examination of individual differences in participation in outplacement program activities after a job loss Mary A. Gowan Sylvia C. Nassar-McMillan

This study investigated the relationship among age, gender, and race relative to participation in self-awareness, action-oriented, and training activities after a job loss. The 156 respondents in this study were part of a larger, longitudinal study that collected data using questionnaires from outplacement program participants at 6 months and at 1 year following a company closing. Main effects were found for gender and for Age x Employment status. Implications of the study for outplacement programs, along with study limitations and future research direc- tions, are discussed.

--

.... Outplacement programs are designed to assist unemployed individuals with devel- oping problem-focused coping strategies (e.g., Gowan & Gatewood, 1997; Leana & Feldman, 1994). Outplacement programs offer their services, ranging from individual career counseling to job search workshops, to all individuals who are eligible for the services, regardless of sex, age, or race.

The job search research suggests that individual differences may explain why all job seekers do not use the same activities to seek employment (Schwab, Rynes, & Aldag, 1987). The job loss research has shown differential effects for reemployment based on individual differences (e.g., Kinicki, 1989; Phelps & Mason, 1991). Evi- dently, although outplacement services may be equally available for use, they may not be used equally and may not result in equal outcomes if used.

Unemployment research addressing job search and related activities (e.g., Kinicki, Prussia, & McKee-Ryan, 2000; Wanberg, 1997) has described problem-focused coping in terms of a propensity to use job search and related strategies (e.g., “focus time and energy on job search activities”) or intensity of use of such strategies (e.g., number of times strategies used). Responses to questionnaire items about propensity to use or intensity of use are generally collapsed into scale scores. Research has not exam- ined the relationship between reemployment and the use of the various types of

e . . .

Mary A. Gowan is an associate professor in the Department of Management in the College of Business Administration at the University of Central Florida, Orlando. Sylvia C. Nassar-McMillan is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling, Special Education, and Child De- velopment at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Mary A. Gowan, College of Business Administration, Department of Management, University of Central Florida, PO Box 161400, Orlando, FL 32816-1400 (e-mail: mary.gowan 0 bus. ucf. edu).

journal of employment counseling * December2001 Volume38 105

activities (e.g., receiving career counseling, participating in a job search workshop) typically made available to individuals. It is not known, therefore, if men and women, younger and older individuals, and Whites and Blacks participate in job search activities equally. Furthermore, some of the activities may be more likely to predict reemployment than others. If those activities are less likely to be used by certain groups, that choice may affect their reemployment potential.

The purpose of this study, therefore, is twofold. First, this study investigated the relationship among age, sex, and race relative to participation in self-awareness, action-oriented, and training activities after a job loss. Second, the study examined the relationship between the use of these activities and reemployment. The results of this study will assist career counselors and outplacement center administrators in making decisions about which programs to provide. In addition, the information will provide insight for coaching individuals who may need to participate in a broader range of activities, or different activities, to increase the likelihood of regaining employment.

The individual differences of interest in this study are sex, race, and age. As Vinokur, Schul, Vuori, and Price (2000) noted, these variables serve as “labor market signals” to employers, potentially hindering employability of individuals if the characteristics are interpreted in a discriminatory fashion. In light of this “signal- ing” issue, it is important to minimize obstacles to reemployment that are based on these individual differences. One way to do this is to ensure that individuals are using the resources that will enhance their potential for reemployment.

The outplacement activities examined can be grouped into three categories: self- awareness activities (individual career assessments, group career assessment feed- back sessions, and one-on-one counseling), action-oriented activities bob search workshops and resume writing workshops), and training activities (enrolling in a job training program). Factor analysis provided confirmation for this grouping.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND USE OF OUTPLACEMENT PROGRAM ACTIVITIES

Even though several unemployment researchers (e.g., Eby & Buch, 1994; Wanberg, Carmichael & Downey, 1999) have begun to include larger samples of women in their studies, there is still limited understanding of how women respond to unem- ployment. With more women in the workforce (US. Department of Labor, 1994-1996), inevitably the rate with which they are included in the numbers of unemployed will continue to increase (Farber, 1993). Furthermore, including more women in the research of unemployment is important for two reasons. First, outplacement firms report that when women lose their jobs they are typically unemployed longer than are their male counterparts (Phelps & Mason, 1991). Second, unemployment research has shown that women have poorer reemployment outcomes (e.g., number of hours working, income).

Research suggests that women and men approach seeking employment differently. For instance, women tend to rely less on the use of job seeking strategies to cope with unemployment than do men (Leana & Feldman, 1992; Steffy, Shaw, & Noe,

186 journal of employment counseling December2001 Volume38

1989). In one of the few studies specifically examining gender differences in reac- tions to job loss, Leana and Feldman (1991) found that men tended to use more problem-focused coping strategies (e.g., job search) than did women. Women tended to rely more on what Leana and Feldman (1991) termed symptom-focused coping strategies (e.g., strategies designed to alleviate stress and anxiety but not directed at solving the problem, for example, seeking social support) and had more difficulty initiating job search activities.

Other studies have also found women to be more responsive than men to social support as a coping strategy (e.g., Flynn, 1991) and less likely to initiate job seek- ing behaviors (Malen & Stroh, 1998). However, unlike Flynn, Malen and Stroh found that male managers were more likely to seek social support to deal with their job search problems than were female managers. They suggested that differences between their sample and those of other studies in terms of occupation may have accounted for this different outcome. None of these studies focused specifically on the types of problem-focused strategies used, but rather on differences in the use of problem-focused versus symptom-focused coping strategies in general.

The participants in our study were similar in occupational level (i.e., a heteroge- neous sample of occupations) to those of Leana and Feldman (1991). Consequently, we expected to find that women would participate in different activities than would men. Specifically, we expected that women would be drawn to self-awareness activities, such as career counseling, that involve social support and the encour- agement that comes from others. Men, on the other hand, would be likely to prefer action-oriented activities, such as job search workshops.

Hypothesis 1: The outplacement activities used by women will differ from those used by men.

Hypothesis la: Women will be more likely to participate in self-awareness activities than will men.

Hypothesis lb: Men will be more likely to participate in action-oriented activities than will women.

Although job loss research is beginning to include larger samples of women, research regarding ethnic and racial differences is minimal; however, there is research about Blacks and their employment experiences in general. This research is useful for understanding the Black experience with job loss (e.g., London & Greller, 1991; Wilson, 'Iienda, 13 Wu, 1995).

For instance, evidence continues to indicate that unemployment is substantially higher for Black workers than for White workers, with the time between the end of a job and reem- ployment longer for Blacks than for Whites (Leana & Feldman, 1994). In addition, Blacks, both men and women, have greater difficulty obtaining jobs (London & Greller, 1991) and are more likely to be fired or to be laid off than are White men (Wilson et al., 1995).

Furthermore, research sheds light on the relationship between the race of employees who are successful in their jobs and the programs they initially used to attain their positions. Specifically, in one study, the Blacks who had longer job tenure had used more formal sources ofjob search, such as employment agencies and media announcements. The Whites

journal of employment counseling December2001 Volume 38 107

who had longer tenure had used more informal sources, such as employee referrals (Caldwell & Spivey, 1983). Perhaps this difference results from alack of Black mentors in the workforce (Zunker, 1997) who can provide both coaching on these informal programs and social support. Blacks, aware that they are likely to experience greater difficulty regaining employment, may choose to use formal and structured programs, such as participating in job search workshops. For these individuals, spending time in such activities as taking career assessments, and even participating in job training programs, would be perceived as having less immediate potential for affecting reemployment.

On the basis of the research concerning Blacks and employment, we therefore offer several hypotheses.

Hypothesis 2: The outplacement activities used by Blacks will differ from those used by Whites.

Hypothesis 2a: Blacks will be more likely to participate in action-oriented activities than will Whites.

Hypothesis 2b: Whites will be more likely to participate in job training programs than will Blacks.

One impact of the aging of the labor force is the increase in the number of older workers being affected by downsizing. Job loss and unemployment research has found differences in reemployment outcomes based on age. For instance, Vinokur et al., (2000) found that age predicted poor reemployment outcomes. Specifically, older workers had more trouble becoming reemployed and experienced greater economic losses. Wanberg (1997) and Wanberg, Watt, and Rumsey (1996) also found that older individuals were less likely to be reemployed. These results are consistent with those found in labor economic research (Fallick, 1996).

In addition, other researchers (e.g., Wanburg et al., 1996) have reported that job- seeking frequency increased reemployment for individuals under 40 years old, but not for those over age 40. Malen and Stroh (1998) found that younger participants in their study used fewer job search activities than did older participants. Older workers may have more pressing financial reasons to regain employment quickly. The loss of a job at this point in time may undermine plans for a child’s education or even for retire- ment. At the same time, however, older workers may feel a greater need for retraining or guidance, or both, in choosing a career direction if they have been out of the job market for an extended time. Younger workers, on the other hand, are likely to feel confident about their marketability and have less need for career guidance, having more recently gone through a training program or made a career choice. On the basis of research on age and unemployment, we tested the following hypotheses.

Hypothesis 3: The outplacement activities used by older respondents will differ from those used by younger respondents.

Hypothesis 3a: Younger respondents will be more likely to participate in action-oriented activities than will older respondents.

Hypothesis 3b: Older respondents will be more likely to participate in self-awareness and job training activities than will younger respondents.

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Finally, we expected to find differences in reemployment status between indi- viduals who participated in action-oriented activities and those who participated in self-awareness or job training activities. The action-oriented activities are designed specifically to help individuals develop job search practices that will lead to new employment as quickly as possible. The self-awareness activities are more indi- rectly geared toward reemployment. Self-awareness activities assist individuals in identifying direction relative to careers and specific jobs, and actually may en- courage them to gain training or to take longer to find a job. The job training activi- ties prepare individuals for jobs, but do so only after an investment of time and other resources. We tested these ideas using the hypotheses that follow.

Hypothesis 4: Reemployment status will differ based on which outplacement program activities are used.

Hypothesis 4a: Reemployed participants will be more likely to have participated in action-oriented activities than will unemployed participants.

Hypothesis 4b: Unemployed participants will be more likely to have participated in self-awareness and job training activities than will reemployed participants.

METHOD

Sample and Procedure

Data used in this study were collected from 156 individuals who were participating in a larger, longitudinal study of the job loss experience. These individuals had originally completed extensive questionnaires while participating in an introduc- tory session at an outplacement program, and they represent 23% of the original participants. We included in this study only those individuals who returned com- pleted questionnaires mailed to their homes approximately 1 year after they lost their jobs, and who had participated in at least one of the outplacement activities of interest. Demographic data used in this study were collected at Time 1 from 678 individuals. Data on employment status and participation in job search activities were collected at Time 2 from the 156 individuals included in this study.

Demographics of the sample are as follows: 53% male, 86% White, 14% Black, average age of 42 (69% were 40 years old or older), 71% married, and 43% reemployed. These results are similar to the original sample of respondents at Time 1 data collection. The only statistically significant difference between these percentages and the full original sample at Time 1 was for race-only 68% of those in the Time 1 sample were White. Also, at Time 1, none of the respondents were employed. At Time 2, 56% of respondents had participated in a job training program, 52% had par- ticipated in a job search workshop, 33% had participated in a resume writing workshop, 85% had completed career assessments, 69% had taken part in group career assessment feedback sessions, 64% had participated in one-on-one career counseling, and 56% had taken part in a job training program.

journal of employment counseling December2001 Volume38 189

Measures

As noted, we examined activities frequently used in outplacement centers to assist the unemployed to regain employment. Specifically, participants indicated whether they had participated in each of the self-awareness (i.e., career assessments, group career assessment feedback sessions, and one-on-one career counseling) and action- oriented programs (i.e ., job search workshop, resume writing workshop). Responses were coded 0 if individuals had not participated in the activity and 1 if they had. In addition, respondents were asked if they had participated in a job training program (e.g., attending a vocational or technical school, enrolling in an undergraduate or graduate degree program) since their job had ended. Responses were coded 0 for no and 1 for yes.

Reemployment status. Reemployment status was coded as 1 for unemployed and 2 for employed.

Demographic variables. Gender was coded 1 for male and 2 for female. Race was coded 1 for White and 2 for Black. Age was coded using the Age Discrimination in Employment age breakdown as 1 = below 40 and 2 = 40 and older. These data were collected at Time 1.

R ES U LTS

Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the variables included in the study. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses, with employment status entered as the covariate. Overall

TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Study Variables

Variable M S D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

1. Gender 1.47 50 - - - - - - - - - - 2. Age 1.69 .46 -.03 - - - - - - - - - 3. Race 1.14 .35 .02 -.21*' - - - - - - - -

status 1.43 .50 .01 -.12 -.02 - - - - - - - 4. Employment

5. Job search workshop 0.55 .50 -.15' .10 .03 -.08 - - - - - -

6. Resume writing workshop 0.34 .48 -.04 .09 .06 -.11 .43" - - - - -

7. Career assessments0.85 .36 -.02 .02 -.08 .01 .36" .20" - - - -

8. Group career counseling 0.69 .46 .14* -.02 -.05 -.02 .32" .24" .49" - - -

9. One-on-one career counseling 0.65 .48 .06 .07 -.01 -.07 .36'* .30" .48*' .38'* - -

10. Job training program 0.59 .49 .16' .14' -.09 -.18"-.15' .19' .04 -.09 -.02 -

One-tailed tests: ' p I .05. "*p I .01.

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effects and univariate results can be found in Table 2. These results are discussed in the following sections.

A main effect was found for gender, providing support for Hypothesis 1. Specifically, as hypothesized, women participated in outplacement activities that were different from those of the men, F(6,122) = 2.37, p = .02. Hypothesis la , which stated that women would be more likely to participate in self-awareness activities than would men, was not supported. Self-awareness activities included career assessments, group career assessment feedback sessions, and one-on-one career counseling.

Univariate results did provide some support for Hypothesis l b , which stated that men would be more likely to participate in action-oriented activities than would women. Action-oriented activities included a job search workshop and a resume writing workshop. Specifically, men and women differed in their participation in job search workshops, F(1, 127) = 3.81, p = .03. Sixty-one percent of individuals participating in the job search workshops were men. Gender differences were also found for participation in job training programs, F(1, 127) = 3.34, p = .OLE). Fifty- three percent of those participating in the job training programs were women.

Hypotheses 2, 2a, and 2b predicted race differences. Hypothesis 2 stated that Blacks and Whites would use different outplacement activities. Hypothesis 2a indicated that Blacks would be more likely than Whites to participate in action- oriented activities; Hypothesis 2b indicated that Whites would be more likely than

TABLE 2

Results of MANCOVAs and UnivariateTests for Study Variables

Univariate Tests Action-

Oriented Self-Awareness Training Overall Effect Activities Activities Activity

Wilks's JSW RWW CA GCAFS OOCC JTP Variable k. F F F F F F F

Gender (G) .90 2.37' Age (A) .95 1.21 Race (R) .97 57 Employment status

Interactions (ES) .95 1.05

G x ES .98 50 A x ES .90 2.36' R x ES .96 .82 G x A x ES .96 .77 G x R x ES .94 1.30 A x R x ES .97 .68

3.81' .77 .82 1.86 .82 5 1

.40 1.24

5 1 .08 1.78 2.23 .01 .18 .89 .12 1.40 .79 .oo .39

.05 2.29

.16 .38

.79 .09

.33 .oo

.39 1.53 4.94" 7.98" .84 .19 .44 .09 2.30 .01 .12 .90

.01

.63

.oo

.18

.12

.oo 1.88 3.12*

.04

.25

3.34* 3.81 .95

3.89*

.41 1.15 5 1 .oo 1.54 2.30

Note. JSW =job search workshop; RWW = resume writing workshop; CA = career assess- ments; GCAFS = group career assessment feedback sessions; OOCC = one-on-one career counseling; JTP = job training program. ' p I .05. **p I .01.

journal of employment counseling December2001 Volume38 191

Blacks to participate in job training programs. No support was found for any of the race-related hypotheses; that is, no differences were found between Whites and Blacks relative to participation in any of the outplacement center activities.

Hypothesis 3 predicted that outplacement activities used by older respondents would differ from those used by younger respondents. This hypothesis was not sup- ported because no main effect was found for age. Hypothesis 3a, which stated that younger respondents would be more likely than older respondents to participate in action-oriented activities, was also not supported. Univariate analyses, however, did provide some support for Hypothesis 3b, which indicated that older respondents would be more likely than younger respondents to participate in self-awareness and job training activities. Participants in job training programs were more likely to be age 40 and older, F(1, 127) = 3.81, p = .03.

Hypothesis 4 predicted that reemployment status would differ based on which outplacement activities were used. We found no main effect for employment status; therefore, Hypothesis 4 was not supported. Furthermore, no support was found for Hypothesis 4a, which stated that reemployed respondents would be more likely to have participated in action-oriented activities than would unemployed respondents. Hypothesis 4b predicted that unemployed participants would be more likely to have participated in self-awareness and training activities than reemployed respondents. Univariate analyses did reveal, logically, that the unemployed were more likely to be enrolled in job training programs than were the reemployed, F(1 , 127) = 3.89, p = .03, thus providing partial support for Hypothesis 4b.

We also conducted post hoc analyses to test for possible interactions between the various individual differences and employment status. We found a main effect for the interaction between age and employment status, F(l, 122) = 2.36, p = .02. Univariate tests revealed that unemployed participants below the age of 40 and reemployed participants age 40 and older were the groups most likely to have participated in two self-awareness activities: career assessments, F(1,127) = 4.94, p = .01, and group career assessment feedback sessions, F(1, 127) = 7 . 9 8 , ~ = .OO.

One three-way interaction was identified. Specifically, we found a Gender x Age x Employment status interaction, F(1, 127) = 3.12, p = .04, for one-on-one career counseling, another self-awareness activity. For participants younger than age 40, unemployed women were more likely than reemployed women to have participated in these counseling sessions. Reemployed men were more likely to have partici- pated in this activity than were unemployed men. For the age 40 and older group, unemployed men were more likely than were reemployed men to participate in one- on-one career counseling. Unemployed and reemployed women in this age group were nearly equally likely to participate in this activity.

DISCUSSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS

Schwab et al. (1987) suggested that individual differences may account for the difference in job seekers’ choice of programs for finding employment. We examined whether there were such differences in the use of action-oriented, self-awareness,

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and job training activities typically offered by outplacement programs. We also examined whether such differences, if they existed, were related to reemployment status. Results indicate that gender and age differences do exist as well as interac- tions among gender, age, and reemployment status.

As predicted, men were more likely than women to have participated in job search workshops, an action-oriented activity; however, no differences were found between women and men relative to participation in self-awareness activities. We did find that women were more likely than men to have participated in job training programs. Because there were no gender differences in education level at the time the job was lost, this finding may suggest that women did not feel as much pressure as men to find a new job immediately after their jobs ended. This difference also may have occurred if women were experiencing difficulty finding new employment at a salary or status comparable to that in their previous jobs and thought that job training would increase their chances of success. Future research should test these explanations.

In addition, although we found no main effect for age, we did find that individuals age 40 and older were more likely than younger individuals to be participating in training programs. We do not know if this was the case because the older individuals were experiencing difficulty finding acceptable new employment and decided that further training was needed to increase their chances of success, if they thought that their skills were outdated, or if they simply wanted to pursue new career direc- tions. Future research is needed to address these issues and to examine reemployment outcomes, such as salary and satisfaction with the new job, for those who do and do not participate in job training programs. Furthermore, the timing of the decision to participate in job training programs should be of particular interest. For instance, did women and older workers decide immediately to seek training or did they only do so after many unsuccessful attempts to find new employment based on the knowledge, skills, and abilities they possessed at the time the company closed?

We found no main effect for employment status and no evidence that any particu- lar outplacement program activity was most closely related to reemployment status; however, we did find several interactions between employment status and individual difference variables. We found that unemployed individuals below the age of 40 years were more likely to have taken the career assessments and participated in the group career assessment feedback sessions, two self-awareness activities; the oppo- site was true for the age 40 and older group. Reemployed individuals in this group were more likely to have taken the career assessments. Perhaps the younger respon- dents felt the need for greater self-awareness because their early career decisions had resulted in a job loss. Alternatively, the self-awareness activities may have given them information they needed to move in new career directions through job training or given them encouragement to be patient longer in seeking new employment.

For the older respondents, the decision to take the career assessments may have been the result of an unsuccessful job search, or perhaps they had started a new job and realized that it was not going to work out and some self-awareness was needed. Another explanation may be that these older participants were reemployed because they had taken time for self-awareness and, consequently, were better able to focus

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their job search. Again. the timing of participation in outplacement programs should be addressed in future research.

Last, we found that age and gender moderated the relationship between participa- tion in one-on-one career counseling and employment status. Specifically, reemployed men age 40 years and older (31%) were less likely than unemployed men who were 40 years old and older (69%) to have taken part in one-on-one career counseling. Several explanations can be offered in support of this result. Perhaps, the unem- ployed men had become frustrated in their job search efforts and felt the need for greater self-awareness, or they may have been less clear about where they wanted their careers to go next and decided to seek assistance first. Alternatively, they may have perceived that age discrimination was occurring, or might occur, and wanted assistance with handling this issue.

On the other hand, the reemployed men may have had a more immediate need for income. Consequently, they may have chosen to forgo this type of counseling because they had the perception that i t would take longer to provide assistance with the immediate problem. Another explanation may be that the reemployed men had more marketable skills, which aided their employability and eliminated their need for such counseling. Women who were 40 years old and older, whether unem- ployed (54%) or reemployed (46%), were almost equally likely to use the one-on- one career counseling. This result actually supports our hypotheses that older participants and women would use self-awareness type activities.

The results for the below 40 age group are also interesting but harder to interpret. In this group, the unemployed men (33%) were less likely to take part in the self- awareness activity of one-on-one career counseling than were the reemployed men (66%); the same was not true for the women. The unemployed women (71%) were much more likely than the reemployed women (29%) to have taken part in one-on- one counseling. The reemployed men may have seen the value of getting as much guidance as possible and, therefore, used the career counseling service; the unem- ployed men may have perceived that they did not require such assistance or that it was not “macho” to go for counseling, even career counseling. The unemployed women may have been given the courage through the counseling to hold out longer for the “right” job or to seek training.

IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS

A primary goal of outplacement program activities is to assist the unemployed with enhancing their reemployment opportunities and outcomes. Consequently, program developers and outplacement counselors need to know if there are individual differ- ences in the use of program activities and if those activities relate to reemployment.

Even though the analyses in this study failed to identify any one outplacement activity as being most closely related to reemployment after a job loss (with the exception of training), the study did find that age and gender both affect choices made about the use of outplacement program activities. Furthermore, the interac- tion of these variables was related to reemployment status as was the use of self-

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awareness activities. Consequently, outplacement program counselors need to ensure that both men and women and younger as well as older participants understand the value of the services offered, especially the value of the self-awareness activities. For instance, in this study, individuals who were 40 years old and older were more likely to be reemployed if they had participated in the career assessments and assessment feedback sessions, two self-awareness activities. In addition, younger men were more likely to be reemployed if they had participated in the third self-awareness activity, one-on-one career counseling. Therefore, use of the self-awareness activities did relate to reemployment for both age groups, perhaps by assisting individuals in identifying career paths and gaining the confidence to pursue those paths.

A particularly interesting result of this study is the finding that even though the individuals in the study had participated in one or more of the activities offered at the outplacement program (mean number of activities = 3.64, SD = 1.70), 57% were still unemployed at the time the second round of data was collected. Those data were collected 1 year after t h e company closed. Although 67% of the unemployed indicated that they had participated in a job training program, the remaining 33% did not, and only 48% of the reemployed had participated in a job training pro- gram. In other words, the respondent’s participation or nonparticipation in job training did not explain all of the unemployment.

Overall, the percentages of unemployed versus reemployed who had or had not participated in each activity were remarkably close. For instance, for one-on-one career counseling, 32% of the unemployed had not used this service and 68% had used it. For the reemployed, 39 percent had not used the service and 61% had used it. This was the same pattern with all of the self-awareness and action-oriented activities, with the exception of job training.

It is important to keep in mind that our study involved just one outplacement center with participants from multiple but related companies. This situation may limit the generalizability of the results somewhat, even though respondents did come from a wide range of occupational groups (e.g., pilots, reservation agents, flight attendants, managers, mechanics, food service workers). Perhaps in another program, different activities would have different outcomes.

This study, therefore, does suggest the need for outplacement programs to exam- ine the outcomes of the activities they offer. This examination will allow centers to refine the programs that are offered to ensure that resources are put to the best use in assisting individuals to regain employment. Such research is also valuable to help job seekers understand what they need to do to enhance their potential for successful reemployment outcomes.

Along with looking at these issues, it is also important for researchers to examine potential moderators and mediators of the outcomes of participation in outplacement programs. In this study, gender and age did moderate the relationship between some of the activities and reemployment status. Because downsizing continues to be a corporate strategy used by many organizations that affects more and more people, refinement of the programs offered by outplacement and other career transition pro- grams becomes increasingly important. Along with this need, it is important to gain

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in-depth understanding of the role of moderators, such as those found in this study, as well as to identify mediators of the relationships reported.

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