exploring the varieties of moral and spiritual education in india

Exploring the varieties of moral Exploring the varieties of moral and spiritual education in India:and spiritual education in India:Implications for adolescentsImplications for adolescents’’ spiritual developmentspiritual development

Robert W. RoeserRobert W. RoeserTufts UniversityTufts University

RuhiRuhi BerryBerryAyeshaAyesha GonsalvesGonsalves

YogitaYogita HastakHastakMuktiMukti ShahShah

MrinaliniMrinalini RaoRaoSunitSunit BhatewaraBhatewara

University of University of PunePune

Presentation at the American Educational Research Association, SPresentation at the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco 2006an Francisco 2006

School as a fundamental context of School as a fundamental context of human developmenthuman development

The whole childThe whole child–– Motivation to learnMotivation to learn–– SocialSocial--emotional wellemotional well--being and distressbeing and distress–– Educational lifeEducational life--pathspaths–– Culture and student identity developmentCulture and student identity development–– Moral and spiritual identity developmentMoral and spiritual identity development

The whole teacherThe whole teacher–– Relation of work and classroom environmentsRelation of work and classroom environments–– Views of student mental healthViews of student mental health–– Learning about adolescent developmentLearning about adolescent development

Educational environmentsEducational environments–– Psychological climatesPsychological climates–– Cultural practicesCultural practices

Talk PurposesTalk PurposesPresent a conceptualization of self / identity Present a conceptualization of self / identity and its relation to school as a context of and its relation to school as a context of developmentdevelopment

Present data on associations between Present data on associations between different secondary schools in India, with different secondary schools in India, with their unique approaches to moral and their unique approaches to moral and spiritual education, and dimensions of spiritual education, and dimensions of adolescentsadolescents’’ developing developing spiritual identitiesspiritual identities

Why Spirituality, Schooling & India?Why Spirituality, Schooling & India?

Spirituality as aSpirituality as aFundamental domain of human developmentFundamental domain of human development(integrally related to culture and ethnicity)(integrally related to culture and ethnicity)

School as aSchool as aFundamental context of holistic developmentFundamental context of holistic development

IndiaIndia’’ssIntegral view of motivation, education and spiritualityIntegral view of motivation, education and spiritualityUnique forms of pedagogyUnique forms of pedagogyEthic of religious tolerance Ethic of religious tolerance Challenge of postChallenge of post--colonialism and globalizationcolonialism and globalization

What is self / identity? What is self / identity?

How can schools shapeHow can schools shapeadolescentsadolescents’’ identities?identities?

What is spiritual identity?What is spiritual identity?

Basic Aspects of SelfBasic Aspects of Self--inin--ContextContext(BASIC) Model(BASIC) Model

Roeser, Peck & Nasir (2006)Roeser, Peck & Nasir (2006)

III. Level of social institutions (Institutional and social group identities)

II. Level of social interaction (Embodied identities)

I. Level of individual (I-self, me-selves, personal narrative, emotions and moods)

Context

Person

BASIC Model and SpiritualityBASIC Model and Spirituality

Institutional and social group identitiesInstitutional and social group identitiesSelfSelf--identified / assigned religious affiliationsidentified / assigned religious affiliations

Embodied identitiesEmbodied identitiesEngagement in religious / spiritual practicesEngagement in religious / spiritual practices

II--self and Meself and Me--selvesselvesSelfSelf--regulatory capacities (attention and emotion regulation)regulatory capacities (attention and emotion regulation)Representational (symbolic / iconic) beliefs / worldviewsRepresentational (symbolic / iconic) beliefs / worldviews

School as Context of Identity Development:School as Context of Identity Development:““The What of Intentional WorldsThe What of Intentional Worlds””

Organizational Philosophy

Leadership Curriculum

Role Relationships

Cultural Practices &

Social Interaction

Meanings about

self, learning, and life

Contexts Individual Appraisals

School as Context of Identity Development:School as Context of Identity Development:““The How of LearningThe How of Learning””


Social Interaction

Meanings about


• Ideational framing

• Role modeling

• Contingency management

• Structured apprenticeships

School as Context of Identity Development:School as Context of Identity Development:““The Why of MotivationThe Why of Motivation””

• Fosters belonging?

• Supports autonomy?

• Promotes competence?

• Is relevant to “whole person”?

Appropriation / Internalization

Resistance / Rejection


Social Interaction

Meanings about


Self / Identity

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Fulbright Project

Collaborators from University of Pune:Collaborators from University of Pune:

YogitaYogita HastakHastakMrinaliniMrinalini RaoRaoMuktiMukti ShahShahSunitSunit BhatewaraBhatewaraAyeshaAyesha GonsalvesGonsalvesRuhiRuhi BerryBerry

Fulbright Study Design and SampleFulbright Study Design and SampleCrossCross--sectional, schoolsectional, school--based studybased study

Focus on early adolescents (7th Focus on early adolescents (7th -- 9th graders)9th graders)

Urban middle class individualsUrban middle class individuals

Six private EnglishSix private English--medium schools in Pune, India medium schools in Pune, India [[2 Hindu Schools, 2 Christian Schools, and 2 Control Schools2 Hindu Schools, 2 Christian Schools, and 2 Control Schools]]

Surveys, interviews, focus groups (verbal data)Surveys, interviews, focus groups (verbal data)N = 1497 surveys (open + closed ended measures)N = 1497 surveys (open + closed ended measures)N = 270 students interviewed in 35 focus groupsN = 270 students interviewed in 35 focus groupsN = 12 teacher and 6 principal interviewsN = 12 teacher and 6 principal interviews

Video and observation (visual data)Video and observation (visual data)

School Documents (historicalSchool Documents (historical--archival data)archival data)

Cultural ConsiderationsCultural Considerations

Samples limited to EnglishSamples limited to English--medium schoolsmedium schoolsCreation of multiCreation of multi--lingual, multilingual, multi--religious Indian research teamreligious Indian research teamTranslation / back translation of surveysTranslation / back translation of surveysUse of openUse of open--ended survey measuresended survey measuresUse of established crossUse of established cross--cultural survey measurescultural survey measuresConduct of focus groups and interviewsConduct of focus groups and interviewsObservation, video and archival data sourcesObservation, video and archival data sourcesCollection of Indian scholarly articles on research topicsCollection of Indian scholarly articles on research topicsPersonal familiarity with spiritual traditions of IndiaPersonal familiarity with spiritual traditions of India

Percent ofCountry

Percent ofSample

Number ofStudents

Hindu 82% 90% 1299

Christian 2% 5% 76

Jain 1% 3% 37Muslim 12% 1% 19

Other 3% 1% 19N = 1450

7th Standard 32% 483

8th Standard 36% 5389th Standard 32% 476 N = 1497

Male 54% 816

Female 46% 680N = 1496

SocialDemography

Open-ended Self-identified

Religious Affiliation

Research QuestionResearch Question

How can one How can one operationalizeoperationalize a a multidimensional view of multidimensional view of spiritual identity during spiritual identity during adolescence?adolescence?

Representational Spiritual Identity IRepresentational Spiritual Identity IClosed-ended Forced-choice and Likert measures

SelfSelf--identification as member of religious groupidentification as member of religious group

SelfSelf--identification as religious / spiritual personidentification as religious / spiritual person

I consider myself a religious/spiritual person I consider myself a religious/spiritual person (yes/no)(yes/no)

I consider myself a religious person.I consider myself a religious person.(1 = not at all true, 5 = very true)(1 = not at all true, 5 = very true)

I consider myself a spiritual person.I consider myself a spiritual person.(1 = not at all true, 5 = very true)(1 = not at all true, 5 = very true)

Representational Spiritual Identity IIRepresentational Spiritual Identity IIClosed-ended Likert measures

Spirituality as core life value Spirituality as core life value ((KasserKasser, 1996), 1996)I will find satisfying religious and/or spiritual activitiesI will find satisfying religious and/or spiritual activitiesI will find personal answers to universal spiritual questions (sI will find personal answers to universal spiritual questions (such as: Is there a uch as: Is there a supreme spiritual being? Is there life after death? What is thsupreme spiritual being? Is there life after death? What is the meaning of life?)e meaning of life?)I will find religious or spiritual beliefs that help me make senI will find religious or spiritual beliefs that help me make sense of the world.se of the world.My life and actions will be in agreement with my religious/spiriMy life and actions will be in agreement with my religious/spiritual beliefs. tual beliefs. I will find religious and/or spiritual beliefs that are growthI will find religious and/or spiritual beliefs that are growth--producingproducing..

SelfSelf--worth contingent on Godworth contingent on God’’s love s love (Crocker, 2003)(Crocker, 2003)My selfMy self--worth is based on God's love.worth is based on God's love.I feel worthwhile when I have God's love. I feel worthwhile when I have God's love. My selfMy self--esteem goes up when I feel that God loves me. esteem goes up when I feel that God loves me.

Content Coding of Responses (meaning)• Non-responses (23%)• Aschematic responses (I don’t know - 21%)• Schematic responses (9 content categories - 56%)

Count of Responses (verbal fluency / cognitive saliency)• Number of coded responses

For me, spirituality is…

Representational Spiritual Identity IIIRepresentational Spiritual Identity IIIOpen-ended sentence completion task

2%

6%

7%

7%

10%

14%

14%

19%

22%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

Synonymous with Religion

Doing Practices

Source and Practice of Morality

Relationship with God

Rejection of Spirituality

Contemplative view / Quest

Source of Well-being

Life of Faith

Aschematic ("I don't know")

Content Coding of Youth Responses:For me, spirituality is…

Content Coding of Youth Responses:Content Coding of Youth Responses:For me, spirituality isFor me, spirituality is……

N = 1153

AschematicAschematic (22%)(22%)““I have never thought about this thing.I have never thought about this thing.””(14 yr. old female)(14 yr. old female)

““Not sure.Not sure.”” (15 yr. old male)(15 yr. old male)

““Having faith in God, believing that there is Having faith in God, believing that there is an invisible force that commands our lives.an invisible force that commands our lives.””(15 yr old female)(15 yr old female)

““Being faithful to God.Being faithful to God.””(15 yr old female)(15 yr old female)

Life of Faith Life of Faith (19%)(19%)

Source of wellSource of well--being being (14%)(14%)““Peace of mindPeace of mind”” (14 yr. old female)(14 yr. old female)““Joy and happinessJoy and happiness”” (15 yr. old male)(15 yr. old male)

““Myself and the God within me that is myselfMyself and the God within me that is myself””(14 yr. old male)(14 yr. old male)

“To understand and know the God within us”(15 yr. old female)(15 yr. old female)

““It is freedom of soul and not the prayer of an It is freedom of soul and not the prayer of an idol. It is inside myself.idol. It is inside myself.”” (15 yr. old female)(15 yr. old female)

Contemplative view / Quest Contemplative view / Quest (14%)(14%)

Rejection of spirituality Rejection of spirituality (10%)(10%)

Relationship with God Relationship with God (7%)(7%)

““Crap! I don't care about it. I don't even know Crap! I don't care about it. I don't even know if God existsif God exists”” (15 yr. old male)(15 yr. old male)

““Like taking in a useless medicine capsuleLike taking in a useless medicine capsule””“Like a well without water to fall in”(14 yr old males)(14 yr old males)

““Loving and serving GodLoving and serving God”” (15 yr. old female)(15 yr. old female)

““Treating God as a friend & talking to him casually.Treating God as a friend & talking to him casually.””(15 yr. old male)(15 yr. old male)

Embodied Spiritual IdentityEmbodied Spiritual IdentityClosed-ended Likert measures

ReligiousPractices

Percent“Never”

Percent“Daily”

Average(SD)

Personal prayer / meditation 6% 44% 3.92(1.23)

Seek God’s support 7% 24% 3.47(1.24)

Go to services 2% 6% 3.23(0.93)

N = 1280For average scale ratings:1 = never, 2 = yearly, 3 = monthly, 4 = weekly, 5 = daily

Females more

Females more

Factor Pattern Matrixa

.841

.799

.777

.713

.683

.466

.418.814.751

.923.973

Consider myself a religious person (continuous)

Bring religion/spirituality into all aspects of life (continuous)Religion is source of comfort in my life (continuous)Consider myself a spiritual person (continuous)Consider myself a religious/spiritual person (dichotomous)Self Worth Contingent on God's LoveSpirituality as core life value

Frequency of private prayer / meditationFrequency of seeking spiritual support for problemsSelf-identified religious affiliation (Hindu or other)Number of coded meanings of "spirituality"

Centrality Practices Affiliation Salience

Emergent Components

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

Rotation converged in 7 iterations.a. Cronbach’s Alpha .84 .39

Factor Analytic Results: Factor Analytic Results: Spiritual Identity ComponentsSpiritual Identity Components

BivariateBivariate Correlations: Correlations: Spiritual Identity ComponentsSpiritual Identity Components

Centrality of spiritual identityCentrality of spiritual identity --------Salience of spiritualitySalience of spirituality .08*.08* --------Engagement in spiritual practicesEngagement in spiritual practices .40*.40* .12*.12*

N = 1239; * p < .01

AttentionalAttentional regulationregulation((DerryberryDerryberry, 2001), 2001)

-- Directing of attention (agency / will)Directing of attention (agency / will)-- Sustaining of attention (willSustaining of attention (will--power)power)

Emotional regulationEmotional regulation(Peterson et al., 1983)(Peterson et al., 1983)

II--Self ProcessesSelf Processes

Centrality of spirituality to selfCentrality of spirituality to selfSalience of spiritualitySalience of spiritualityMeaning of spiritualityMeaning of spiritualitySelfSelf--identified religious affiliationidentified religious affiliation

AttentionalAttentional and emotional controland emotional control

Engagement in spiritual practicesEngagement in spiritual practices

Me-self

I-self

Embodiment

Summary: Spiritual IdentitySummary: Spiritual Identity

Research QuestionResearch Question

Do dimensions of adolescentsDo dimensions of adolescents’’ spiritual identities spiritual identities vary as a function of the particular philosophical vary as a function of the particular philosophical and pedagogical approaches to moral and and pedagogical approaches to moral and spiritual education their school espouses and spiritual education their school espouses and attempts to realize in practice?attempts to realize in practice?

School Types in StudySchool Types in StudyControl SchoolsControl Schools

-- Values educationValues education-- Daily Hindu prayers from the Vedas to begin/end dayDaily Hindu prayers from the Vedas to begin/end day-- Infrequent communityInfrequent community--wide assemblies with focus on prayer / meditationwide assemblies with focus on prayer / meditation-- HathaHatha (physical) yoga(physical) yoga

Hindu and Christian SchoolsHindu and Christian SchoolsTwo Hindu schools modeled on ancient Two Hindu schools modeled on ancient GurukulaGurukula systemsystem

-- Values educationValues education-- Daily communityDaily community--wide assemblies with focus on meditation / recitationwide assemblies with focus on meditation / recitation-- Additional rituals / initiationsAdditional rituals / initiations-- Service events with the poorService events with the poor-- HathaHatha (physical) yoga(physical) yoga-- SelfSelf--realization and selfless service as core aimsrealization and selfless service as core aims

Two Christian schools modeled on Jesuit education systemTwo Christian schools modeled on Jesuit education system-- Values education / CatechismValues education / Catechism-- Daily Christian prayers to begin/end dayDaily Christian prayers to begin/end day-- Infrequent communityInfrequent community--wide assemblies with focus on prayer / meditationwide assemblies with focus on prayer / meditation-- Service events with the poorService events with the poor-- HathaHatha (physical) yoga(physical) yoga-- Development of relationship with God and selfless service as coDevelopment of relationship with God and selfless service as core aimsre aims

Brief Event History of Brief Event History of Education in IndiaEducation in India

•• 1526 1526 –– 1857 1857 MughalMughal Dynasty in IndiaDynasty in IndiaMadrasasMadrasas (religious) education for Muslims(religious) education for MuslimsAncient Ancient GurukulaGurukula (religious) education for Hindus(religious) education for Hindus

•• 1500s Portuguese establish colonies in India1500s Portuguese establish colonies in India1542 Jesuit education originates in 1542 Jesuit education originates in GoaGoa, West India, West India1717 Christian missionary education spreads (secular &1717 Christian missionary education spreads (secular & religious)religious)

•• 1600s Dutch and English arrive in India1600s Dutch and English arrive in India1835 Lord Macaulay establishes English1835 Lord Macaulay establishes English--medium schoolsmedium schools1854 Wood1854 Wood’’s s DespatchDespatch –– Magna Magna CartaCarta of English Education in Indiaof English Education in India1858 India under British rule1858 India under British rule

•• 1947 Indian Independence1947 Indian Independence

GurukulaGurukula SystemSystem

• Education with spiritual teacher away from home (males, ages 7-21)

• Strong teacher-student bonds

• Cultural and spiritual initiations

• Recitation, memorization, and understanding of Vedas

• Expertise in conducting Vedic ceremonies and rituals

• Meditation and self-inquiry

• Seva (selfless service)





• Residential school for boys ages 6 to 21 years to become Brahmin priests

• Shri Vivek Godbole and Shri Swami Chidvilasananda are teachers who give cultural / spiritual initiations

• Curriculum is the recitation, memorization, and understanding of the Krishna Yajur-Veda

• Instruction in the form of practical education: Performance of monthly Full Moon Yagna (fire ceremony for peace)

• Meditation and self-inquiry

Swami Swami MuktanandaMuktananda VedashalaVedashalaSataraSatara, India, India

World View of St. Ignatius of Loyola: Founder of Christian (Jesuit) Education in India

From the Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions

1. God is creator, the Supreme Goodness – Absolute reality.

2. Every human person is loved by God. This calls for a response in freedom.

3. Sin is a reality and it blocks our freedom to respond spontaneously.

We are strengthened by the redeeming love of God to engage in an ongoing

struggle against sin.

4. Jesus is the model for human life. He is alive and active.

5. Response is an active commitment to Christ and to his mission.

6. This response is in and through the Church

7. Not only as individuals but as community of persons working in service –

friends in the Lord.

St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuit OrderSt. Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuit OrderJesuit schools strive to form students as Jesuit schools strive to form students as ““menmen--forfor--others,others,””

citizens with a deep religious faith, which will impel them to scitizens with a deep religious faith, which will impel them to seek and eek and find God in service of their fellowman.find God in service of their fellowman.

Forms of Christian Education(From School Materials)

St. Claudine St. Claudine ThevenetThevenet and the and the Congregation of the Religious of Jesus and MaryCongregation of the Religious of Jesus and Mary

ClaudineClaudine’’s ideal was to make God known and loved by means of s ideal was to make God known and loved by means of Christian Education in all social Christian Education in all social milieuxmilieux. This ideal remains the Aim of . This ideal remains the Aim of the Congregation with the preference, inherited from the the Congregation with the preference, inherited from the FoundressFoundress, ,

for the Young and the Poor.for the Young and the Poor.

School Names & MottosSchool Names & Mottos

Hindu SchoolsHindu SchoolsHouse of the GuruHouse of the Guru = = ““Discovering inner strengthDiscovering inner strength””Source of WisdomSource of Wisdom = = ““Motivating intelligence for social changeMotivating intelligence for social change””

Christian SchoolsChristian SchoolsMale Christian saintMale Christian saint = = ““Men for othersMen for others””Male Christian saintMale Christian saint = = ““Count not the cost of givingCount not the cost of giving””

Control SchoolsControl SchoolsSchool for National LaboratorySchool for National Laboratory = = ““Knowledge is powerKnowledge is power””Goddess of learningGoddess of learning = None= None

Differences in Relational Terms Differences in Relational Terms for Addressing Teachersfor Addressing Teachers

Familial Terms of RespectFamilial Terms of Respect–– Hindu SchoolsHindu Schools

KakuKaku (aunty) and (aunty) and KakaKaka (uncle)(uncle)TaiTai (elder sister) and (elder sister) and DadaDada (elder brother)(elder brother)

Formal Terms of RespectFormal Terms of Respect–– Christian & Control SchoolsChristian & Control Schools

Miss / SirMiss / SirFather / Sister (religious senses)Father / Sister (religious senses)

HypothesesHypothesesReligious vs. control schools will be associated with greater veReligious vs. control schools will be associated with greater verbal rbal fluency / cognitive saliency among adolescents concerning what fluency / cognitive saliency among adolescents concerning what spirituality is but will not necessarily influence the centralitspirituality is but will not necessarily influence the centrality of y of spirituality in their lives.spirituality in their lives.

Hindu schools emphasis on contemplative pedagogical practices anHindu schools emphasis on contemplative pedagogical practices and d teachings (like meditation) will be associated with adolescentsteachings (like meditation) will be associated with adolescents’’ sense sense that spirituality involves a quest for divinity within and with that spirituality involves a quest for divinity within and with greater greater selfself--regulatory control.regulatory control.

Christian schools emphasis on pedagogical practices like prayer Christian schools emphasis on pedagogical practices like prayer will will be associated with adolescentsbe associated with adolescents’’ sense that spirituality involves issues sense that spirituality involves issues of faith and a relationship to God.of faith and a relationship to God.

Adolescent students in Hindu and Christian schools will report gAdolescent students in Hindu and Christian schools will report greater reater understanding of the spiritual practices that they are asked to understanding of the spiritual practices that they are asked to participate in compared to students in control schools, though sparticipate in compared to students in control schools, though some ome degree of resistance to such practices will exist in all schoolsdegree of resistance to such practices will exist in all schools..

χ2 (4,1490) = 91.52 *** Control < Hindu & Christian

Significant School DifferencesSignificant School Differences::Saliency of / fluency about spiritualitySaliency of / fluency about spirituality

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

None One Two or more

Hindu Schools

Christian Schools

Control Schools

Number of Coded Meanings of “Spirituality”

Perc

enta

ge o

f You

th

•

•

••

ANCOVA controlling for sex, grade, religion and English proficiency also shows statistically significant school effect

F (2, 1045) = 45.61, p < .001 Control > Hindu & Christian

School Differences:School Differences:Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Control SchoolsControl Schools

Perc

enta

ge o

f Yo

uth

Controlling for sex, grade, religion and SES

0

10

20

30

40

50

I don't know

Hindu SchoolsChristian SchoolsControl Schools

F (2, 1477) = 113.47, p < .001 Hindu < Control < Christian

School Differences:School Differences:Youth SelfYouth Self--reported English Language Proficiencyreported English Language Proficiency

(Understand, read, speak, write)(Understand, read, speak, write)

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

4.00 Hindu SchoolsChristian SchoolsControl Schools

2 =

Not

Ver

y W

ell,

4 =

Very

Wel

l

F (2, 1237) = 0.71, p = .49

School Differences:School Differences:Centrality of spirituality to selfCentrality of spirituality to self

-0.50

-0.25

0.00

0.25

0.50 Hindu SchoolsChristian SchoolsControl Schools

Stan

dard

(z-s

core

) Uni

ts


Hindu School MissionsHindu School Missions“…“…to enable children to to enable children to discoverdiscover their inner their inner strengthsstrengths and grow up to be responsible citizens of and grow up to be responsible citizens of the country...the country...””

“…“…to to awakenawaken intellectual, physical, and spiritual intellectual, physical, and spiritual potential in our youthpotential in our youth and develop them into and develop them into integrated individuals committed to making positive integrated individuals committed to making positive contributions to the development of their contributions to the development of their motherland.motherland.””

F (2, 1045) = 10.69, p < .001Hindu > Christian, Control

School Differences:School Differences:Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Hindu SchoolsHindu Schools

Perc

enta

ge o

f Yo

uth


0

10

20

30

40

50

Quest for Self-Understanding


Christian Educational MissionsChristian Educational Missions

“…“… form students with deep religious faith, which form students with deep religious faith, which will impel them will impel them to seek and find God in serviceto seek and find God in service of of their fellowmentheir fellowmen..””

“…“…to to make God known and lovedmake God known and loved by means of by means of Christian EducationChristian Education……to equip students not only with to equip students not only with intellectual skills and knowledge but also with a set intellectual skills and knowledge but also with a set of attitudes imbued with social, moral, and spiritual of attitudes imbued with social, moral, and spiritual values.values.””

F (2, 1045) = 31.40, p < .001Christian > Hindu, Control

School Differences:School Differences:Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Christian SchoolsChristian Schools

Perc

enta

ge o

f Yo

uth


0

10

20

30

40

50

Relationship with God


0

10

20

30

40

50

Path of Faith Source of Morality


Per

cen

tage


School Differences:School Differences:Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating Salient Meanings of Spirituality Differentiating

Hindu & Christian vs. Control SchoolsHindu & Christian vs. Control Schools

F (2,1045) = 13.12; p < .001F (2,1045) = 13.24; p < .001Christian & Hindu > Control

School Differences:School Differences:Frequency of engagement in personal spiritual practicesFrequency of engagement in personal spiritual practices

4

5

6

7

8

9

Private prayer / meditation Seeking God's support


F (2,1330) = 28.42; p < .001

Christian > Hindu & Control

6 =

2-3

tim

es a

mon

th

7 =

Nea

rly

wee

kly

8 =

wee

kly


II--Self EducationSelf Education…the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will.... An education which should improve this faculty would be the education par excellence. But it is easier to define this ideal than to give practical directions for bringing it about. (p. 424).

- William James1890

Mauna Mauna (Silent Meditation)(Silent Meditation)English-Medium Hindu School, Pune, Maharashtra, India

What happens during meditation?What happens during meditation?

Stage 1 – Calming down and coming insideEncounter with the unsteadiness / restlessness of the mind as one turns within. Often a time when individuals’ feel “I can’t meditate.”

Stage 2 – Self-reflection and planningInitial directing of the stream of thought/feeling to specific issues.

Stage 3 – Concentration practiceGradual ability to bring consciousness to a single point and sustaining it there for some time. This is associated with refreshment and relaxation.

Stage 4 – Mindfulness practiceDevelopment of capacity for sustained concentration of awareness. This is associated with the expansion of “will power,” the disclosing of intuitive understanding and an abiding peace of mind.

School Differences:School Differences:Youth reports: SelfYouth reports: Self--regulatory processesregulatory processes

-0.50

-0.25

0.00

0.25

0.50

Attention Emotion

Hindu schools (n = 2)

Control school (n = 1 )

Stan

dard

(z-s

core

) Uni

ts

p < .001 p = .64


F (1, 207) = 15.90 F (1, 207) = 0.22

School Differences:School Differences:Beliefs about the nature of intelligenceBeliefs about the nature of intelligence

-0.25

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

Entity View Incremental View

Hindu schools (n = 2)

Control school (n = 1)

Stan

dard

(z-s

core

) Uni

ts

p < .002 p = .90


F (1, 207) = 9.92 F (1, 207) = 0.02

School Differences:School Differences:Possible Selection FactorsPossible Selection Factors

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Raised in a religious tradition?


0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

Cumulative Academic Grades


6

7

8

9

10

Frequency of prayer in home


Perc

enta

ge “

Yes”

0

1

2

3

4

SES: Sum of 4 commodities


Perc

entil

e

No differences

Christian > Hindu, Controls

Num

ber o

f Com

mod

ities

6 =

Mon

thly

, 8 =

Wee

kly,

10

= D

aily

No differences

No differences

ConclusionsConclusionsSpirituality can be conceptualized in relation to Spirituality can be conceptualized in relation to self/identity (I and me)self/identity (I and me)

Spiritual identities are like other forms of identity Spiritual identities are like other forms of identity in adolescence in adolescence -- they are educable and develop they are educable and develop in social contexts over timein social contexts over time

Schools, through historicallySchools, through historically--conditioned conditioned ideologies, daily practices and related social ideologies, daily practices and related social interactions ininteractions in--form studentsform students’’ II-- and meand me--selvesselves

II--self education may be an important nonself education may be an important non--sectarian form of spiritual education that has sectarian form of spiritual education that has manifold benefits for individuals and societymanifold benefits for individuals and society

Thank youThank you

Questions?Questions?