experiencing student learning and tourism training in a 3d virtual world: an exploratory study

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Academic Papers Experiencing student learning and tourism training in a 3D virtual world: An exploratory study Yu-Chih Huang a,n , Sheila J. Backman b , Lan-Lan Chang c , Kenneth F. Backman d , Francis A. McGuire d a Department of Hotel and Restaurant Management, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology,1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung 912, Taiwan b Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, 273 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA c Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 41354, Taiwan d Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, 288 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA article info Keywords: Virtual learning experiences Self-determination theory Tourism training Intrinsic motivation Positive emotions abstract The virtual world of Second Life presents an opportunity to be an optimal educational platform by providing real-world simulations, social interactions, and collaborative spaces. Educators in travel and tourism fields have also begun to explore the potential of virtual learning in Second Life and take advantage of its effective virtual environment to obtain best results in the learning process. The main goal of the present study is to develop a research framework identifying the factors affecting student learning experi- ence within a 3D virtual world by examining the applicability of the Self-Determination Theory and the construct of positive emotions. The data collection was conducted in April, 2011. The participants were recruited from an introductory PRTM course and a tourism marketing class in the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Management at a University in the Southeast region of the United States. From a theoretical point of view, this study represents an empirical application of self-determination theory that is a theoretical and practical framework to examine how the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy and relatedness in a 3D virtual world context makes a contribution to intrinsic motivation. Additionally, the present study explores the role and significance of positive emotion in the context of virtual learning. For tourism educators, this study can be applied to build the connection between tourism education and virtual worlds in the development of how to construct engaging and interactive learning experiences to meet the expectations of learners. & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The evolution of the Internet has had a tremendous impact on transforming educational processes, specifically with its enhanced interactivity, connectivity and convergence (Sigala, 2002; Cobanoglu & Berezina, 2011). With significant societal and industry changes, tourism educational programs need to fundamentally retool and redesignby changing the nature of what is taught and how it is taught(Sheldon, Fesenmaier, Woeber, Cooper, & Antonioli, 2008: p. 63). Singh and Lee (2008) point out that for effectively preparing future tourism students, tourism educational institutions need to adopt and Contents lists available at ScienceDirect journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhlste Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 1473-8376/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2013.09.007 n Corresponding author. Tel.: þ886 8 7703202x7545. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y.-C. Huang), [email protected] (S.J. Backman), [email protected] (L.-L. Chang), [email protected] (K.F. Backman), [email protected] (F.A. McGuire). Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 13 (2013) 190201

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Page 1: Experiencing student learning and tourism training in a 3D virtual world: An exploratory study

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality,Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education

Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 13 (2013) 190–201

1473-83http://d

n CorrE-m

frank@c

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhlste

Academic Papers

Experiencing student learning and tourism training in a 3Dvirtual world: An exploratory study

Yu-Chih Huang a,n, Sheila J. Backman b, Lan-Lan Chang c, Kenneth F. Backman d,Francis A. McGuire d

a Department of Hotel and Restaurant Management, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, 1, Shuefu Road,Neipu, Pingtung 912, Taiwanb Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, 273 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USAc Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 41354, Taiwand Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, 288 Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Keywords:Virtual learning experiencesSelf-determination theoryTourism trainingIntrinsic motivationPositive emotions

76/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. Ax.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2013.09.007

esponding author. Tel.: þ886 8 7703202x75ail addresses: [email protected] (Y.-C. Hlemson.edu (K.F. Backman), [email protected]

a b s t r a c t

The virtual world of Second Life presents an opportunity to be an optimal educationalplatform by providing real-world simulations, social interactions, and collaborativespaces. Educators in travel and tourism fields have also begun to explore the potentialof virtual learning in Second Life and take advantage of its effective virtual environment toobtain best results in the learning process. The main goal of the present study is todevelop a research framework identifying the factors affecting student learning experi-ence within a 3D virtual world by examining the applicability of the Self-DeterminationTheory and the construct of positive emotions. The data collection was conducted in April,2011. The participants were recruited from an introductory PRTM course and a tourismmarketing class in the Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Management at aUniversity in the Southeast region of the United States. From a theoretical point of view,this study represents an empirical application of self-determination theory that is atheoretical and practical framework to examine how the satisfaction of the psychologicalneeds of autonomy and relatedness in a 3D virtual world context makes a contribution tointrinsic motivation. Additionally, the present study explores the role and significance ofpositive emotion in the context of virtual learning. For tourism educators, this study canbe applied to build the connection between tourism education and virtual worlds in thedevelopment of how to construct engaging and interactive learning experiences to meetthe expectations of learners.

& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The evolution of the Internet has had a tremendous impact on transforming educational processes, specifically with itsenhanced interactivity, connectivity and convergence (Sigala, 2002; Cobanoglu & Berezina, 2011). With significant societaland industry changes, “tourism educational programs need to fundamentally retool and redesign… by changing the natureof what is taught and how it is taught” (Sheldon, Fesenmaier, Woeber, Cooper, & Antonioli, 2008: p. 63). Singh and Lee(2008) point out that for effectively preparing future tourism students, tourism educational institutions need to adopt and

ll rights reserved.

45.uang), [email protected] (S.J. Backman), [email protected] (L.-L. Chang),du (F.A. McGuire).

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Y.-C. Huang et al. / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 13 (2013) 190–201 191

use the next-generation technology tools. They also suggest that in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency intraining and educating tourism students, information communication technology can provide the necessary tools to engageusers by supplementing traditional classroom lecture with collaborative activity and interaction between faculty andstudents. Internet technology is also being integrated into tourism business training strategies by delivering trainingopportunities that enhance the skills and knowledge of personnel (Buhalis, 1998; Buhalis & Law, 2008). Collins, Buhalis andPeters (2003) suggest that the utilizing of information technology in training delivery for cost-efficient and flexible workarrangements is important for smaller tourism businesses because of the limited resources to send employees to expensivetraining courses.

3D Virtual worlds are presenting opportunities for creating interactive environments in an educational context as well.Eschenbrenner, Nah, and Siau (2008) stated that the nature of the 3D virtual reality technology is to provide students apotential environment to “become engaged in a simulated activity and collaborate in a dispersed setting” (p.91). Barab,Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, and Tuzan (2005) suggested that the diversity of learning activities in the 3D virtual worldprovides an opportunity to build bridges between education and experience by mimicking real-world situations (Marcus &Braswell, 2006) and simulating realistic work experience (Alleyne, 2009). As Buhalis and Law (2008) suggest, virtuallearning environments can be used to support classroom teaching, stimulate discussion, and facilitate course administration.Moreover, the social and technological capabilities of virtual environments present the possibility of collaboration fromdifferent fields across various geographical distances (Jarmon, Traphagan, Mayrath, & Trivedi, 2009).

Currently, one of the most popular and active 3D virtual environment platforms in education is Second Life, which wasstarted in 2003. The founder of Second Life, Rosedale, stated that by 2008 more than 500 educational institutions wereutilizing the virtual world of Second Life to provide classes and online learning, and more than 4000 educators had joinedthe Second Life mailing list (cited from Penfold, 2008). Mason and Moutahir (2006) claim that the emerging virtualenvironment development platform of Second Life offers the unique features of immersion, ease of use, wide availability andlow barrier to entry for its use in education. Past studies (Baker, Wentz, & Woods, 2009; Boulos, Hetherington, & Wheeler,2007; Huang, Backman, & Backman, 2010, Hsu, 2012) pointed out that in the virtual world of Second Life, not only haveschools invested in creating virtual campuses, but companies have also presented potential uses in job training such asholding lectures (Harvard University's law school), arranging meetings and conferences (IBM, InterContinental HotelsGroup), conducting new employee orientation (TMP Worldwide) as well new student orientation (Hong Kong PolytechnicUniversity), hosting graduate student recruiting events (Clemson University), and creating simulation environments (WaltDisney Internet Group).

However, the increased use of the virtual environment as an educational and training tool is not occurring withoutcontroversy. Some scholars have argued that researchers need to be aware of a number of experience and capacity issuesthat have arisen as well as negative effects including the following: requiring advanced technology resources, appropriatetraining and orientation, and needing adequate time for familiarity with the environment (Eschenbrenner et al., 2008);limiting certain students who prefer to learn in a regular classroom setting with face to face communication (McGrath,1998); experiencing dissatisfaction with web-based courses because of lack of interaction between instructors and students(Arbaugh, 2002); feeling isolation in online courses resulting from diminished interaction with others (Hay, Hodgkinson,Peltier, & Drago, 2004); and encountering virtual violence, assault, and sexual harassment in virtual learning environmentsas well as influences by disruptive players (Kluge & Riley, 2008).

In contrast, other scholars have suggested that positive effects can be derived from online learning environments such asproviding opportunities for social interaction and engaging participation in virtual learning (Barab et al., 2005); offering aunique pedagogical environment for interactive experience, engagement, interactivity, and idea generation (Eschenbrenneret al., 2008); fostering students' motivation and learning of scientific inquiry skills (Dede, Clarke, Ketelhut, Nelson, &Bowman, 2005); allowing for creativity within a multi-media environment (Conway, 2007); teaching a multitude of skills ofproblem solving, and strategic thinking (Prensky 2006); and supporting experiential learning and global collaboration(Jarmon et al., 2009).

Taking such debates under advisement, it is clear that the 3D virtual world of Second Life can become an optimaleducational platform for educators to provide real-world simulations, social interactions, and collaborative spaces.Educators in travel and tourism fields also have begun to explore the potential of virtual learning in Second Life and takeadvantage of its effective virtual environment to obtain best results in the learning process. For instance, at Johnson &WalesUniversity, Mason and Moutahir (2006) presented a model of using Second Life to collaborate on and experiential educationproject called G.O. Morocco. G.O. Morocco in Second Life allows students to use their academic and intellectual skills tomake a significant contribution to a social problem, and prompts students to discover an innovative technology and itsapplications in the travel and tourism industry. Similarly, Hong Kong Polytechnic University created a virtual campus inSecond Life to explore the opportunity of teaching and learning in a virtual environment (Wang & Burton, 2012). Yet, asemerging virtual worlds have the potential to be used by tourism professionals and educators for providing interactive andmeaningful learning experiences, little research has been undertaken to understand student learning experience and themotivational dynamic of learning in 3D virtual environments.

Past studies have applied Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) as a theoreticalframework for examining human motivational behavior. Recently, a small number of studies have validated the frameworkof SDT in the context of multi-user virtual environments, establishing that the satisfaction of psychological needs leads tosustained engagement and subsequently facilitates intrinsic motivation (Partala, 2011; Ryan, Rigby, & Przybylski, 2006;

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Tamborini, Bowman, Eden, Grizzard & Organ, 2010). Moreover, Rigby and Przybylski (2009) indicated that Self Determina-tion Theory could be an imperative framework to bridge the gap between education and virtual worlds. These preliminaryapplications of the theoretical framework of SDT suggest that the quality of need satisfaction for a virtual context can haveimplications for explaining students' motivational dynamics in virtual worlds such as Second Life.

Similar to the positive reactions associated with the fulfilment of psychological needs, another major factor affectingstudent learning in computed mediated environments is the role of positive emotions. A growing body of research andscholarship (O'Regan, 2003; Wosnitza & Volet, 2005, Zembylas, 2008) relating to the state of positive emotion and onlinelearning indicates the role and significance of positive emotional experiences in the context of virtual world learning.Moreover, the construct of positive emotions has been used to understand learning motivation among students (Park & Lim,2007; Fraser, Ma, Teteris, Baxter, Wright, & McLaughlin, 2012). Extending previous literature on this topic, this studyincorporates the construct of positive emotion to understand virtual learning experience and its effects on students' intrinsicmotivation in a 3D virtual world.

Although scholars have applied the framework of SDT in understanding the dynamic nature of intrinsic motivation invarious contexts such as education (Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991; Reeve & Halusic, 2009), work Gagné and Deci(2005), sport and physical activity (Shen, McCaughtry, & Martin, 2007; Teixeira, Carrac a, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012),health (Patrick & Williams, 2012), parenting (Joussemet, Landry, & Koestner, 2008) and leisure (Lloyd & Little, 2010), fewstudies have investigated the applicability of the framework of SDT in the context of 3D virtual learning. However, somestudies have integrated the construct of positive emotions in explaining learning experience in web-based instructionaltechnologies (Vuorela & Nummenmaa, 2004; Wosnitza & Volet, 2005). Thus, the present study is to develop a researchframework that integrates both SDT and the positive emotions construct to identify factors affecting student learningexperience and intrinsic motivation within a 3D virtual world.

2. Literature review

2.1. Motivation and self determination theory

Motivation is considered a crucial variable because it is the “impelling and compelling” force behind all behavior(Berkman & Gilson 1978). In psychology/social psychology, “a motive is an internal factor that stimulates, directs andintegrates a person's behavior” (Murray, 1964, p.7). Deci and Ryan (1985) pointed out that intrinsic motivation, the doing ofan activity for the inherent satisfaction of the activity itself, is highly autonomous and represents the prototypic instance ofself-determination. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is an approach to human motivations in understanding the importanceof humans' evolved internal resources for personality development and behavioral self-regulation (Ryan, Kuhl, & Deci, 1997).According to Ryan and Deci (2000), SDT investigates people's innate growth tendencies and psychological needs that are thebasis for self-motivation and personality integration. It identifies three psychological needs for facilitating optimalfunctioning of the natural propensities for growth, integration, social development and personal well-being. These needsare competence, autonomy and relatedness.

In SDT, autonomy implies individuals' feelings of volition and opportunities for self-directed action. When an activityengages individuals' interests and allows them to experience freedom, their perceptions of autonomy are enhanced (Deci &Ryan, 1985; Ryan, 1993). Choice, freedom, and the use of rewards as feedback have been demonstrated to elevateindividuals' perceptions of autonomy that subsequently lead to enhanced intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999;Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004). The need for competence suggests that when individuals perform an activity, theyneed to feel effective in their interactions with environments. SDT holds that activities that provide opportunities forexperiencing competence will be more intrinsically motivating (Deci & Ryan, 1985), thereby indicating that opportunities toexercise skill or abilities should be optimally challenging, with positive feedback to enhance the experience of competenceand in turn intrinsic motivation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The need for relatedness is the need for therelational support of significant others such as parents, teachers, and managers (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Reis & Franks,1994). SDT suggests that in an interpersonal setting, an enhanced perception of security and relatedness tends to increaseintrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Based on the framework of SDT, this study investigates how the psychologicalneeds of competence, autonomy, and relatedness can be used to understand students' virtual learning experiences as well asmotivation.

2.2. Psychological needs and intrinsic motivation

Past research has identified the relationship between the satisfaction of psychological needs and intrinsic motivation ineducational contexts (Deci, et al., 1991; Faye & Sharpe, 2008; Chirkov, 2009; Klassen, Perry, & Frenzel, 2012; Ntoumanis,2001; Vallerand et al. 1992). With recent research efforts in computer-mediated environments, scholars have applied SDT toinvestigate the impacts of virtual experience on the satisfaction of psychological needs, which in turn predicts consequentmotivation. Research by Ryan et al. (2006) empirically tested the Self-Determination Theory in relation to multi-user gamingmotivation based on the idea that players seek to satisfy their psychological needs in the context of play. In their study, theypointed out that game features of virtual environments provide opportunities for players to experience autonomy,competence and relatedness, suggesting that the SDT framework is useful and practical in understanding psychological

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components of virtual experience. Furthermore, Przybylski, Ryan, & Rigby (2009), investigating online gaming motivation,confirmed that the contexts of multi-user virtual worlds can engender the experiences of autonomy, competence andrelatedness, indicating that SDT enhances the understanding of user experience in virtual environments. Tamborin et al.'s(2010) study defining media enjoyment based on SDT demonstrated that the conceptualization of intrinsic motivation inentertainment research can be defined as the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, andrelatedness. Thus, according to previous literature on the relationship between psychological needs and intrinsic motivation,it is possible to propose the following hypotheses:

H1. Student perceptions of competence will be positively related to intrinsic motivation while learning in the virtual worldof Second Life.

H2. Student perceptions of autonomy will be positively related to intrinsic motivation while learning in the virtual world ofSecond Life.

H3. Student perceptions of relatedness will be positively related to intrinsic motivation while learning in the virtual worldof Second Life.

2.3. Positive emotions and intrinsic motivation in computer mediated environments

In understanding experience in computer-mediated environments, researchers have also utilized the construct ofpositive emotions to examine interactions between human behavior and technology. For instance, positive emotions led toexploration and concentration of attention in Internet video ads (Teixeira, Wedel, & Pieters, 2010). Moreover, positiveemotions contributed to enjoyment of online consumption experience (Holbrook, Chestnut, Oliva, & Greenleaf, 1984). Theeffects of positive emotion on learning motivation in computer-mediated environments have been reported in currentliterature (Reschly, Huebner, Appleton, & Antaramian 2008; Park & Lim, 2007). O'Regan (2003), investigating therelationships between emotion and cognition in the context of online education, identified how emotions of frustration,fear, anxiety, apprehension, embarrassment, enthusiasm/excitement, and pride are associated with online learning. Heasserted that positive emotions play a crucial role in the learning experience of online environments. For instance, thepositive emotions of excitement, pride and enjoyment contributed to students' engagement and intrinsic motivation tolearn in online learning. A study exploring positive emotion by Park and Lim (2007) examined the significance and effects ofpositive emotion in multimedia instructional learning, proclaiming that the experiences of positive emotion play animportant role in enhancing students' learning interest, achievement, and intrinsic motivation. Probing the relationshipbetween emotional experiences and student activities in web-based learning environments, a study by Vuorelaand Nummenmaa (2004) indicated that student participation in collaborative discussions in online environments wasassociated with experience and regulation of positive emotions, asserting that future research should pay attention to theeffects of positive emotion on student motivation, behavior, and engagement in web learning environments. Given theliterature on the relationship between positive emotions and intrinsic motivation, it is possible to propose the followinghypothesis:

H4. Student perceptions of positive emotion will be positively associated with intrinsic motivation while learning in a 3Dvirtual world.

2.4. The psychological needs and positive emotions

A binary relationship between psychological needs and positive emotions has also been reported. The study of theinterpersonal regulation of emotions by Ryan, La Guardia, Solky-Butzel, Chirkov and Kim (2005) indicated a positiverelationship between psychological needs and positive emotions. Gonzáleza, Paoloni, Donolo, and Rinaudo (2012),examining college students' motivation and emotion, found that the satisfaction of the three psychological needscontributes to the enhancement of positive emotions. Ryan et al. (2006), empirically testing SDT in virtual contexts, foundthat competence, autonomy, and relatedness are associated with positive emotions. Moreover, O'Regan's (2003) study ofmotivation in e-learning systems pointed out that the perception of autonomy in virtual learning environments is related topositive emotions. Thus, according to previous literature on the relationship between positive emotions and psychologicalneeds in the context of virtual environments, it is possible to propose the following hypotheses:

H5. Students' perceptions of competence will positively affect the feeling of positive emotions in a 3D virtual world.

H6. Students' perceptions of autonomy will positively affect the feeling of positive emotions in a 3D virtual world.

H7. Students' perceptions of relatedness will positively affect the feeling of positive emotions in a 3D virtual world.

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The constructions of Second Life Massai Mara Examples of multi-media in the virtual learning site

Student learning experience in the 3D virtual site Student learning experience in the 3D virtual site

Fig. 1. Images of Second Life Massai Mara.

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3. Methodology

3.1. The development of a 3D virtual learning site

The Maasai Mara Basecamp in Second Life was developed as the research site for this study. Firstly, the construction ofthis virtual site involved terraforming and landscaping the terrain to match the environment of the Maasai Mara region inKenya, constructing major buildings in the Second Life Basecamp and incorporating naturalistic elements and images ofauthentic Maasai clothing and jewelry. Secondly, the multi-media capabilities of Second Life were incorporated in order toenhance the quality and interactivity of the tourism site. A virtual representation of the Maasai Mara Basecamp wasdesigned to provide information and create visitor awareness about the Maasai Mara tribe, and to preserve the culture of theMaasai Mara community. The learning objectives of this virtual world learning activity include providing students with abasic understanding of the virtual world of Second Life, highlighting the marketing implications of the 3D virtual world forpromoting tourism sites, and deepening the knowledge of business applications in the virtual world of Second Life. Imagesof Second Life Maasai Mara are presented in Fig. 1.

3.2. Sampling

Prior to data collection, a pilot test was conducted to determine the length of time the participants needed to completethe survey. In order to ensure that the measurements used were reliable, reliability analysis was conducted during the pilottest to assess the internal consistency of each instrument used in this study. This study employed a convenience samplingmethod. The participants were recruited from an introductory PRTM course and a tourism marketing class in theDepartment of Park, Recreation and Tourism Management at a University in the Southeast region of United States. In-class announcements and emails about research participation were made by the course instructors and the researcher.Students then signed up for three 1-h class sessions to take part in a study of virtual learning in Second Life. For theirparticipation in the study, students in the introductory PRTM course were allowed the opportunity to drop the lowest quizgrade in their class, and those in the tourism marketing course were provided the opportunity to drop lowest exam grade.Primary data were obtained for this study through self-administered web questionnaires (Snap software) to collectinformation from participants. The data collection was conducted in April, 2011 in a computer lab under the supervision oftwo graduate students and a faculty member. Participants were scheduled in 1-h staggered time periods to reduce the riskof burdening the Second Life servers. Fourteen 1-h sessions were conducted by the researcher to collect the data from thestudents. The study yielded 105 usable surveys.

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Participants met for three 1-h class sessions to take part in the study. In the first two 1-h sessions, students wereprovided orientation and training experiences. It was important to develop their skills of movement and communication sothat they would be able to complete the virtual learning experience. An introduction to the virtual environment of SecondLife was provided to students within a 1-horientation period and a 1-h training session. During the initial orientation period,participants took part in activities that showed them how to create a Second Life account and prepare an avatar toparticipate in the virtual experience. A training handbook was provided for participants to practice the basics of navigationand communication skills in Second Life. After these initial preparations for participation in experiencing virtualenvironments, participants took part in another 1-h training period to become familiar with the control interface ofSecond Life. In the third session, a virtual field trip involved exploring different areas on Second Life Maasai Mara,interacting with multi-media information within the virtual tourism attraction, interacting with others on the site, andlearning about the cultural aspects of the tourism destination. After the virtual field trip, students evaluated the planning oftourism sites in Second Life and reflected on their experience in the virtual world of Second Life.

3.3. Measurements

3.3.1. Psychological needsApplying Self-Determination Theory, Ryan et al. (2006) developed Player Experience Need Satisfaction (PENS) to assess

the degree to which the participants experienced the satisfaction of the three psychological needs of competence,autonomy, and relatedness. The PENS scale used in previous studies (Przybylski et al., 2009; Tamborini et al., 2010) revealeda good reliability. Thus, the measure of psychological needs, specifically regarding competence, autonomy, and relatedness,was modified from Ryan et al.'s (2006) PENS scale for use in this study to better reflect the needs of this study. The PENSsubscale of competence is comprised of four items focused on competence, mastery and efficacy. Autonomy was assessedwith a four-item subscale measuring the degree to which participants experienced choice, freedom and perceivedopportunities to participate in activities that interested them. The PENS subscale for the perception of relatedness wasmodified for use in this study. It consisted of four items assessing how connected participants felt to others in Second Life.Competence, autonomy, and relatedness were assessed on a 7 point Likert-type scale for each item.

3.3.2. Intrinsic motivationThe Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), which is a multidimensional measurement for assessing participants' subjective

experiences of intrinsic motivation related to a given activity, has been used in laboratory experiments and studies (Ryan,1982; Ryan, Mims, & Koestner, 1983; Plant & Ryan, 1985). Several studies (Martens, Gulikers, & Bastiaens, 2004; Reeve, Nix, &Hamm, 2003) have employed the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory to assess intrinsic motivation among students in ane-learning environment, revealing that the scale has a high reliability. The assessment of intrinsic motivation was modifiedfrom the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) to reflect the needs of this study. Intrinsic Motivation was assessed with a fouritem scale. The intrinsic motivation assessment was rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from Strongly Disagreeto Strongly Agree (strongly disagree¼1 to strongly agree¼7).

3.3.3. Positive emotionsPrior studies have been concerned with identifying the dimension of positive emotions and clarifying the nature of

positive affect (e.g. Clark & Watson, 1986; Watson, 1988, Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Based on the results from paststudies of Positive and Negative Affect, Watson et al. (1988) developed two 10-item mood scales and validated a briefversion of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) scale to improve its reliability and convergent/discriminantvalidity. The assessment of positive emotions, based on the PANAS scale developed by Watson, Clark, & Tellegen (1988), wasmodified for used in this study. Positive emotions were measured using a seven-item scale. The seven-item scale reflectedthe extent to which a person feels enthusiastic and active, identifying the emotions of amusement, contentment, interest,joy, pride, cheerfulness, and delight. Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they felt each of those sevenemotions while they were experiencing Second Life Maasai Mara, on a five point Likert scale (1¼very little or not at all to5¼extremely or all the time).

4. Results

The Confirmatory Factor Analysis was conducted using the EQS 6.1 statistical software package to assess the reliabilityand validity of the measurements. Per the suggestions of Kline (2010) and Tabachnick & Fidell (2007), prior to data analysis,the data set was screened for both univariate and multivariate deviation from normality (e.g. examining Stud. DeletedResidual and Mahalanobis distance). In addition, as suggested by Byrne (2006), missing observations can be imputed whenthe data loss pattern is not systematic. In reviewing the patterns of “missingness” (Schafer & Graham 2002), the missingcases differ from cases with complete records randomly. According to Vriens and Melton (2002) and Kline (2010), themissing observations are imputed through expectation maximization procedures that can predict scores in a series ofregressions where each missing variable is regressed based on the remaining variables for a particular case with themaximum likelihood estimation.

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The robust statistics of fit index was used to assess the appropriateness of the model as it affords more security insample, which might adjust standard error estimates with a scaling factor based on the data's non-normality (Bentler & Wu,1995, Byrne, 2006). Satorra–Bentler's Scaled Chi-Square, Bentler–Bonett's Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI), the Comparative FitIndex (CFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) were used to evaluate the appropriateness (goodness offit) of a specified model to the sample data, and a series of statistics were selected to examine the overall fit of the model.Examining the goodness of fit index, the ratio of the chi-square to the degrees of freedom (χ2/df¼1.42) of the CFA modelyielded a comparative fit with a Satorra–Bentler χ2¼312, NNFI¼0.94, CFI¼0.95, RMSEA¼0.064, indicating a goodincremental model fit and a close absolute model fit (Byrne, 2006). The results of the goodness of fit index in this studyare in line with established criteria (NNFI40.9, CFI40.9, RMSEAo0.08, Byrne, 2006; Hu & Bentler, 1999; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996).

Convergent validity and discriminant validity were examined to determine construct validities. Kline (2005) stated that“a set of variables presumed to measure the same construct shows convergent validity if their inter-correlations are at leastmoderate in magnitude; in contrast, a set of variables presumed to measure different constructs shows discriminant validityif their inter-correlations are not too high” (p. 215). Convergent validity was assessed through the examination of thepredictive power associated with each loading on corresponding factors (Bollen, 1989). As seen in Table 1, the output of CFArevealed that each t-value was significant at po0.001, and exceeding the critical value of 3.29 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Inaddition, the standardized factor loading was greater than 0.6, which according to Bagozzi and Yi (1998) is considered ideal,indicating that measurement items in this study possessed convergent validity.

As suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981), discriminant validity was assessed by examining the inter-correlations offactors with the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) for each factor. If the inter-correlations among thefactors are less than the square root of the AVE, the factor's discriminant validity can be established. The variance extractedfor each factor exceeded 0.5. As observed in Table 2, all factors correlations were less than the square root of factors' AVE.Additionally, as suggested by Kline (2005), if estimated correlations between the factors are not greater than 0.85, thendiscriminant validity can be established. Thus, discriminant validity of the measurement scales is established. Accordingto Fornell and Larcker (1981), the composite reliability estimates representing the shared variance among a set of observedvariables measuring an underlying construct are used for assessing the reliability of the scales. As shown in Table 1,

Table 1Measurement items and confirmatory factor analysis results.

Measures and item description Standardized factorloading (t values a)

S.E. Composite reliabilities

Competence (CM) 0.96I felt very capable and effective while experiencing Maasai Mara Second Life. 0.86 (11.47) 0.101The experiences in Maasai Mara Second Life kept me on my toes but did

not overwhelm me.0.85 (9.57) 0.119

b 0.79 (9.11) 0.107b 0.65 (5.37) 0.131Autonomy (AU) 0.89I did things in the Maasai Mara Second Life because they interested me 0.89 (10.81) 0.116I did not feel controlled and pressured to be a certain way

in Maasai Mara Second Life.0.81 (8.10) 0.141

b 0.85 (9.38) 0.132b 0.69 (6.58) 0.131Relatedness (RE) 0.93I find the relationships I form in Second Life fulfilling. 0.83 (12.43) 0.121It is likely that the people I met within Second Life can become friends,

if we interacted a lot0.93 (13.20) 0.116

b 0.86 (13.51) 0.107b 0.92 (14.33) 0.109Intrinsic Motivation (IM) 0.96I enjoyed experiencing the virtual world in Second Life very much. 0.94 (13.40) 0.097I thought experiencing in 3D virtual world was quite enjoyable. 0.96 (13.15) 0.099I would describe the experience of Second Life as very interesting. 0.94 (11.62) 0.116The experience in Second Life was fun. 0.91 (11.05) 0.104Positive Emotions (PE) 0.94Amusement 0.74 (9.83) 0.070Interest 0.82 (10.13) 0.080Contentment 0.67 (6.71) 0.085Joy 0.87 (12.02) 0.075Pride 0.83 (10.37) 0.090Cheerfulness 0.92 (14.04) 0.065Delight 0.94 (14.54) 0.070

a All tests were significant at po0.001.b These questions are omitted due to the confidentiality agreement between the author and IMMERSYVE, INC. For further information, please contact

Dr. Scott Rigby (President of IMMERSYVE, INC.).

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Table 2Constructs Inter-correlation and Average Variance Extracted (AVE).

Constructs CM AU RE EN PE

Competence 0.81a

Autonomy 0.77b 0.88Relatedness 0.34 0.55 0.89Enjoyment 0.69 0.81 0.58 0.93Positive emotions 0.53 0.66 0.50 0.67 0.79

CM: competence; AU: autonomy; RE: Relatedness; EN: enjoyment; PE: positive emotions.a The diagonal elements are the square root of the average variance extracted (the shared variance between the factors and

their measures).b The off-diagonal elements are the correlations between factors.

CM

AU

PE

IM

CM1

CM2

CM3

CM4

AU1

AU2

AU3

AU4PE1

PE2

PE3

PE4

0.078

0.439*

0.186IM1

IM2

IM3

IM4

RE

RE1

RE2

RE3

RE4

0.487*

0.175*

0.208*PE5PE6

PE7

0.190*

R2SMC = 0.709

R2SMC = 0.467

Fig. 2. Structural Model of Testing Proposed Hypotheses. *t-tests were significant at po0.05. (—) insignificant path, Note: Satorra–Bentler χ2¼312.85, Non-Normed Fit Index¼0.94, Comparative Fit Index¼0.95, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation¼0.064. CM: competence, AU: autonomy, RE: relatedness,IM: intrinsic motivation, PE: positive emotions.

Y.-C. Huang et al. / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 13 (2013) 190–201 197

the composite reliability estimates range from 0.86 to 0.97, revealing a good internal consistency of multiple indicators foreach construct, and all constructs in the model are reliable Bagozzi and Yi (1998).

Subsequently, a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was conducted to examine the relationships between students'psychological needs satisfaction, intrinsic motivation and positive emotions. The fit of the proposed model was examinedwith the following fit indices: the ratio of the chi-square to the degrees of freedom¼1.42, Satorra–Bentler χ2¼312.85,NNFI¼0.94, CFI¼0.95, RMSEA¼0.064. The fit indices suggested that the model had an acceptable fit to the data (Bentler,1990; Steiger & Lind, 1980; Hu & Bentler, 1999). However, only five of seven paths were found to be significant (po0.05).

The first three hypotheses involved the paths from each of three psychological needs to intrinsic motivation. Hypothesis 1stated that student perceptions of competence would positively relate to intrinsic motivation when learning in a 3D virtualworld. This hypothesis was not supported (β¼0.186, P40.05). Stated in a similar manner, Hypothesis 2 examined therelationship between student perceptions of autonomy and intrinsic motivation. The hypothesis was supported as the perceptionof autonomy did significantly predict students' intrinsic motivations (β¼0.439, po0.05). Hypothesis 3 stated that the student'sperceptions of relatedness would be positively related to intrinsic motivation in virtual world learning. The regression coefficientwas significant (β¼0.175, po0.05) as the perception of relatedness did significantly predict student motivation while learning ina virtual world. Furthermore, Hypothesis 4 concerned the relationship between students' feelings of positive emotions andintrinsic motivationwhen learning in a 3D virtual world. The standardized regression coefficient confirmed that student learningmotivation in a 3D virtual world was influenced by the perception of positive emotions (β¼0.190, po0.05). The threepsychological needs and positive emotions account for 70.9% of the variance in student's intrinsic motivation (R2SMC¼0.709).

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The last three hypotheses involved the path from each of three psychological needs to positive emotions. Hypothesis 5stated that students' perceptions of competence would be positively related to the feeling of positive emotions in a 3Dvirtual world. The standardized regression coefficient was not significant and this hypothesis was not supported (β¼0.078p40.05). Hypothesis 6 examined the association between students' perceptions of autonomy and positive emotions. Thisrelationship was supported (β¼0.487, po0.05) suggesting that the perceptions of autonomy in a 3D virtual world didsignificantly predict students' feelings of positive emotion. The final hypothesis tested the positive influence of relatednesson positive emotions while learning in a virtual world. The standardized coefficient of this relationship was significant andthis hypothesis was accepted (β¼0.208, po0.05). Three psychological needs account for 46.7% of the variance in students'feelings of positive emotion (R2SMC¼0.467). Fig. 2 presents a structural model of this study.

5. Discussion and implications

3D virtual environments offer potential as an educational and training tool for tourism industry professionals andeducators. According to Sigala (2002), virtual learning provides great flexibility that overcomes time and space barriers tomatch the specific working conditions within the tourism sector. Second Life presents an opportunity to deliver employeetraining programs and to teach tourism students in offering interactive experiences and various learning activities ineducation, such as project-based experiential learning, interdisciplinary collaboration and communication, role playingexercises, real-world simulation, and social interactions (De Lucia, Francese, Passero, & Tortora 2009; Huang, Backman, &Chang, 2012; Hsu, 2012; Law, Leung, Buhalis, 2009; Mennecke et al., 2008; Penfold, 2008; Singh & Lee, 2008). As theapplications and opportunities of virtual worlds in education continue to rapidly emerge, an understanding of the potentialof the 3D virtual learning experience still needs to be identified and fully discovered.

This study attempted to identify relevant factors that affect student learning motivation in a 3D virtual world byexamining the applicability of the integrated framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the construct of positiveemotions. This study represents an empirical application of SDT that is a theoretical and practical framework to examinehow of the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy and relatedness in a 3D virtual world context makes acontribution to intrinsic motivation. Results of the study revealed relationships between learners' virtual experiences ofpsychological need satisfaction and motivation, supporting the general principles of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci,2000). Additionally, the present study explores the role and significance of positive emotion in the context of virtuallearning, specifically with regard to the relationship between positive emotion and student motivation.

This study is foremost concerned with how satisfaction of the psychological needs as specified within Self-DeterminationTheory is associated with students' intrinsic motivations in 3D virtual learning. Previous studies have demonstrated therelationship between psychological needs and integration of motivations in various domains such as health (Kasser & Ryan,1999), sports (Gagne, 2003), and education (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). The results of present study found that thesatisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy and relatedness are positively related to intrinsic motivation whilelearning in the 3D virtual world of Second Life, indicating that higher levels of student interest in online activities canenhance learning motivation; a greater perception of feeling connected with others also corresponds with a higher level ofintrinsic motivation. This result is consistent with prior findings reported by Ntoumanis (2001) and Faye and Sharpe (2008)in an education context, as well as by Partala (2011), Przybylski et al. (2009), Ryan et al. (2006), and Tamborin et al. (2010) invirtual contexts. However, the results of this study did not support prior research findings concerning the associationbetween competence and intrinsic motivation. This non-significant relationship between competence and intrinsicmotivation indicated the mediation effect of positive emotions (Cox, Smith, & Williams, 2008). Future studies shouldextend this study by exploring the mediating effect of positive emotion on the relationship between psychological needsand motivation in the context of 3D virtual learning.

This study also focuses on exploring the role of positive emotional experiences in the context of virtual world learning.With respect to the relationship between positive emotions and intrinsic motivation in a 3D virtual world, the resultsrevealed that the state of positive emotions had positive and significant impacts on student's intrinsic motivation duringlearning in a 3D virtual world. This significant effect of positive emotions on intrinsic motivation can be interpreted inaccordance with previous findings (O'Regan, 2003; Park & Lim, 2007; Vuorela & Nummenmaa, 2004) that the experience ofpositive emotions in computer-mediated environments plays a crucial role in influencing student's intrinsic motivation. Inthe pathways identified in the structural model, the experience of positive emotions was predicted by the perception ofautonomy and relatedness. These direct links between positive emotions and autonomy as well as relatedness in acomputer-mediated environment is consistent with the results reported by Ryan et al. (2006), O'Regan (2003), and Sheldonand Bettencourt (2002). The results obtained here indicated that those who were generally more autonomous in theirvirtual learning experienced overall higher positive emotions in a 3D virtual world while individuals who experiencedrelatedness satisfaction while learning in the virtual world of Second Life also experienced higher levels of positiveemotions. However, future studies should be dedicated to investigating why the experience of positive emotions does notappear to be affected by competence while learning in a 3D virtual world.

As a virtual revolution is emerging in media environments, it is believed that the 3D virtual world environment will gainmore attention and become more pervasive as a new educational/training tool in travel and tourism industries. From atourism educator point of view, this study can be applied to build the connection between tourism education and virtualworlds in the development of how to construct engaging and interactive learning experiences to meet the expectations of

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learners. In order to implement successful e-learning courses in Second Life, educators and their institutions need to makeefforts to foster the satisfaction of psychological needs in the virtual learning environment. For instance, the virtual learningenvironment provides opportunities to participate in activities wherein interested virtual tourists could increase theirperceptions of autonomy such as riding animated animals and listening to Maasai music. Moreover, the videos within thevirtual site communicating Maasai culture and traditions of local tribes offer virtual tourists the opportunity to feelconnected with the Maasai village, thus leading to enhancement of the perception of relatedness.

6. Limitations

A number of potential limitations need to be considered in this study. First, the data was collected exclusively from auniversity and comprised mainly of college students, and participants were determined by using convenience samplingwithin the major of Park, Recreation and Tourism Management. The sample may not be reflective of the broader population.For future study, it is suggested that the sample of the study should be extended to cross validate diverse populations acrossdifferent cultures and majors groups. In addition, due to the exploratory nature of the study, the results of the study wereinterpreted with regard to the application of the virtual world of Second Life. Generalizability should not be expected. Futurestudy should include more diverse virtual world platforms such as Active World or OpenSim to better understand 3D virtuallearning experience in the context of tourism. In addition, there are many other factors that can influence students' learningexperience, increase motivation to learn, and enhance positive emotions in virtual worlds; future research can study theimpacts of other variables such as individual differences, previous experiences with technology, student attitudes towardthe use of information communication technology, and instructor teaching style to continually investigate the relativeinfluences of learning motivation and engagement in virtual environments.

Acknowledgments

This study thanks Dr. Scott Rigby and his team at Immersyve, Inc. in providing information about the PENS scale.

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Yu-Chih Huang received his Ph.D. in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at Clemson University in August 2011. Currently, he isan Assistant Professor in Department of Hotel and Restaurant Management at National Pingtung University of Science and Technology. Yu-Chih isinterested in the research fields of tourist consumption behavior, virtual tourism experience, and tourism marketing. He has been published in Journal ofTravel and Tourism Marketing, Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism, and Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology.

Sheila J. Backman graduated from Texas A&M University in 1988 with a Ph.D. from the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Sciences. Currentlyshe is a Professor in the Department of Parks recreation and Tourism Management at Clemson University. Dr. Backman has published her research inAnnals of tourism Research, Journal of Travel Research, Leisure Sciences, Tourism Management and Event Management. Currently her research is primarilyconcerned with information technology and social media marketing. She is a reviewer for many journals in the field.

Lan Lan Chang graduated from Clemson University in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management. Currently, she is an AssistantProfessor in Department of Leisure and Recreation Management at Asia University. Her research interest areas are creative tourism and tourist experience.

Kenneth F. Backman is a Professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management at Clemson University and Editor-in-Chief of EventManagement. An International Journal and serves on several peer reviewed editorial boards such as the Journal of Ecotourism and Tourism Analysis. Hisresearch areas of interest are virtual and social networking travel, sustainable community tourism development, ecotourism, international tourismdevelopment and events and have resulted in him conducting research and outreach in over 25 countries and 5 continents.

Francis McGuire is an Alumni Distinguished Professor in the Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management at Clemson University, as well as aFellow in the Strom Thurmond Institute. He earned a bachelor's degree from Cornell University, a Master of Science from Penn State and a doctorate fromthe University of Illinois. He is one of 22 faculty winners of the Clemson University class ‘39 Award for Excellence. He was selected as the South CarolinaGovernor’s Professor of the Year in 2004. He was the Clemson University Centennial Professor from 1994 to 1996 and has received the Philip Prince Awardfor Innovative Teaching. He was elected a Fellow of the Academy of Leisure Sciences in 1995.