no longer united Europe. As the Church’s power declined,individual monarchs and states gained power. This paved the way for modern nation-states. In addition, the reformers’ successful revolt against Church authority laid thegroundwork for a rejection of Christian belief that occurred in Western culture inlater centuries. Therefore, through its political and social effects, the Reformationhelped to set the stage for the modern world.

BackgroundThis Inquisition wascalled the RomanInquisition. It general-ly was more moderatethan the SpanishInquisition describedin Chapter 14.

436 Chapter 17

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a chart like the one below,compare the ideas of thereformers who came after Luther.

3. EVALUATING DECISIONS

Which of the steps taken by PopesPaul III and Paul IV to reform theCatholic Church do you think werewise? Which were unwise?Explain.

THINK ABOUT• the goals of the reforming popes• whether the steps clearly

addressed those goals• possible effects of each step

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Religious and EthicalSystems In a group of three, holda debate on whether Calvin wasright to establish such a stricttheocracy in Geneva. Debate suchpoints as whether church leadersshould be political rulers andwhether government should try tocontrol personal morality. One teammember should support Calvin’spolicy, one should oppose it, andone should act as moderator.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• predestination• Calvinism• theocracy• Presbyterian• Anabaptist• Catholic Reformation• Jesuits• Council of Trent

Section Assessment4

This Italian paintingof the Council ofTrent shows thelarge number ofchurch leaders whomet to discussCatholic reforms.

Reformers Ideas

John Calvin

Anabaptists

Catholic Reformers

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The ReformationMartin Luther’s criticisms of the Catholic church grew sharper over time. SomeCatholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times,historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connectedwith the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze political, social,and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation.

L E T T E R

Martin LutherAlthough Luther began by criticizing

the practice of sellingindulgences, he soon began toattack the whole system ofchurch government. In 1520, hesent the pope the followingcriticism of the Church leaders

who served under him in Rome.

The Roman Church hasbecome the most licentious [sinful]den of thieves. . . . They err whoascribe to thee the right of interpret-ing Scripture, for under cover of thyname they seek to set up their ownwickedness in the Church, and, alas,through them Satan has already mademuch headway under thy predeces-sors. In short, believe none who exaltthee, believe those who humble thee.

H I S T O R I A N ’ S C O M M E N T A R Y

Steven OzmentIn 1992, historian Steven Ozment publishedProtestants: The Birth of a Revolution. Here hecomments on some of the political aspects of theReformation.

Beginning as a protest against arbi-trary, self-aggrandizing, hierarchicalauthority in the person of the pope,the Reformation came to be closelyidentified in the minds of contempo-raries with what we today might callstates’ rights or local control. Tomany townspeople and villagers,Luther seemed a godsend for theirstruggle to remain politically free andindependent; they embraced hisReformation as a conserving politicalforce, even though they knew itthreatened to undo traditional reli-gious beliefs and practices.

H I S T O R I A N ’ S C O M M E N T A R Y

G. R. EltonIn Reformation Europe, published in 1963, G. R.Elton notes the role of geography and trade in thespread of Reformation ideas.

Could the Reformation havespread so far and so fast if it hadstarted anywhere but in Germany? Atany rate, the fact that it had its begin-nings in the middle of Europe madepossible a very rapid radiation in alldirections; the whole circle of coun-tries surrounding the Empire cameone after the other under its influ-ence. Germany’s position at the cen-ter of European trade also helpedgreatly. German merchants carriednot only goods but Lutheran ideasand books to Venice and France; thenorth German Hanse [a trade league]transported the Reformation to theScandinavian countries, parceled upwith bales of cloth and cargoes ofgrain; trading links with Germany didmuch to encourage the growth ofLutheranism in the eastern lands.

differentPERSPECTIVES

Analyzing Causes How didpolitics and economics helpspread the Reformation?Comparing Compare Luther’sattitude toward Church leaderswith the Catholic attitudes toward him.

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGES R6 and R7

Comparing How do religiousleaders spread their ideas today?

For another perspectiveon the Reformation, see

the World History: Electronic Library ofPrimary Sources.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

European Renaissance and Reformation 437

E N G R A V I N G

AnonymousIn the early 1500s, an anonymous Catholic authorpublished an engraving attacking Luther’s “game ofheresy.” The following lines are part of a poemthat appeared on the engraving.

I have in my simple way foreseen

What Luther’s teaching promises

to bring:

Great rebellion and bloodletting,

Much hatred and strife.

The fear of God will vanish forever,

Together with the whole of Scripture,

And authority will everywhere

be despised.

CD-ROM

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17Chapter Assessment

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SECTION 1 (pages 417-422)

Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance11. How did the merchant class in northern Italy influence the Renaissance?

12. How did art change during the Renaissance?

SECTION 2 (pages 423-427)

The Northern Renaissance13. How did northern European rulers encourage the spread of

Renaissance ideas?

14. How does Albrecht Dürer’s work reflect Renaissance ideas?

15. What did Christian humanists set out to do, and what method did they use?

SECTION 3 (pages 428-432)

Luther Starts the Reformation16. What act by Martin Luther set off the Reformation?

17. Why did the Holy Roman Emperor go to war against Protestant German princes?

18. How did England establish a state church apart from the CatholicChurch?

SECTION 4 (pages 433-436)

The Reformation Continues19. What were the main teachings of John Calvin?

20. What role did the Jesuits play in the Catholic Reformation?

European Renaissance and Reformation

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingto European history from 1300 to 1600.

Interact with History

On page 416, you looked at a paintingand discussed what you learnedabout Renaissance society from thatpainting. Now choose one otherpiece of art from the chapter. Explainwhat you learn about Renaissanceor Reformation society from thatpiece of art.

1. Renaissance

2. humanism

3. secular

4. printing press

5. indulgence

6. Reformation

7. Protestant

8. Peace of Augsburg

9. Catholic Reformation

10. Council of Trent

Visual Summary

438 Chapter 17

Social ChangeEffect in Renaissance Effect in Reformation

• Art celebrates individual andpersonal expression.

• Merchants sponsor artists and pay to beautify city.

• Rulers sponsor artists andphilosophers.

• Political, social, and artistictheories spread.

• Growing emphasis on individual

• Growing prosperity of merchants

• Decline of feudalism and grow-ing power of princes and kings

• Printing press and spread of learning

• Individuals interpret Bible forthemselves.

• German merchants resent flow of money to Church in Rome.

• Rulers defy pope and becomeProtestant.

• Luther’s 95 Theses spread; Bible printed in vernacularlanguages, so more people have access.

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European Renaissance and Reformation 439

CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project

Your unit portfolio project focuses on thespread of ideas among cultures (see page 387). For Chapter 17, you mightuse one of the following ideas.

• Design the cover and prepare the table of contents for a 15th-centurymagazine devoted to Europe’s classical heritage. The table of contentsshould include article titles and a brief summary of each article.

• As Francis I, write a letter to Leonardo da Vinci asking him to retire inFrance. Explain why you want Italian artists to come to your country.

• With a partner, role-play the reunion of two art students in 1500. One hasreturned from Italy; the other studied in Flanders. They should comparetheir techniques and views about art. Audiotape the role-play.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning

During the late 20th century, bothProtestants and Catholics made delayed responses to the Reformation. In the1960s, the Catholic Church held a council called Vatican II to promoteadditional reforms. In 1997, several U.S. Protestant denominations signed adocument agreeing to form closer ties with one another.

Work with a team to create a poster that explains one of thesedevelopments and how it is a response to the Reformation.

Use the Internet, news magazines, encyclopedias, or books toresearch the topic. Look for specific information about what was

decided during Vatican II or in the Protestant agreement.

• In your group, decide what are the most important points about Vatican IIor the Protestant agreement. Discuss how these points either carry on orundo the work of the Reformation.

• Display your information on a poster. You may convey the information ineither a written or an illustrated form, as long as it is clear and accurate.

3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE

Revisit the Unit Time Line on pages 386–387. On the Chapter 17 time line,identify important writers of the period. Did they write before or after theinvention of the printing press?

CRITICAL THINKING1. POWER OF THE WRITTEN WORD

Beginning in the 1300s,Europeans overturned many of the structures andideas of the Middle Ages. How did the printing presscontribute to this revolution? Explain.

2. REFORMING THE REFORMER

Choose one of the Protestant groups who came afterLuther, such as Calvinists or Anabaptists. Do youthink they thought Luther went too far in reformingCatholic Church practices or not far enough? Explainyour answer by citing differences in their beliefs.

3. RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION TODAY

Go back through the chapter and take note ofRenaissance and Reformation developments that stillinfluence modern life. Record your findings on achart like the one shown.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

In the following excerpt from The Prince, NiccolòMachiavelli discusses what a ruler should do to win agood reputation among his subjects. Read theparagraph and answer the questions below it.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TA prince must also show himself a lover ofmerit [excellence], give preferment [promo-tion] to the able, and honour those who excelin every art. Moreover he must encourage hiscitizens to follow their callings [professions]quietly, whether in commerce, or agriculture,or any other trade that men follow. . . . [Theprince] should offer rewards to whoever doesthese things, and to whoever seeks in anyway to improve his city or state.

• How was Machiavelli’s description of a prince’sduties influenced by Renaissance values?

• Do you agree with Machiavelli that a prince shoulddo these things? Explain the effect you think suchbehavior would have on the prince’s subjects.

FOCUS ON ART

Look carefully at this drawing of a machine from thenotebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. Notice the bladethat curves around the center shaft and theround mechanism at the bottom of the shaft.

• What might happen if theshaft started to turn?

• What do you thinkLeonardo wastrying to inventwhen he drew this machine?

• What modern machine doesthis drawing remind you of?

Connect to History A ruler paidLeonardo for some of his ideas formachines. How might a ruler use amachine like the one shown here?

THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION

THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS

THEME REVOLUTION

Legacy of the Renaissance and Reformation in Modern Life

Artistic Political

SocialReligious

CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,

pp. S1–S33

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