exploring teachers' perceived self efficacy and technological pedagogical content knowledge...

Exploring teachers' perceived self efficacy and technological pedagogical content knowledgewith respect to educational use of the World Wide WebAuthor(s): Min-Hsien Lee and Chin-Chung TsaiSource: Instructional Science, Vol. 38, No. 1 (JANUARY 2010), pp. 1-21Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23372538 .

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Instr Sei (2010) 38:1-21 DOI 10.1007/sl 1251-008-9075-4

Exploring teachers' perceived self efficacy and

technological pedagogical content knowledge with

respect to educational use of the World Wide Web

Min-Hsien Lee • Chin-Chung Tsai

Received: 9 July 2007 / Accepted: 26 August 2008 / Published online: 12 September 2008 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract Research in the area of educational technology has claimed that Web tech

nology has driven online pedagogy such that teachers need to know how to use Web

technology to assist their teaching. This study provides a framework for understanding teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W), while inte

grating Web technology into their pedagogical practice. Furthermore, contemporary educational researchers have highlighted the significance of teachers' self-efficacy, con

ceptualized as the teachers' perceptions of their own competence at teaching, and related to

instructional strategies as well as teaching effectiveness. The major purpose of this study

was to investigate teachers' perceived self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W. This study aimed to develop a new questionnaire, namely the Technological Pedagogical Content

Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W) Survey to explore teachers' self-efficacy in terms of their

TPCK-W, and additionally to assess their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. The

participants in this study were 558 teachers from elementary school to high school level in

Taiwan. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the TPCK-W

survey developed in this study has satisfactory validity and reliability characteristics. The

results indicate a lack of general knowledge about Web-related pedagogy amongst the

teachers surveyed. The correlations between teachers' self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK

W, their attitudes regarding Web-based instruction, and their background variables were

also examined. Correlations were found between self-efficacy and positive attitudes to

web-based instruction. Older and more experienced teachers were found to have lower

levels of self-efficacy with respect to TPCK-W, though teachers with more experience of

using the web (including for instruction) had higher levels of self-efficacy with respect to

TPCK-W.

Keywords Self-efficacy ■

Technological pedagogical content knowledge •

Teacher • Web teaching • Questionnaire

M.-H. Lee National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan

C.-C. Tsai (El) National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected]

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2 M.-H. Lee, C.-C. Tsai

Introduction

Over the past decades, one of the important issues for educational reform and innovations

has been the integration of technology into education (e.g., AAAS 1989, 1993, 1998; Black

and McClintock 1996; Jonassen et al. 1999). Researchers have suggested the potential of

the Internet/Web technology for improving teaching (Barrbera 2004; Mendier et al. 2002;

Neo 2003; Wallace 2004; Windschitl 1998; Woo and Kimmick 2000). In particular, Web

based Instruction has gained wide-reaching recognition among educators and researchers

in the area of educational technology, with assertions that Web-based Instruction can

provide learners with distant, interactive, individualized and inquiry-based learning

activities, as well as promote learners' knowledge construction and meaningful learning

(e.g., Lee and Tsai 2005; Miller and Miller 2000; Relan and Gillani 1997; Tsai 2001). Moreover, Pyle and Dziuban (2001) stated that Web technology has driven online

pedagogy such that teachers need to learn how to use it to assist their teaching. Zhu (2006)

also claimed that Web instructors should be clear about appropriate activities that motivate

students' learning, and useful strategies that assist students in cognitive engagement.

However, teachers' use of the Web technology is far from the in-depth cognitive activities

implemented by research projects (Wallace 2004; Zhao et al. 2002). Teachers may merely use the Web to attract students' attention, and they often do not understand how to use it to

facilitate students' cognitive development. The difficulties in practice represent past

experiences with educational technology, and are attributed to a variety of causes,

including shortage of teacher training or commitment, inadequate technical assistance,

structural barriers in school schedules and policies, and lack of administrative support

(Wallace 2004). Chou and Tsai (2002) have suggested that Web-based instruction yields new and for

midable challenges for teachers. Cornell (1999) also stated that faculty members may feel

concern and anxiety about engaging in online teaching due to the fact that it is the most

talked-about, but often least-experienced, pedagogical practice. Accordingly, merely

introducing the Web into the educational process in teacher training programs is not

enough. Furthermore, as teachers increasingly use Web technology to assist their teaching, some educational issues and opportunities have arisen. For instance, the issues about what

teachers need to know in order to appropriately integrate Web technology into teaching are

highly important. Such issues may also be essential to teacher education for integrating Web technology into instruction.

As Wallace (2004) suggested, studies about teaching with the Web should potentially cover several territories including research on teacher knowledge and beliefs, teacher

preparation and professional development, planning, and assessment. Roberts (2003) has

argued that both teachers' beliefs about teaching in general and their beliefs about using the Web in particular require parallel research, as Web-based instruction has become

widely adopted. Chou and Tsai (2002) discussed the issues and challenges of developing Web-based curricula by comparing the development of traditional curricula with that of

Web-based curricula. We may still know little about teachers' knowledge about teaching with the Web; however, there is no doubt that educators need such information to improve teacher preparation and professional development while the Web is gradually integrated into instruction.

Recently, several studies in the area of educational technology have proposed "Tech

nological Pedagogical Content Knowledge" (TPCK) by building on Shulman's idea of

"pedagogical content knowledge" to elaborate teachers' technology integration into

pedagogy (e.g., Ferdig 2006; Koehler et al. 2007; Koehler and Mishra 2005; Mishra and

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Exploring teachers' perceived self-efficacy 3

Koehler 2006; Niess 2005). They suggested that when technology is integrated into

instruction, technological pedagogical content knowledge is required. The framework of

"Pedagogical Content Knowledge" was proposed by Shulman (1986) to describe a full

range of teachers' knowledge of instruction. He suggested that "Pedagogical Knowledge"

(PK) is knowledge about how to teach, "Content Knowledge" (CK) is knowledge about

the subject matter, and "Pedagogical Content Knowledge" (PCK) is knowledge about how

to teach the subject matter. Shulman (1986) argued that having knowledge of the subject

matter and general pedagogical strategies was insufficient to be a good teacher. Thus, he

claimed that "pedagogical content knowledge" is the content knowledge that handles the

teaching process, including "the ways of representing and formulating the subject that

make it comprehensible to others" (p. 9). Accordingly, this study adopted Shulman's ideas

of PCK framework, which proposed PK, CK, and PCK as different concepts of teaching

skills/capabilities. And, there is some interplay among these concepts. The value of PCK

for teacher preparation and teacher professional development has been emphasized by the

National Science Teachers Association (NSTA 1998) and the National Council for the

Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE 1997). Accordingly, in the TPCK framework

proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), Technological Knowledge (TK) describes a

teacher's knowledge about technologies such as digital video or computers; Technological

Content Knowledge (TCK) illustrates a teacher's knowledge about the manner to take the

features and the advantages of technology into the content (subject matter); Technological

Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) explains a teacher's knowledge about the existence,

components, and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in teaching; and

finally, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) is an emergent form of

knowledge that combines TK, TPK, and TCK. Moreover, Mishra and Koehler (2006) also

argued that the conceptual framework of TPCK was extended from the PCK and used to

illustrate the ideas regarding how teachers integrate technology into their pedagogy.

Tsai (2004) has proposed that the nature of the Internet/Web is perceived by different

people quite differently, as a tool, as a form of technology, or even as a toy. Accordingly,

the Web is a particular technology, and people may have different interpretations of it.

Moreover, teaching with the Web may be quite specific in the area of educational tech

nology, as Chou and Tsai (2002) claimed that it opens new avenues for the design,

development, storage, distribution of, and access to, learning materials. The Web is a

special but highly important technology for contemporary education. Therefore, TPCK,

when discussing technology in general, may not be sufficient for providing adequate information to improve teacher preparation and professional development when the Web is

integrated into instruction. Furthermore, rapid advances in the Web have led to the

availability of various tools to support teaching and learning (Lee and Tsai 2005). The

most significant advances of Web-based instruction may be the improvement in infor

mation acquisition and interactive communication (Jain and Getis 2003; Neo 2003;

Varnhagen et al. 1997). For example, Neo (2003) has stated that the Web offers many

interesting and exciting ways for acquiring instructional information and learning

resources, such as the possibilities for the support of synchronous, asynchronous, auton

omous, and collaborative modes of teaching and learning activities. Jain and Getis (2003)

have also suggested that the Web is a powerful communication tool in education, whether

it is used in a distance-learning environment or within the classroom. Wallace (2004)

further implies that the possibilities for teaching with the Web include using it as a source

of information, a means of representing content, a means of communication, or a site for

collaboration. Consequently, Web-based instruction seems to create a new learning manner

for students, and also brings new challenges to teachers' pedagogical practice.

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Accordingly, teachers may require more advanced knowledge than TPCK when

teaching with the Web. As Roberts (2003) argued, the conceptions of Web-based learning

are far removed from most current teachers' conceptions of and approaches to using the

Web for learning and teaching. Therefore, this study suggests that teachers may require the

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W), as developed from the

ideas of PCK (Shulman 1986) and TPCK (Mishra and Koehler 2006), to teach with the

Web. According to the development of the framework of TPCK (Mishra and Koehler

2006), we introduce the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W)

framework for exploring teacher knowledge regarding Web-based instruction.

Figure 1 presents the combination of web knowledge and pedagogical content knowl

edge. As shown in Fig. 1, we suggest that teachers should combine web knowledge with

their original PCK to result in TPCK-W when teaching with the Web. In our framework

(see Fig. 1 ), there are three areas of knowledge: Content, Pedagogy and the Web. The Web

(W) broadly encompasses the knowledge about the general use of the Web such as the use

of Web-related tools, as well as the knowledge about its advanced use relative to Web

based communication or Web-based interaction. Content (C) is the knowledge about the

subject matter that is to be taught. Pedagogy (P) is the knowledge about the process and

practice or methods of teaching and learning. Figure 1 (a) represents the Web knowledge

and Shulman's (1986) PCK framework. Figure 1(b) illustrates our TPCK-W framework.

However, according to Fig. 1(b), this study highlights the knowledge which combines web

knowledge with pedagogical content knowledge, as shown in the shadowed area.

Similar to the framework of TPCK (Mishra and Koehler 2006), W and C taken together

produce Web Content Knowledge (WCK). This kind of knowledge involves an under

standing of the manner to take the features and the advantages of the Web into content

(subject matter). As a result, teachers need to know not just the content they teach, but also

the ways in which the content is adequately integrated with the application of the Web. Relan

and Gillani (1997) stated that the predominant source of content in Web-based instruction

shifts from the textbook and the teacher to more diverse sources of information. The nature

Pedagogical-Content

Knowledge

(a)

Web-Pedagogical Web-Content

Web-Pedagogical

-Content Knowledge

(b)

Fig. 1 The framework of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web

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of the content becomes more dynamic, and is no longer merely limited to texts published on a

certain date. Chou and Tsai (2002) also suggested that when teachers try to enrich their

curricula by tapping the unlimited information on the Web, they ought to review and screen a

large amount of information from many websites and make links in appropriate places.

A consideration of the overlap between W and P results in Web Pedagogical Knowledge

(WPK). This knowledge stresses the existence, components and capabilities of the Web as

the teacher uses it in educational settings. As Wallace (2004) claimed, once the Web

technology is identified for meeting the teacher's needs, what is required is not a wide

ranging understanding of the technology, but rather the teachers need specific knowledge

regarding how this technology can be used with these students to accomplish this purpose.

Accordingly, teachers may need to know a range of tools for a particular task (e.g., online

discussion) as well as to understand what pedagogical strategies can be employed with the

Web to get the most effective outcomes.

Finally, W, P, and C taken together form Web Pedagogical Content Knowledge (WPCK).

Goodyear et al. (2001) suggested that teachers have to be able to identify the proper online

learning activities to fit the course needs, and have knowledge of appropriate pedagogies to

support the online activities. From this point of view, teachers need to understand the general

use of the Web and its advanced use relative to Web-based communication or Web-based

interaction. They also require knowledge about both the content they teach and the manner

to integrate the features and the advantages of Web into the content (subject matter). Also,

this knowledge involves the manner of integrating pedagogical strategies to particular

subject content within the Web, and better judgment with regard to which ways can most

benefit the learners while employing Web pedagogical practice. Consequently, viewing

teachers' knowledge in terms of the interplay among Web, Pedagogy, and Content, may

have significant implications for teacher education and teachers' professional development to meet the contemporary call for Web integration with instruction. In sum, similar to the

TPCK framework suggested by Mishra and Koehler (2006), TPCK-W also has four com

ponents, including Web knowledge, Web Pedagogical Knowledge (WPK), Web Content

Knowledge (WCK), and Web Pedagogical Content Knowledge (WPCK). Certainly, there is

some interplay among these components, as shown in Fig. 1.

In the last two decades, educational researchers have highlighted the significance of

teachers' self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998). Researchers have conceptualized teacher self-efficacy as the teachers' perceptions of their own competence and their ability

to teach as a professional discipline to facilitate students' knowledge, values and behaviors

(e.g., Guskey and Passaro 1994; Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998; Tschannen-Moran and

Woolfolk-Hoy 2001). Researchers have also suggested the importance of the users' self

efficacy in terms of the Web (e.g., Joo et al. 2000; Liaw 2002; Peng et al. 2006; Tsai and

Tsai 2003). Furthermore, several studies have claimed that teachers have anxiety and/or

low confidence about using the Web or computers (e.g., Chou 2003; Dawes 1999; Yaghi

and Abu-Saba 1998). These studies suggested that teacher anxiety can often reduce the

success of such technological and pedagogical innovations. Clearly, the fact that teachers

experience anxiety about using the Web is related to their low self-efficacy regarding its

use (Presno 1998; Savolainen 2002). With the growing development of Web instruction,

studies emphasizing the teachers' self-efficacy in terms of Web instruction may be

important as well. However, not many studies have explored teachers' self-efficacy in this

area. As mentioned above, we suggest that teachers may require TPCK-W for teaching

with the Web. However, there is almost no study related to the investigation of teacher self

efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W. An investigation of this aspect of teachers' self

efficacy may provide noteworthy information on how to improve teacher education and

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teacher professional development. For this reason, the major purpose of this study is to

explore teachers' self-efficacy in terms of Web instruction, and in particular, in terms of

their knowledge of Web pedagogical content.

Accordingly, this study aimed to explore teachers' perceived self-efficacy, particularly in terms of their Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web. Therefore, in this

study, we developed a new questionnaire, based on our TPCK-W framework, to assess a

group of teachers' perceived self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W. Also, to enhance the

validity of the questionnaire and to provide more information about teachers' experiences

and expectations of Web instruction, we used an open-ended questionnaire to investigate

teachers' responses about their experiences and expectations of Web instruction. Fur

thermore, many previous studies indicated that there were some relationships between the

teachers' experiences and their attitudes toward computers (e.g., Levin and Gordon 1989;

Smith et al. 2000; Tsai et al. 2001); Roberts (2003) suggested that teachers' Web-based

teaching experiences correlate to their continual use of Web-based teaching. Lee and Tsai

(2005) also found that teachers' teaching experiences and Web experiences were correlated

with their preferences toward the Internet-based learning environment. Accordingly, this

study explored the correlations between teachers' perceived self-efficacy in terms of their

TPCK-W, their attitudes regarding Web-based instruction, and their background (i.e., age,

years of teaching, Web experience, and experience of Web-related instruction).

In sum, the main purposes of this study were to:

1. Develop a new questionnaire, based on our TPCK-W framework, to assess a group of

teachers' perceived self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W.

2. Explore the correlations between teachers' perceived self-efficacy in terms of their

TPCK-W, their attitudes regarding Web-based instruction, and their background variables (i.e., age, years of teaching, Web experience, and experience of Web-related

instruction).

Method

Participants

The participants in this study were 558 teachers (60% female) from a selection of schools

in Taiwan, ranging from elementary to high school. The teachers ranged in age from 22 to

65 years old, with an average age of about 34 years old, and their teaching experience

ranged from 1 to 40 years with an average of about 9 years. In addition, 73% of the

participants had a Bachelor's degree and 27% had a Master's degree. Although this sample could not be viewed as a national sample, the surveyed teachers came from a variety of

schools in Taiwan, across different demographic areas and backgrounds, and they may, to a

certain extent, be said to represent many teachers in Taiwan.

Moreover, we also explored the participants' Web experiences and their experiences of

Web-related instruction. Similar to other studies (e.g., Chuang and Tsai 2005; Lee and Tsai

2005; Tsai et al. 2001), the length of time the teachers spend using the Internet/Web per week was defined as an indicator of their Web experience. It was found that 41.8% of the

participants used the Internet/Web from 6 to 15 h per week. In addition, the participants

described their actual experiences of Web-related instruction in one additional item, using a six-point Likert scale from "never use" to "very often". 36.3% of the participants self

reported that they use Web-related instruction "sometimes" (3).

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All of the participants in this study completed the instrument surveying their self

efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W as well as an open-ended questionnaire to evaluate their

opinions and experiences regarding Web-based instruction.

Instrument

To meet the purposes of this study, we developed a new questionnaire, the Technological

Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W) Survey, to assess teachers' self-efficacy

in terms of web pedagogical content knowledge. The TPCK-W survey was created based

on our TPCK-W framework (Fig. lb) including Web knowledge, Web-Content knowl

edge, Web-Pedagogical knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content knowledge.

Furthermore, Peng et al. (2006) quantitatively explored the participants' Internet self

efficacy regarding Web use, and categorized two scales (i.e., one for general use of the

Web and the other for using the Web for communicative purposes). Accordingly, we used

the two scales identified by Peng et al. (2006) to represent the teacher's self-efficacy in

terms of the Web. We further added some items both into the general and the commu

nicative scales as a result of consulting with experts in the field. The items of the WCK,

WPK, and WPCK scales were developed in two stages. First, we consulted two experts in

the field of Web-based learning, and two in-service teachers who had developed and used

Web-related instructional materials, about the teacher's requirements regarding Web-based

instruction. For example, we asked them what knowledge the teachers should have when

using Web-related instruction. Second, we developed the items based on both the sug

gestions from the above consultation and from the characterizations of our TPCK-W

framework. As a result, we constructed 6-8 items for each of the three scales (i.e., WCK,

WPK, and WPCK) for the initial version of the TPCK-W survey.

Bandura et al. (1996) found that individuals with high self-efficacy have more posi tive attitudes when dealing with challenging tasks than those with low self-efficacy. Peng et al. (2006) also found correlations between users' Internet self-efficacy and their atti

tude towards the Internet. Thus, a correlation between self-efficacy and attitude seems to

exist. Similarly, it is also important to investigate teachers' attitudes toward Web

instruction, which may play a potential role in their TPCK-W. Thus, we designed a scale

for this aspect to assess teachers' attitudes toward Web instruction. Totally, the original TPCK-W survey consisted of the following six scales: two scales investigating the

teachers' self-efficacy regarding Web knowledge (i.e., Web-general and Web-communi

cative), three scales particularly evaluating teachers' self-efficacy in terms of Web

Pedagogical Knowledge (WPK), Web-Content Knowledge (WCK), and Web-Pedagogi cal-Content Knowledge (WPCK), and the last scale assessing their Attitudes toward Web

instruction.

After having completed the initial construction of the TPCK-W survey, the authors

consulted with an expert in the field regarding its content validity, working through the

review process at least twice. We modified the questionnaire which followed the expert's

suggestions about the questionnaire construction and the item description. Then, we

returned back a revised version of the questionnaire to the expert. Again, the questionnaire was revised according to the expert's second round comments. A detailed description of

the six scales, each with a sample item, is presented below:

1. Web-general: measuring teachers' confidence in their knowledge about their use of the

Web in general, such as use of Web-related tools, e.g., Be able to click the hyperlink to

connect to another Website.

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2. Web-communicative: assessing teachers' confidence in their knowledge relative to

Web-based communication or Web-based interaction, e.g., Be able to read others'

messages in a chatroom.

3. Web-Pedagogical Knowledge (WPK): evaluating teachers' confidence in then

knowledge about the existence, components and functions of the Web as they are

used in educational settings, e.g., Be able to use the Web to enhance students' learning motivation.

4. Web-Content Knowledge (WCK): measuring teachers' confidence in their knowledge about the manner in which the Web and content can mutually reinforce each other, e.g., Be able to search for various materials on the Web to be integrated into course content.

5. Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge (WPCK): surveying teachers' confidence in

their knowledge about how to identify appropriate online learning activities to fit the

needs of a particular course and the practice of appropriate pedagogies to support online activities, e.g., Be able to use Web resources to guide students' learning activities for a certain course unit.

6. Attitudes toward Web-based instruction (Attitudes): measuring the extent of teachers'

agreement regarding the usage of Web-based instruction, e.g., Web-based teaching can

enhance students' learning motivation.

Furthermore, we attempted to avoid the overlapping among the items across different

scales. For example, the major difference between the items of WP scale and those of WPC

scale was the descriptions regarding the content (subject matter); compared to WP scale,

the items of WPC scale were particularly pointed to the teachers' views for using Web for

certain instructional units.

Weng (2004) has suggested that a seven-point or six-point Likert scale can provide consistent and reliable participant responses if the participants' cognitive ability is close to

that of college students. Moreover, we used the even-numbered six-point scale to explicitly

distinguish teachers' responses and to avoid totally neutral responses. Accordingly, to

measure participants' self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W, the first five scales (i.e.,

Web-general, Web-communicative, WPK, WCK, and WPCK) were presented in a six-point Likert mode in which items on the scales were presented with bipolar strongly unconfident/

strongly confident statements. Accordingly, teachers gaining higher scores in a certain

scale showed stronger self-efficacy with the statements in the scale regarding their TPCK

W. Moreover, to survey teachers' attitudes toward Web-based instruction, the items in the

Attitudes scale were also presented with bipolar strongly disagree/strongly agree statements

in a six-point Likert mode. Teachers with high Attitudes scores represent relatively affir

mative and favorable attitudes toward Web-based instruction.

Furthermore, we also included an open-ended questionnaire to survey the teachers'

opinions about and experiences of Web-based instruction. Those data collected from the

open-ended questionnaire were mainly used to enhance the validity of the questionnaire and

to provide qualitative interpretations for our quantitative results. The questions included

"What are your opinions about integrating the Web with teaching? What are your reasons?

Have you used Web technology in your pedagogical practice? If not, what are your reasons?

If yes, what kinds of problems you have experienced? And, how did you solve them?"

Data analysis

The finalization of the TPCK-W survey was conducted by the reduction of items, and the

confirmation of the validity, reliability, and structural soundness. The reduction of items of

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the TPCK-W survey was based on the following steps. First, in an exploratory factor

analysis, only those items with a factor loading of at least 0.50 within their own scale were

kept in the refined questionnaire (e.g., Fish and Dane 2000; Walker and Fraser 2005), and

items with factor loadings of many cross-loadings were omitted (Bentler 1990). The

validity and reliability of the questionnaire were evaluated accordingly. Additionally, we

employed confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to ensure the construct validity of the

questionnaire and clarify its resulting structures. The TPCK-W survey was analyzed using Linear Structure RELationships (LISREL), a commonly used software package for the

analysis of latent variables that can be used to confirm the validity of an instrument's scales

(Jöreskog and Sörbom 1989; Kelloway 1998). Basically, LISREL analysis can be used to

specify the relations of the observed measures (i.e., items) to their posited underlying constructs (i.e., scales) (Anderson and Gerbing 1988).

The fit of the measurement model (the structure of the questionnaire), obtained

throughout CFA, was evaluated using various measures (Bentler 1995; Sörbom and

Jöreskog 1982). The Chi-square per degree of freedom, for example, was used, for which a

ratio of less than five shows a reasonable fit, while a ratio between one and two is an

excellent fit. Other types of goodness-of-fit measures used included the Root Mean

Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the normed fit index (NFI), the non-normed fit

index (NNR), the goodness of fit index (GFI), and the comparative fit index (CFI). A RMSEA value close to zero exhibits a near perfect fit. The NFI, NNFI, CFI, GFI were

always between zero and one, with any value above 0.9 indicating a good fit and the value

of one suggesting a perfect fit.

In addition, to explore the correlations between the teachers' self-efficacy in terms of

their TPCK-W, their attitudes regarding Web-based instruction, and their background (i.e.,

age, teaching experience, Web experience, and experience of Web-related instruction), the

participants' responses on the final version of the TPCK-W survey were used for a series of

correlation analyses. In this study, we used the teachers' years of teaching and their Web

usage (i.e., from the teachers' self-report about the length of time spent using the Internet

per week) to represent their teaching experience and Web experience, respectively, similar

to the method used in Lee and Tsai's (2005) study.

Findings and discussion

Exploratory factor analysis for the TPCK-W survey

To validate the TPCK-W survey, an exploratory factor analysis with a varimax rotation was

performed to clarify its structure. As a result, the participants' responses were grouped into

the following five orthogonal factors, which were: Web-general, Web-communicative, Web

Content Knowledge (WCK), Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge (WPCK), and Attitudes.

The eigenvalues of the five factors from the principle component analysis were all larger than one, while the items with a factor loading of less than 0.50 and with many cross

loadings were omitted from the survey. A total of 30 items were retained in the final version

of the TPCK-W survey (shown in Table 1), and the total variance explained is 78.34%.

The reliability (Cronbach's alpha) coefficients for these factors were 0.94, 0.96, 0.94,

0.95, 0.92, respectively, and the overall alpha was 0.96, suggesting that these factors had

highly sufficient reliability in assessing the teachers' self-efficacy regarding their TPCK-W

and their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. The final version of the TPCK-W survey is presented in the appendix.

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Table 1 The exploratory factor analysis, and reliability of the TPCK-W survey

Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5

Factor 1: Web-general, alpha = 0.94

A1 0.83

A2 0.80

A3 0.83

A4 0.82

A5 0.71

A6 0.75

A7 0.77

Factor 2: Web-communicative, alpha = 0.96

B1 0.87

B2 0.91

B3 0.90

B4 0.85

Factor 3: Web-Content Knowledge (WCK), alpha = 0.94

CI 0.68

C2 0.78

C3 0.76

C4 0.67

C5 0.61

Factor 4: Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge (WPCK), alpha — 0.95

Dla 0.68

D2a 0.67

D3a 0.68

D4 0.75

D5 0.78

D6 0.83

D7 0.85

D8 0.81

Factor 5: Attitudes toward Web-based instruction, alpha = 0.92

E3 0.81

E4 0.77

% of variance 18.24 12.42 11.64 20.47 15.57

" The original items of the scale "

Web-Pedagogical Knowledge"

Notes: loading less than 0.50 omitted, N = 558, overall a = 0.96, total variance explained is 78.34%

The original questionnaire items were grouped into five factors through an initial

exploratory factor analysis. The items of Web-general, Web-communicative, Web

Content Knowledge, and Attitude scale were respectively loaded on the expected factor.

However, the items of Web-Pedagogical Knowledge scale and those of the Web

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Pedagogical-Content Knowledge scale were loaded on a single factor. After omitting the items with the factor loading less than 0.50 and those with many cross-loadings, five factors were retained in the survey (shown in Table 1). The retained items of the

fourth factor consisted of original items from the WPK scale (three items) and the

WPCK scale (five items) (shown in Table 1). Accordingly, we named the fourth factor

Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge (WPCK) scale. The scales of the TPCK-W sur

vey were created on the basis of our TPCK-W framework. In the original TPCK-W

framework, teachers may require Web knowledge (i.e., general and communicative),

Web-Pedagogical Knowledge, Web-Content Knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content

Knowledge when integrating Web technologies into their teaching. However, the results

indicated that major items of the WPK scale were not maintained in the TPCK-W

survey through the exploratory factor analysis of this study. On the one hand, the

reason may stem from the difficulty for the participants to distinguish the items of the

WPK scale and those of the WPCK scale possibly due to the design of the survey. In

this study, the TPCK-W survey was initially developed to explore teachers' perceived

self-efficacy related to their TPCK-W. And, the findings of the current study may

suggest that more items about WPK or WPCK should be solicited, although the present

version has adequate reliability in terms of exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory

factor analysis. On the other hand, the reason of mixing WPK and WPCK may be a

result of the teachers' lack of general knowledge about Web-related pedagogy, but they

may gain particular PCK of the Web-related teaching materials from the suggestions of

online material designers. Much of the existing Web-related teaching materials provide

teaching guides for teachers so that they may gain sufficient PCK to integrate the Web

related teaching materials with instruction. For example, the Web-based Inquiry Science

Environment (WISE) provides several supports for teacher, such as the teaching guide

for the project, supplemental resources (e.g., lesson plans and assessments), customized

comments for students, and online support from the WISE project staff (Slotta 2004, p.

210). Therefore, teachers may have WPCK, but not really possess WPK. The quali

tative results of the open-ended questionnaires gathered by this study also support this

suggestion. For instance, many teachers stated that "I am not really familiar with the

procedure of teaching with the Web," "I am not sure how to teach with the Web," "I

am not sure that teaching with the Web is an effective pedagogy," "I am not familiar

with the teaching skills of the Web-related pedagogy," "I have difficulty controlling the

students well while teaching with the Web." As a result, it is reasonable that WPK

seems not to be detected in the present study. To clarify the two possibilities discussed

above, further questionnaire testing and modification are needed to improve the ques

tionnaire's items and its structures.

Furthermore, the Web knowledge and the PCK of the participating teachers seem to

still not be completely integrated. These results may also imply that the teachers'

pedagogical practice may mainly depend on what Web-related content they have

gained (i.e., only WCK). In other words, teachers may not have sufficient Web-Ped

agogical knowledge to decide on the appropriate Web-related teaching materials for

instructional objectives. Roberts (2003) also found that teachers used the Web only as a

source of subject information, which may imply a lack of pedagogical knowledge of

how to create interactive exercises on the Web. Thus, according to the factor

analysis of this study, the teachers mainly showed their Web-Content knowledge

and then their Web-Pedagogical-Content knowledge, but they did not express their

Web-Pedagogical knowledge. However, this claim needs to be verified by further

studies.

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Table 2 The descriptive statistics of the TPCK-W survey

Scale No. of items Mean S.D.

Web-general 7 5.54 0.75

Web-communicative 4 4.41 1.64

Web-Content Knowledge 5 4.93 0.95

Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge 8 4.21 1.15

Attitudes toward Web-based instruction 6 5.08 0.82

N = 558

Teachers' responses to the TPCK-W survey

Table 2 shows the 558 teachers' average item scores and standard deviations on the five

scales of the TPCK-W survey. According to Table 2, the teachers attained high scores on

the "Web-general" scale (an average of 5.54 per item) and the "Attitudes" scale (an

average of 5.08 per item). Their scores on the "Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge

(WPCK)" scale, an average of 4.21 per item, were relatively lower when compared to

those of other scales. Thus, such results indicate that Taiwanese teachers tend to have

relatively high self-efficacy in terms of their Web-general knowledge, and seem to man

ifest favorable attitudes regarding Web-based instruction. However, those teachers

probably have relatively low confidence in their Web-Pedagogical-Content knowledge. This result might imply that WPCK is the most sophisticated kind of knowledge for

teachers using Web-based instruction, so they do not have high confidence in this area.

Moreover, the standard deviation of the "Web-communicative" scale (1.64) was higher

than other scales. This result suggests that Taiwanese teachers have varying self-efficacy in

terms of their knowledge about communication via Web technology.

Confirmatory factor analysis for the TPCK-W survey

The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) further confirmed the construct validity and the

structure of the TPCK-W survey. A CFA analysis by LISREL, the CFA factor loadings, and the /-values of the items for each scale of the TPCK-W survey are presented in

Table 3. According to Table 3, all of the factor loadings and the f-values of the 30 items on

the five scales of the TPCK-W survey showed significance at the 0.05 level, specifying the

relations of the observed measures (i.e., items) to their posited underlying constructs (i.e.,

scales). The fitness of the items for each scale of the TPCK-W survey (Chi-square per

degree of freedom = 3.85, RMSEA = 0.071, G FI = 0.85, NFI = 0.98, NNF1 = 0.98,

CFI = 0.98) indicated a sufficient fit and also confirmed the questionnaire's structure.

Correlation analyses for the TPCK-W survey

Bandura et al. (1996) found that individuals with high self-efficacy have more positive attitudes when dealing with challenging tasks than those with low self-efficacy. Peng et al.

(2006) also found that Internet users' attitudes are correlated to their Internet self-efficacy. As shown in Table 4, teachers' attitudes toward Web-based instruction had significantly

positive relations to their responses to the TPCK-W survey (p < 0.01). The results, which

were similar to those of previous studies (e.g., Bandura et al. 1996; Peng et al. 2006),

support the positive correlation between self-efficacy and attitude. The significantly

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Table 4 The correlations between teachers' responses to the TPCK-W survey and their background variables

Attitude toward Web-based instruction

Age Years of

teaching'

Web

experience Experience of Web-related

pedagogical practice

Web-general 0.46" -0.32** -0.28** 0.22" 0.20**

Web-communicative 0.27** -0.45** -0.44** 0.30** 0.20"

WCK 0.60** -0.22** -0.20** 0.22** 0.37**

WPCK 0.61** -0.16" -0.15" 0.33" 0.44**

Attitude toward Web-based instruction 1 -0.06 -0.04 0.19** 0.30**

** p < O.Ol

a Represents teaching experience

WCK: Web-Content Knowledge

WPCK: Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge

positive correlations between Attitudes toward Web-based instruction and the other four

scales of the TPCK-W survey (i.e., Web-general, Web-communicative, Web-Content

Knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge) provide partial evidence of the

criterion-related validity of the TPCK-W survey.

Furthermore, many previous studies have indicated that there are some positive rela

tionships between teachers' computer experience and their attitudes toward computers

(e.g., Levin and Gordon 1989; Smith et al. 2000; Tsai et al. 2001). This study also

explored the correlations between the teachers' age, teaching experience (i.e., years of

teaching), Web experience (i.e., the teachers' self-report of the length of time using the

Internet per week), experiences of Web-related teaching practice (i.e., one additional Likert

item for assessing actual experiences of Web-related instruction), and their responses to the

TPCK-W survey.

As shown in Table 4, both the participants' age and their teaching experience had a

significantly negative relationship to their self-efficacy regarding Web-general knowledge, Web-communicative knowledge, Web-Content knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content

knowledge (p < 0.01). The results seem to indicate that the senior teachers tend to have

relatively low confidence in all aspects of the TPCK-W survey. Many studies have sug

gested that teachers' teaching experience has some correlation with their use of technology

(Chou 2003; Yaghi 2001). For example, Yaghi's (2001) study suggested that teachers with

more years of teaching had lower levels of confidence in using computers. The results of

this study seem to suggest that teachers with a great deal of teaching experience tend to

have a lack of TPCK-W as suggested by their lower confidence. The results of the present

study reveal that teachers with more years of teaching have lower confidence not only in

using the Web, but also with regards to how to integrate the Web into instruction. Addi

tionally, in this study, teachers' teaching experience and Web experience had non

significant relationships with their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. Table 2 also

shows the teachers' positive attitudes toward Web-based instruction (by the Attitude scale).

These results may imply that Web-based instruction tends to be widely embraced by

Taiwanese teachers and teachers with different degrees of experience show favorable

attitudes toward Web-based instruction. The qualitative results of the open-ended questions

which were gathered from the teachers' responses also support this claim. For instance,

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numbers of participant teachers with various teaching experience mentioned that "Web

related instruction could enhance my teaching and could also motivate students' learning,"

"Nowadays, teaching with the Web is the trend," "Teaching with the Web is the con

venient and applied pedagogy," "It can also attract students' attention," "Teaching with

the Web can improve both the teaching and learning efficiency." In sum, this study has

found that Taiwanese teachers with different teaching experiences tended to show favor

able attitudes toward Web-based instruction; however, senior teachers seemed to perceive

lower self-efficacy regarding the TPCK-W than junior ones.

Table 4 also shows that both the teachers' experiences of Web use and Web-related

pedagogical practice had significantly positive relationships with their self-efficacy

regarding Web-general knowledge, Web-communicative knowledge, Web-Content

knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content knowledge. In addition, both the teachers' Web

experience and Web-related pedagogical practice had significantly positive relationships with their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. The results indicate that teachers with

richer experiences of Web usage and Web-related instruction tend to have relatively

stronger self-efficacy regarding their TPCK-W, and display more positive attitudes toward

Web-based instruction.

Conclusions and implications

Windschitl (1998) found that a large amount of research on Web-based instruction prin

cipally emphasizes the technological aspect of classroom implementation. Researchers

have often focused on the development of Web-related instructional materials. However, it

is equally important to recognize teachers' pedagogical content knowledge while inte

grating the Web into instruction. Chou and Tsai (2002) have argued that the time for

researchers to ask whether or not Web-based curricula should be created or used has

passed, claiming that the most important thing should be working toward developing

effective Web-based curricula that can benefit all students. Moreover, their study further

asserted that researchers and educators should emphasize teachers' Technological Peda

gogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W) for effective teaching with the Web.

Accordingly, this study proposed a framework regarding teachers' essential knowledge

about TPCK-W while integrating Web technologies into their pedagogical practice. It

should be noted that this study did not focus on the naming convention such as TPCK or

TPCK-W. We were really interested in how people pedagogically used the Web. The

TPCK-W framework may help us to illustrate how people pedagogically use the Web.

Furthermore, because of the growing attention to teacher self-efficacy in educational

research (e.g., Guskey and Passaro 1994; Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998; Tschannen-Moran

and Woolfolk-Hoy 2001), this study aims to investigate teachers' perceived self-efficacy in

terms of their TPCK-W.

This study aimed to develop a new questionnaire, namely the Technological Peda

gogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK-W) Survey to explore teachers' self-efficacy in

terms of their TPCK-W, and also assess their attitudes toward Web-based instruction. Data

analysis indicated that the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge-Web (TPCK

W) Survey developed in this study had satisfactory validity and reliability measures. The

development of the TPCK-W survey can advance existing tools for evaluating teachers'

self-efficacy, particularly in terms of their TPCK-W. Also, the information about teachers'

self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W may inform how to improve teacher education and

enhance teacher professional development.

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The final TPCK-W survey was comprised of five scales, including "Web-general,"

"Web-communicative," "Web-Content Knowledge (WCK)," "Web-Pedagogical-Content

Knowledge (WPCK)," and "Attitudes." Although our TPCK-W framework initially

proposed that teachers might require Web knowledge (i.e., general and communicative),

Web-Pedagogical knowledge, Web-Content Knowledge, and Web-Pedagogical-Content

Knowledge while integrating Web technologies into their teaching, the results indicate that

the WPK scale was not maintained in the TPCK-W survey. This result may stem from the

teachers' lack of general knowledge about Web-related pedagogy. This implies that the

teachers may not have a clear awareness of the significance of Web-related Pedagogical

Knowledge in their conceptual framework of Web-based instruction. Moreover, the results

of the present study may also imply that educators and researchers tend to mostly

emphasize the development of Web-related learning materials, but to some extent, they do

not pay enough attention to the relevant web pedagogical knowledge in teacher training

programs. Teacher training programs can develop related training programs for teachers to

enhance their Web-Pedagogical knowledge. For example, teacher education may add some

professional courses about e-learning theories so that inexperienced teachers can gain

adequate knowledge about how to teach with the Web for particular educational purposes.

Furthermore, researchers may conduct an experimental study which tries to improve the

Web-Pedagogical knowledge in teacher education to document the progressive develop ment of TPCK-W.

The TPCK-W survey responses also provide some information for teachers about the

present conditions of Web-based instruction in Taiwan. According to the descriptive results of the TPCK-W survey, teachers in Taiwan expressed relatively high self-efficacy in terms of their general use of the Web. Similarly, Lee and Tsai (2005) found that teachers

in Taiwan emphasized the technical part of the Web learning environment. In other words,

this study further verified Taiwanese teachers' emphasis on the technical part of the Web

instruction and showed their high confidence in their knowledge about the general use of

the Web. Moreover, the descriptive results of the Attitudes scale (an average of 5.08 per item on a six-point Likert scale) also revealed that the teachers held highly positive attitudes toward Web-based instruction (Table 2). The results suggest that Taiwanese

teachers generally recognize the usefulness of Web-based instruction. Thus, as mentioned

above, this study reveals an advantageous position for teaching with the Web in Taiwan.

Based upon the results of the correlation analysis, teachers with more experience of

Web use and of Web-related instruction tend to have high self-efficacy in terms of their

TPCK-W. However, older or more experienced teachers are likely to have low self

efficacy. In a conventional instructional setting, researchers have found that senior teachers

tend to possess higher self-efficacy in terms of their teaching than junior teachers (e.g., Prieto and Altmaier 1994; Tschannen-Moran et al. 1998); van Driel et al. (1998) identified

teaching experience as the major source of developing PCK. However, this study has found

that, in the area of Web-based instruction, senior teachers tend to have lower self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W than junior teachers. In other words, senior teachers may have

difficulty integrating the Web into their existing PCK. It is thus concluded that senior

teachers may have relatively high self-efficacy in terms of their PCK, but relatively low

self-efficacy regarding their TPCK-W. Nevertheless, teachers with more experience of

Web-related instruction tend to perceive higher self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W

than those with less experience. This study provides further empirical evidence to verify the relationship between Web-related teaching experience and self-efficacy in terms of

TPCK-W, which parallels the literature of those relationships in a traditional instructional

setting (i.e., teaching experience and self-efficacy) (Prieto and Altmaier 1994; Tschannen




Moran et al. 1998; van Driel et al. 1998). Teacher education may use this finding to enrich

Web-related instructional experiences for teachers, especially for senior teachers. For

example, teacher education may involve practical training regarding Web-related

instruction for teachers. Thus, teachers may gain more related experience (i.e., Web use

and Web-based teaching) to enhance their self-efficacy in terms of their TPCK-W.

Furthermore, the results of this study suggested that Web-based instruction tended to be

widely embraced by Taiwanese teachers of different teaching experience; however, senior

teachers seemed to perceive lower self-efficacy regarding the TPCK-W than junior ones. In

other words, teachers may highly support the Web-based instruction, but they may not

have sufficient confidence in integrating the Web into pedagogical practice, especially for

the senior ones. Accordingly, teacher education may provide much more opportunities for

teachers to enrich their TPCK-W, such as workshop, or advanced training programs. With the rapid development of Web-related instruction, future research in the area of

Web-based instruction may need to stress TPCK-W in order to determine appropriate

strategies for Web-based instructional practice. The TPCK-W framework may allow

researchers and educators to analyze the possibly progressive development of Web inte

gration in the area of teacher education and teacher professional development.

Furthermore, the TPCK-W framework proposed in this study may provide some insights into recognizing various aspects of teacher knowledge regarding the use of the Web for

teaching subject matter. However, future research is encouraged to follow up on the initial

findings of this study to enrich the TPCK-W framework.

In addition, the TPCK-W survey was initially developed in this study. Further devel

opment of the TPCK-W survey (including retesting of the WP scale and modification of

the questionnaire items) is an important area for follow-up study.

Acknowledgment The funding of this research project is supported by National Science Council, Taiwan, under grant numbers NSC 96-251 l-S-011-002-MY3, NSC 97-2511-S-011-003-MY3 and NSC 97-2631-S 011-001.

Appendix: The questionnaire items on the TPCK-W survey (Anal version)

Web-general

Al. Be able to click the hyperlink to connect to another Website.

A2. Be able to key in the Website address to connect to a particular Website.

A3. Be able to print out the content of a Website.

A4. Be able to search for information on the Web using keywords. A5. Be able to download pictures from the Web.

A6. Be able to use the Web search engines. A7. Be able to copy text on the Web into the "Word".

Web-communicative

Bl. Be able to read others' messages in a chatroom.

B2. Be able to set a nickname by yourself in an online chatroom.

B3. Be able to talk to others one on one in an online chatroom.

B4. Be able to provide information or respond to someone else on a BBS (Bulletin Board

System).

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Web-Content Knowledge

CI. Know that Web technology can provide various materials to enrich course content.

C2. Know how to search online resources for course content.

C3. Know how to select proper content from Web resources.

C4. Be able to search related online materials for course content.

C5. Be able to search for various materials on the Web to be integrated into course

content.

Web-Pedagogical-Content Knowledge

Dl. Know how to apply teaching modules on the Web into courses.

D2. Be able to use Web technology to enhance teaching. D3. Be able to use the Web to enhance students' learning motivation.

D4. Be able to select proper existing Web-based courses to assist teaching. D5. Be able to apply Web technology to use multiple teaching strategies on a particular

course unit.

D6. Be able to guide students to use Web resources to study a certain course unit.

D7. Be able to use Web resources to guide students' learning activities for a certain

course unit.

D8. Be able to use Web technology to support teaching for the content of a particular

course unit.

Attitude toward web-based instruction

El. Web technology can be actually used in the practice of teaching. E2. The characteristics of the Web can help instruction.

E3. Web technology can enhance teaching skills.

E4. Web-related resources can enrich course content.

E5. Web-based teaching can enhance students' learning motivation.

E6. Web-based teaching is a future trend in education.

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