evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry

1/19/2015

1

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 1

Evolution,

the Themes of Biology,

and Scientific Inquiry

Dr. Wendy Sera

Houston Community College

Biology 1406


Inquiring About Life

An organism’s adaptations to its environment are

the result of evolution

For example, the seeds of the dandelion are moved by

wind due to their parachute-like structures

Evolution is the process of change that has

transformed life on Earth


Biology is the scientific study of life

Biologists ask questions such as

How does a single cell develop into an organism?

How does the human mind work?

How do living things interact in communities?

Life defies a simple, one-sentence definition

Instead, life is recognized by what living things do

Inquiring About Life, cont.

1/19/2015

2


Figure 1.2—Some Properties

of Life

Order

Energy processing

Growth and

development

Regulation

Reproduction

Response

to the

environment

Evolutionary

adaptation


Video: Seahorse Camouflage


Concept 1.1: The Study of Life Reveals Common Themes

Biology consists of more than memorizing factual

details

Themes help to organize biological information

Five Themes:

Organization

Information

Energy and Matter

Interactions

Evolution

1/19/2015

3


Theme: New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization

Life can be studied at different levels, from

molecules to the entire living planet

This enormous range can be divided into different

levels of biological organization


Figure 1.3—Exploring levels of biological organization

1 The Biosphere 7 Tissues

8

Cells5

Organisms

10

Mole-

cules

3

Communities

2

Ecosystems

6 Organs

and Organ

Systems

4 Populations

9 Organelles


Levels in which life is organized: From atoms to biosphere

Atoms: the smallest unit of matter; smallest particle of an

element

Molecules: consists of 2 or more atoms (e.g., DNA, H2O)

Organelle: structure in a cell with specific function (e.g.,

chloroplast, nucleus)

Cell: Smallest unit of life (e.g., Amoeba & bacteria are

single cells)

Tissue: group of cells with a specific function

Organs & Organ systems: consists of 2 or more tissues

1/19/2015

4


Levels of Organization, continued

Organisms: Individual living things

Populations: Group of interbreeding individuals of a

species.

Communities: All organisms in an area

Ecosystems: Living things in an area along with its non-

living components

Biosphere: Part of the earth inhabited by organisms,

includes both living & non-living.


Emergent Properties

Emergent properties result from the arrangement

and interaction of parts within a system

Emergent properties characterize non-biological

entities as well

For example, a functioning bicycle emerges only

when all of the necessary parts connect in the

correct way


The Power and Limitations of Reductionism

Reductionism is the reduction of complex systems to

simpler components that are more manageable to

study

For example, the molecular structure of DNA

An understanding of biology balances reductionism

with the study of emergent properties

For example, new understanding comes from studying

the interactions of DNA with other molecules

Systems biology is the analysis of the interactions

among the parts of a biological system

1/19/2015

5


Structure and Function

At each level of the biological hierarchy, we find a

correlation between structure and function

Form fits function!

For example, a hummingbird’s anatomy allows the

wings to rotate at the shoulder, so unlike other

birds, they can fly backward and hover in place.

How else might the

hummingbird’s

anatomy illustrate

that form fits

function?


The Cell is an organism’s basic unit of structure and function

The cell is the lowest level of organization that can

perform all activities required for life

All cells:

Are enclosed by a membrane

Use DNA as their genetic information

The ability of cells to divide is the basis of all

reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular

organisms


Cell Theory

Invention of the light microscope led to the discovery of the cell and

formulation of Cell Theory.

Robert Hooke (1665)—examined cork and coined the term “cell”

Antonie van Leeuwenhok (1600’s)—examined organisms in pond

water, blood cells, and sperm cells

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann (1839)—formulated the

first two tenets of Cell Theory

1. Cells are the basic unit of life.

2. All living things are made of cells.

Cell Theory was subsequently articulated by Rudolf Virchow in 1858

to also include:

3. All cells come from preexisting cells (a rejection of the idea of

spontaneous generation).

1/19/2015

6


A eukaryotic cell has membrane-enclosed

organelles, the largest of which is usually the

nucleus

By comparison, a prokaryotic cell is simpler and

usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or

other membrane-enclosed organelles

Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotic; plants,

animals, fungi, and all other forms of life are

eukaryotic

Two Major Types of Cells


Figure 1.4—Contrasting eukaryotic and prokaryotic

cells in size and complexity

Eukaryotic cell

Membrane

Cytoplasm

Membrane-

enclosed organelles

Nucleus

(membrane-

enclosed)

DNA (throughout

nucleus) 1 µm

Prokaryotic cell

Membrane

DNA

(no nucleus)


Theme: Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information

Within cells, structures called chromosomes

contain genetic material in the form of DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid)

25 µm

1/19/2015

7


DNA, the Genetic Material

Each chromosome has one long DNA molecule

with hundreds or thousands of genes

Genes encode information for building the

molecules synthesized within the cell

Genes are the units of inheritance

DNA controls the development and maintenance

of organisms


Figure 1.6—Inherited DNA

directs development of an

organismSperm cell

Egg cell

Fertilized egg

with DNA from

both parents Embryo’s cells

with copies of

inherited DNA

Offspring with

traits inherited

from both parents

Nuclei containing DNA


Each DNA molecule is made up of two long chains

arranged in a double helix

Each chain is made up of four kinds of chemical

building blocks called nucleotides and nicknamed

A, G, C, and T

DNA, the Genetic Material, cont.

1/19/2015

8


Figure 1.7—DNA: The genetic material

Nucleus

DNA

(a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA

A

T

G

G

T

A

T

A

C

A

C

T

A

C

Nucleotide

Cell


Genes control protein production indirectly

DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then

translated into a protein

This is what is called Gene expression, the

process of converting information from gene to

cellular product (i.e., a protein).

Gene Expression: Making a Protein


Figure 1.8—Gene

expression: The transfer of

information from a gene

results in a functional protein

Lens

cell

(a) Lens cells are

tightly packed

with transparent

proteins called

crystallin.

(b) How do lens cells make crystallin proteins?

Crystallin gene

DNA

mRNA

Chain of amino

acids

Protein

Crystallin protein

TRANSCRIPTION

TRANSLATION

A C C A A A C C G A G T

T G G T T T G G C T C A

U G G U U U G G C U C A

PROTEIN FOLDING

1/19/2015

9


Genomics: Large-Scale Analysis of DNA Sequences

An organism’s genome is its entire set of genetic

instructions

The human genome and those of many other

organisms have been sequenced

Genomics is the study of sets of genes within and

between species

Proteomics is the study of whole sets of proteins

encoded by the genome


The genomics approach depends on:

“High-throughput” technology, which yields

enormous amounts of data

Bioinformatics, which is the use of computational

tools to process a large volume of data

Interdisciplinary research teams


Theme: Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter

The input of energy from the sun and the

transformation of energy from one form to another

make life possible

When organisms use energy to perform work, some

energy is lost to the surroundings as heat

As a result, energy flows through an ecosystem,

usually entering as light and exiting as heat

On the other hand, chemicals (i.e., matter) cycle

between organisms and the physical environment.

In other words, they are recycled.

1/19/2015

10


ENERGY FLOW

Light

energy HeatChemical

energy

Plants take

up chemicals

from the soil

and air.

Chemicals

Decomposers

return

chemicals

to the soil.

Chemicals

pass to

organisms

that eat the

plants.

Figure 1.9—Energy flow and chemical cycling


Theme: From Ecosystems to Molecules, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems

Interactions between the components of the

system ensure smooth integration of all the parts

This holds true equally well for components of an

ecosystem and the molecules in a cell


Ecosystems: An Organism’s Interactions with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment

At the ecosystem level, each organism interacts

continuously with other organisms

These interactions may be beneficial or harmful to

one or both of the organisms

Organisms also interact continuously with the

physical factors in their environment, and the

environment is affected by the organisms living

there

1/19/2015

11


Figure 1.10—Interactions of an African acacia tree with other organisms and the physical

environment Sunlight

Leaves take in

carbon dioxide

from the air and

release oxygen.

Animals eat leaves

and fruit from the tree,

returning nutrients

and minerals to the

soil in their waste

products.

Water and

minerals in

the soil are

taken up

by the tree

through its

roots.

Leaves absorb light

energy from the sun.

Leaves fall to the

ground and are

decomposed by

organisms that

return minerals

to the soil.

CO2

O2


Molecules: Interactions Within Organisms

Interactions between components—organs,

tissues, cells, and molecules—that make up living

organisms are crucial to their smooth operation

Cells are able to coordinate various chemical

pathways through a mechanism called feedback


In feedback regulation the output, or product of a

process, regulates that very process

The most common form of regulation in living

organisms is negative feedback, in which the

response reduces the initial stimulus

Negative feedback means that as more of a

product accumulates, the process that creates it

slows and less of the product is produced

Positive feedback means that as more of a

product accumulates, the process that creates it

speeds up and more of the product is produced

1/19/2015

12


Figure 1.11—Feedback regulation

Insulin

Circulation

throughout

body via

blood

Insulin-producing

cell in pancreas

STIMULUS: High

blood glucose level

Neg

ati

ve f

ee

db

ac

k

Liver and

muscle cells

RESPONSE: Glucose

uptake by liver and

muscle cells


Animation: Negative Feedback


Evolution, the Core Theme of Biology

Evolution is the one idea that makes logical sense

of everything we know about living organisms

The scientific explanation for both the unity and

diversity of organisms is the concept that living

organisms are modified descendants of common

ancestors

Many kinds of evidence support the occurrence of

evolution

1/19/2015

13


Concept 1.2: The Core Theme: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life

“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the

light of evolution”—Theodosius Dobzhansky

Evolutionary mechanisms account for the unity

and diversity of all species on Earth


Classifying the Diversity of Life

Approximately 1.8 million species have been

identified and named to date, and thousands more

are identified each year

Estimates of the total number of species that

actually exist range from 10 million to over 100

million


Grouping Species: The Basic Idea

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names

and classifies species into groups of increasing

breadth

Domains, followed by kingdoms, are the

broadest units of classification

1/19/2015

14


Figure 1.12—Classifying life

SPECIES GENUS FAMILY ORDER CLASS PHYLUM KINGDOM DOMAIN

Ursus

Ursidae

Carnivora

Mammalia

Chordata

Animalia

Eukarya

Ursus americanus


The Three Domains of Life

Organisms are divided into three domains, named

Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea compose

the prokaryotes


(a) Domain Bacteria

(c) Domain Eukarya

2 µ

m

(b) Domain Archaea

2 µ

m

100 µm

Kingdom

Animalia

Kingdom

Plantae

Kingdom

Fungi Protists

Figure 1.13—The three domains of life

1/19/2015

15


Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic organisms

Domain Eukarya includes three multicellular

kingdoms:

Plants, which produce their own food by photosynthesis

Fungi, which absorb nutrients

Animals, which ingest their food

Other eukaryotic organisms were formerly grouped

into the Protist kingdom, though the recent trend has

been to split the protists into several kingdoms


Unity in the Diversity of Life

A striking unity underlies the diversity of life; for

example

DNA is the universal genetic language common to

all organisms

Unity is evident in many features of cell structure


Figure 1.14—An example of unity underlying the diversity of life: the architecture

of cilia in eukaryotes

Cilia of

windpipe cells

Cross section

of a cilium

Cilia of

Paramecium

0.1 µm

15 µm

5 µm

1/19/2015

16


Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection

Fossils and other evidence document the

evolution of life on Earth over billions of years


Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection

Charles Darwin published On the Origin of

Species by Means of Natural Selection in

1859

Darwin made two main points:

1. Species showed evidence of “descent

with modification” from common

ancestors

2. Natural selection is the mechanism

behind “descent with modification”

Darwin’s theory explained the duality of

unity and diversity


Figure 1.17—Unity and diversity among birds

European robin

Gentoo penguinAmerican flamingo

1/19/2015

17


Unity and diversity in the

orchid family


Video: Galápagos Islands Overview


Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual

1/19/2015

18


Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual


Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana


Video: Galápagos Sea Lion

1/19/2015

19


Video: Galápagos Tortoise


Darwin observed that

1. Individuals in a population vary in their traits,

many of which are heritable (passed from parents

to offspring)

2. More offspring are produced than survive, and

competition is inevitable

3. Species generally suit their environment

Charles Darwin’s Observations


Darwin inferred that

1. Individuals that are best suited to their environment are

more likely to survive and reproduce (called differential

reproduction and survival)

2. Over time, more individuals in a population will have

the advantageous traits

Evolution occurs as the unequal reproductive

success of individuals

In other words, the environment “selects” for the

propagation of beneficial traits

Darwin called this process natural selection

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

1/19/2015

20


Figure 1.18—Natural selection

Population

with varied

inherited

traits

Elimination

of individuals

with certain

traits

1 2 Reproduction

of survivors3 Increasing

frequency

of traits that

enhance

survival

4


Natural selection results in the adaptation of

organisms to their environment

For example, bat wings are an example of

adaptation

Adaptation: The Result of Natural Selection


Figure 1.UN10

Population of organisms

Hereditary

variationsOverproduction of off-

spring and competition

Environmental

factors

Differences in reproductive success

of individuals

Evolution of adaptations in the population

1/19/2015

21


The Tree of Life

“Unity in diversity” arises from “descent with modification”

For example, the forelimb of the bat, human, and horse and

the whale flipper all share a common skeletal architecture

Darwin proposed that natural selection could cause an

ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendent

species (i.e., speciation)

For example, the finch species of the Galápagos Islands are

descended from a common ancestor

Evolutionary relationships are often illustrated with treelike

diagrams called “evolutionary trees” that show ancestors

and their descendants


Figure 1.20—Descent

with modification:

adaptive radiation of

finches on the

Galápagos Islands

Green warbler finch

COMMON

ANCESTOR

Certhidea olivacea

Gray warbler finchCerthidea fusca

Sharp-beaked ground finchGeospiza difficilis

Vegetarian finch

Platyspiza crassirostris

Mangrove finchCactospiza heliobates

Woodpecker finchCactospiza pallida

Medium tree finch

Camarhynchus pauper

Large tree finchCamarhynchus psittacula

Small tree finchCamarhynchus parvulus

Large cactus ground finchGeospiza conirostris

Cactus ground finch

Geospiza scandens

Small ground finch

Geospiza fuliginosa

Medium ground finchGeospiza fortis

Large ground finchGeospiza

magnirostris

Ca

ctu

s-flo

we

r-

ea

tersS

ee

d-e

ate

rs

Gro

un

d fin

ch

es

Tre

e fin

ch

es

Inse

ct-e

ate

rs

Bu

d-

ea

ter

Se

ed

-

ea

ter

Inse

ct-e

ate

rs

Wa

rble

r

finc

he

s


Concept 1.3: In studying nature, scientists make observations and then form and test hypotheses

The word Science is derived from Latin and means

“to know”

Science is ONE “way of knowing”

What are some other “ways of knowing?”

Inquiry is the search for information and

explanation of natural phenomena

There are two main types of scientific inquiry:

discovery science and hypothesis-based

science

1/19/2015

22


Making Observations: Discovery Science

Biologists describe natural structures and

processes using Discovery Science

This approach is based on observation and the

analysis of data

Recorded observations are called data

Qualitative data often take the form of recorded

descriptions

Quantitative data are generally expressed as

numerical measurement, organized into tables and

graphs


Figure 1.21—Jane Goodall collecting qualitative data on chimpanzee behavior


Induction in Discovery Science

Inductive reasoning draws conclusions through

the logical process of induction

Induction is making an inference from a set of

specific observations to reach a general

conclusion called a generalization.

For example, “the sun always rises in the east”

1/19/2015

23


Forming and Testing Hypotheses: Hypothesis-Based Science

Observations can lead us to ask questions and

propose hypothetical explanations called

hypotheses

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a well-

framed question

It is usually a rational accounting for a set of

observations

A scientific hypothesis leads to predictions that

can be tested by observation or experimentation


For example

Observation: Your flashlight doesn’t work

Question: Why doesn’t your flashlight work?

Hypothesis 1: The batteries are dead

Hypothesis 2: The bulb is burnt out

Both these hypotheses are testable


Figure 1.22—A

simplified view

of the scientific

process

Observation: Flashlight doesn’t work.

Question: Why doesn’t the flashlight work?

Hypothesis #1:

Batteries are dead.

Hypothesis #2:

Bulb is burnt out.

Prediction: Replacing

bulb will fix problem.

Test of prediction:

Replace bulb.

Result:

Flashlight works.

Hypothesis is supported.

Result:

Flashlight doesn’t work.

Hypothesis is contradicted.

Test of prediction:

Replace batteries.

Prediction: Replacing

batteries will fix problem.

1/19/2015

24


Deduction Reasoning: The “If…then” Logic of Hypothesis-Based Science

Deductive reasoning uses general premises to

make specific predictions

Usually takes the form of “If…then” logic

For example, if organisms are made of cells

(premise 1), and humans are organisms (premise

2), then humans are composed of cells (a

deductive prediction)


A Closer Look at Hypotheses in Scientific Inquiry

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable

Hypothesis-based science often makes use of two or

more alternative hypotheses

Failure to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that

hypothesis

For example, you replace your flashlight bulb, and it now

works; this supports the hypothesis that your bulb was burnt

out, but does not prove it (perhaps the first bulb was inserted

incorrectly)!

We can never prove that a hypothesis is true, but

testing it in many ways with different sorts of data can

increase our confidence in it tremendously


Limitations of Science

In science, observations and experimental results must be

repeatable and testable

Science cannot support or falsify supernatural or religious

explanations, which are simply outside the bounds of science.

This limits the scope of questions that science can answer.

Consider the following:

Hypothesis: God exists

Prediction: IF God exists, THEN he or she is all-powerful and could

strike me dead if I asked.

Test of Prediction: God will strike me dead if I ask.

Problem: not a testable prediction because it does not prove or

disprove the existence of a God! The hypothesis is outside the

realm of science, although nonetheless a legitimate question!

1/19/2015

25


The Flexibility of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is an idealized process of

inquiry

Hypothesis-based science is based on the

“textbook” scientific method, but rarely follows all

the ordered steps

Discovery science has made important

contributions with very little dependence on the

scientific method!

Backtracking and “rethinking” may be necessary

part way through the process


A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations

Color patterns of animals vary widely in nature,

sometimes even between members of the same

species

Two populations of mice belonging to the same

species (Peromyscus polionotus) but with different

color patterns are found in different environments

The beach mouse lives on white sand dunes with

sparse vegetation; the inland mouse lives on

darker soil


Figure 1.24—Different coloration in beach and inland populations of

Peromyscus polionotus

Florida

Inland population

Beach

population

Beach population

GULF OF

MEXICO

Inland population

1/19/2015

26


The two types of mice match the coloration of their

habitats

Natural predators of these mice are all visual

hunters

Francis Bertody Sumner hypothesized that the

color patterns had evolved as adaptations to

protect the mice from predators

Hopi Hoekstra and a group of students then tested

this hypothesis

A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations, cont.


The researchers predicted that mice that did not

match their habitat would be preyed on more

heavily than mice that did match the surroundings

They built models of mice, painted them to match

one of the surroundings, and placed equal

numbers of each type of model in each habitat

They then recorded signs of predation

A Case Study in Scientific Inquiry: Investigating Coat Coloration in Mouse Populations, cont.


Figure 1.25—Inquiry: Does camouflage affect predation rates on two

populations of mice?

Light models Dark models Light models Dark models

Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged

(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)

Beach habitat Inland habitat

Perc

en

tag

e o

f

att

acked

mo

dels 100

50

0

Results

1/19/2015

27


Experimental Variables and Controls

In a controlled experiment, an experimental

group (the non-camouflaged mice in this case) is

compared with a control group (the camouflaged

mice)

Ideally, experimental and control groups differ in

only the one factor under investigation

Without controls the researchers would not be

able to rule out other factors besides model color

that might have affected the results

A controlled experiment does not mean that all

unwanted variables are kept constant!


Theories in Science

In the context of science, a theory is

Broader in scope than a hypothesis

General, and can lead to new testable hypotheses

Supported by a large body of evidence in

comparison to a hypothesis


Concept 1.4: Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints

Most scientists work in teams, which often include

graduate and undergraduate students

Good communication is important in order to share

results through seminars, publications, and

websites

1/19/2015

28


Building on the Work of Others

Scientists check each other’s claims by performing

similar experiments

If experimental results are not repeatable, the

original claim will have to be revised

It is not unusual for different scientists to work on

the same research question

Scientists cooperate by sharing data about model

organisms (for example, the fruit fly Drosophila

melanogaster)


Science, Technology, and Society

The goal of science is to understand natural

phenomena

The goal of technology is to apply scientific

knowledge for some specific purpose

Science and technology are interdependent

Biology is marked by “discoveries,” while

technology is marked by “inventions”


The combination of science and technology has dramatic

effects on society

For example, the discovery of DNA by James Watson

and Francis Crick allowed for advances in DNA

technology such as testing for hereditary diseases

Ethical issues can arise from new technology, but have as

much to do with politics, economics, and cultural values as

with science and technology

Figure 1.26—DNA technology and crime scene investigation

1/19/2015

29


Can you pick out the

mossy leaf-tailed gecko

lying against the tree

trunk in this photo?

How is the appearance

of the gecko a benefit in

terms of survival?

Given what you have

learned about evolution,

natural selection, and

genetic information,

describe how the

gecko’s coloration might

have evolved.

evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry

Documents