exposé - uni-kassel.de · effective storytelling in charitable appeals. 7 social group) than...

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals i

11th November 2014

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals: structuring image and story.

A cross-cultural comparison.

Exposé

Submitted by

André Félix

University of Kassel

Faculty- International Business Administration

EMBS

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals. ii

List of Tables

Table 1: Emotions that affect charitable behaviour ................................................... 11

Table 2- Archetypes ................................................................................................... 16

Table 3- Working plan table ....................................................................................... 25

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals. iii

Contents

List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................... ii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 2

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3

2. Relevance of the topic ........................................................................................... 3

3. Purpose of the thesis .............................................................................................. 4

4. Research Questions ............................................................................................... 4

5. Theoretical Background ........................................................................................ 5

5.1. Prosocial Behaviour ............................................................................................... 5

5.1.1. Charitable appeals and gift-giving ....................................................................... 7

5.2. Emotions .................................................................................................................. 8

5.2.1. Positive and negative emotions .............................................................. 9

5.2.2. Emotions and feelings related with charitable giving........................... 10

5.2.3. Emotions in charitable advertisement. .................................................. 12

5.2.4. Mixed emotions in charitable advertising............................................. 12

5.3. Storytelling ............................................................................................................ 12

5.3.1. Stories characteristics ........................................................................... 13

5.3.2. Types of plot ......................................................................................... 15

5.3.3. Archetypes ............................................................................................................ 16

5.4. Cultural dimensions related to charitable giving ............................................. 17

6. Research hypotheses............................................................................................ 18

7. Methodology: ...................................................................................................... 23

7.1. Measurements ....................................................................................................... 23

7.2. Sample ................................................................................................................... 24

7.3. Questionnaire structure........................................................................................ 24

7.4. Possible issues ...................................................................................................... 25

8. Plan of work ........................................................................................................ 25

9. Overview of chapters........................................................................................... 26

Appendix..................................................................................................................... 32

Appendix I- Definitional Literature ............................................................................ 33

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals 2

11th November 2014

Abstract

Title: “Effective storytelling in charitable appeals: structuring image and story.

A cross-cultural comparison.”

Keywords: Storytelling, Fundraising, Emotions, Non-profit marketing, Charitable

Giving, Cultural Differences, Types of charity, Donation intention.

Background: Individual donations are the most important source of fundraising for

non-profit organisations. Charitable appeals are used by organisations to foster these

donations and it has been shown that the emotions elicited by the appeals are an

important motive for donation. The use of storytelling has also been used to foster

emotions in individuals and enable the mimicking of archetypes. Therefore, how the

use of storytelling elicits emotions and how they can be used to encourage donations

is an important topic.

Purpose: This thesis pretends to replicate, validate and extend to other cultural settings

the results of a previous study by Merchant, Ford and Sargeant in 2010: “Charitable

organizations' storytelling influence on donors' emotions and intentions”. The study

was conducted in the US and this thesis pretends to have information from Russia,

Turkey and the United Kingdom. It will study the impact that story-based appeals from

charitable organizations have on emotions and how each part of the story elicits

emotion. It will also analyse how certain components of the story, such as pictures and

protagonists, can increase (decrease) emotional response from individuals.

Method: A survey adapted from Merchant et al. (2010) will be created and translated

to Turkish and Russian. The survey won’t have open-ended questions as translation

and analysis are an issue. It will be distributed through social media, e-mails and

personal contacts to individuals of all ages in Turkey, Russia and the United Kingdom.

Conclusion: It is expected that the inciting incident will elicit negative emotions,

while the call to action and existence of feedback will elicit positive emotions. It is

also expected that this mix of emotions will increase intention to donate in all

countries. Finally, it’s expected that a related image will increase the emotions arisen

from the story. Human protagonists should elicit stronger emotions than animal

protagonists in all conditions, however, story-based appeals are expected to have a

higher impact in animal based appeals (vs non story appeals) than in human based

appeals.

Effective storytelling in charitable appeals. 3

1. Introduction

In the following chapter, the relevance of story-based charitable appeals will be

described, as well as the specific purpose of this thesis. Secondly, the research

questions will be presented followed by the theoretical background that allowed their

formulation, namely: motives for prosocial behaviour and charitable giving, emotions

and storytelling. Further, the research hypotheses and methodology will be presented

as well as an outline of the working schedule and the chapters of the thesis.

2. Relevance of the topic

Individual donations are a very important source of income for non-profit

organizations. 72% of the donations in the United States of America in 2013 were

made by individual donors (National Philantropic Trust, 2014). Findings by the World

Giving Index show that the percentage of people that donate to charities has been stable

over time, (even though it slightly increased in 2012) (Charities Aid Foundation, 2013,

p. 13), while the number of charitable organizations competing for contributions tends

to increase (Ein-Gar & Levontin, 2013, p. 197).

Therefore, it’s important for charitable organizations to understand and apply effective

charitable appeals. The use of storytelling in charitable appeals was documented in the

American Heart Association, Save the Children (Vence, 2008 as cited in Merchant,

Ford, & Sargeant, 2010, p. 754) and the World Society for the protection of animals

(Merchant et al., 2010, p. 754), among others.

Research on story-based appeals is then relevant not only in an academic but in a

managerial context, so non-profit organisations can maximise their donor base and

increase fundraising.


3. Purpose of the thesis

This thesis aims to replicate, validate and extend to other cultural settings the results

of Merchant et al. (2010) study on how storytelling can impact emotions and increase

donation intention in other countries.

The study will use 3 geographically distant countries: Russia, Turkey and the United

Kingdom, in order to give a broader overview of how different cultures perceive

storytelling in charitable appeals and its impact in emotions. These countries were

chosen by convenience and to allow data from 3 distinct geographical areas: North

Asia, Middle East and North Europe. Russia and Turkey have similar profiles in

charitable giving (both in practical data and cultural orientation) (Charities Aid

Foundation, 2013, p. 30; House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004, p. 573;

Schwartz, 2006, p. 156), while (even though there is a lack of cultural orientation

studies focused on prosocial behaviour) the United Kingdom is the second country in

the world were more people donate money to charities(Charities Aid Foundation,

2013, p. 18).

This thesis then sets to evaluate Merchant et al. (2010) findings on the impact of

storytelling appeals in donors’ emotions and intentions in other countries and analyse

two important elements of story-based appeals: how images related with the appeal

affect the emotions felt by the donors (Chang & Lee, 2009) and how the difference in

protagonist (human vs animal) affect donors intention.

4. Research Questions

It has been extensively proved that emotions felt when reacting to charitable appeals

are important motives to donate (Andreoni, 1990; Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007; Basil,

Ridgway, & Basil, 2008; Merchant et al., 2010; Kemp, Kennett-Hensel, & Kees,

2013). But how to effectively convey this emotions in a short appeal is still a challenge

for practitioners.

Storytelling practices may provide a way. They were effectively used by brands to

enhance emotional connection with consumers and revenues (Heath & Heath, 2007,

pp. 217–225; Papadatos, 2006, p. 384; Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 98). But do stories

function in charitable appeals?


The research by Merchant et al. (2010), supports that stories, indeed, fuction in

charitable appeals: the study demonstrated that story-based appeals elicit emotions that

in turn increase donation intention in United States students. Since this thesis intends

to replicate the results in a variety of countries with a different profile (Russia, Turkey,

and United Kingdom), the following research question arises:

How can story-based appeals’ elements and components affect emotions related

to charitable giving in Russia, UK and Turkey?

Donation behaviour has also been proved to differ from country to country. Both

evidence from non-profit practitioners (Charities Aid Foundation, 2013) and academic

research (House et al., 2004; Janoff-Bulman & Leggatt, 2002; Schwartz, 2006) show

that different countries have different giving behaviours. Therefore our second

question is:

How the emotions created by story-based appeals differ between countries?

In the next section, an overview of relevant research will be provided and the method

by which the questions were created is demonstrated.

5. Theoretical Background

5.1. Prosocial Behaviour

Prosocial behaviour, as described by Brief and Motowidlo (1986) are “acts carried out

to produce and maintain the well-being of others.” Donations to charitable

organizations can then been seen as a materialization of prosocial behaviour (Brief &

Motowidlo, 1986, p. 710).

A brief overview of the motives for individuals to engage in general prosocial

behaviour is therefore relevant to understand why individuals engage in the specific

act of donation giving.

The reasons for engaging in prosocial behaviour can be broadly classified in two

categories: altruism (helping other people even at a personal cost) and self-interest

(helping other people furthers the helper’s personal interest) (Aronson, Wilson, &

Aker, 2014, p. 364).


Aronson et al. (2014) compile the following motives on the reasons for engagement in

altruistic prosocial behaviour(Aronson et al., 2014, pp. 363–374):

Kin Selection (the idea that people are more willing to help genetic

relatives so that their genes have a higher chance to continue in the

future), Reciprocity Norm (when helping others, people expect to be

helped in return at a later date) and Group Selection (the theory that

tribes that had selfless individuals survived as they were more able to

protect the tribe) are all part of evolutionary psychology explanations

of prosocial behaviour. Altruistic behaviour is then based in a “genetic

self-interest” (Aronson et al., 2014, p. 364).

Social exchange posits that people try to maximise social rewards in

relation to costs of the action. Therefore, People help so they can take

inherent rewards from helping, ranging from reciprocity to alleviations

of negative feelings (Aronson et al., 2014, pp. 366–367). In fact,

helping will alleviate feelings of sadness and guilt (Basil et al., 2008;

Kandrack, 2011).

Empathy-Altruism theory states that stronger feelings of empathy for

another leads to stronger altruistic motivations. That is, if we have

other-oriented feelings (sympathy, sorrow, compassion) we are more

likely to help at a cost to ourselves (Batson, Ahmad, & Stocks, 2011,

pp. 110–115). This empathy-mediation effect was particularly studied

in terms of charitable appeals. Emotions are, then, an important motive

through this theory. The feelings raised by charitable appeals will

trigger a response in individuals, which will try to minimize negative

feeling (Basil et al., 2008; Bennett, 2014; Merchant et al., 2010;

Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007).

Personal qualities and situational factor are also referenced in Aronson

et al. (2014) work: mainly gender differences (male and females help

for different reasons: men more through heroic acts, women more

through nurturing and caring (Aronson et al., 2014, p. 371). In fact,

donation intentions increase with pride appeals for males and

sympathy appeals for females (Kemp et al., 2013); There is also of

cultural differences: collectivistic countries help more individuals in

their in-group (people that the individual identifies as members of their


social group) than individualistic countries (Janoff-Bulman & Leggatt,

2002).

Emotions (or moods): both positive and negative emotions increase

prosocial behaviour. A detailed explanation will be provided in section

5.4, however good feelings lead to greater willingness to help, while

negative feelings lead to individuals’ engage in acts to help balance the

negative feelings with positive feelings. (Aronson et al., 2014, pp. 373–

374)

5.1.1. Charitable appeals and gift-giving

Individual charitable contribution is an important part of charities fundraising: 72% of

the total value of contributions to charity in the USA in 2013 was made by individual

donors (National Philantropic Trust, 2014).

While there are many ways to obtain individual contributions to a non-profit, such as

fundraising events (Webber, 2003), charitable advertisements, such as direct mail, e-

mail or TV are still widely used to ask donors for time or money (Hung, 2009;

Merchant et al., 2010, p. 754).

Having analysed the general motivations behind prosocial behaviour, the specific

reasons behind money donations be reviewed.

Sargeant and Woodliffe (2009) analysed and systematized several variants that affect

gift-giving:

Source of the request (Branding, reputation, media, awareness,

modes of ask, seed money and refund);

Perceptual reaction (Portrayal, fit with self, perceived norms);

Individual characteristics (Demographic, lifestyle, geo-

demographic);

Feedback (Labelling, Recognition)

Inhibitors ( Financial resources, time and other priorities)

Motives (Self-esteem/self-interest, Altruism, Guilt, Pity, Social

Justice, Empathy/Sympathy, Tax, Making a difference,

Prestige)

Therefore, emotions are an important motivation not only on to engage in general

prosocial behaviour but also to respond to charitable appeals and gift-giving.


Several studies contend that by maximising emotional impact in potential donors, non-

profits can increase donations.(Bennett, 2014; Chang & Lee, 2009; Kandrack, 2011;

Kemp et al., 2013; Merchant et al., 2010).

Therefore, we have a first, unrefined research question:

How can charitable appeals maximise the motives for donation?

In the next section, we explore the concept of emotions.

5.2. Emotions

Psychologists contend with a definite definition of emotion: Dworetsky (1985) says

that emotion is a “complex feeling-state involving conscious experience and internal

and overt physical responses that tend to facilitate or inhibit motivated behaviour”;

Hothersall (1985), contends that “emotion is defined in terms of subjective experiences

or feelings, goal-directed behaviour (attack, flight), expressive behaviour (smiling,

snarling), and physiological arousal (heart rate increases, sweating, defecation)” while

Mandler (1975) goes so far as saying that “An attempt to define emotion is obviously

misplaced and doomed to failure” (as cited in Carlson & Hatfield, 1992, p. 5).

However, Carlson and Hatfield (1992) provide a working definition as “a genetic and

acquired motivational predisposition to respond experientially, physiologically, and

behaviourally to certain internal and external variables.”( p. 5)

This means that each individual has their own emotional reaction to certain events,

depending on their genetic, physiological and biochemistry. This emotional reaction

will shape, to a certain extent, the way individuals respond to events. (Carlson &

Hatfield, 1992, p. 6).

Research pertaining how many emotions there are and how to categorize them offers

vastly different points of view. While Ekman (1980), contends there are five emotions-

happiness, surprise, sadness, anger and fear (as cited in Carlson & Hatfield, 1992, p.

13), Fischer, Shaver and Carnochan (1990) contend that there is an unlimited number

of possible emotions, since they are social constructs (as cited by Carlson & Hatfield,

1992, p. 13). This view comes in line with current research that analyses such different

emotions as guilt, altruism, empathy, pity, fear, sadness and angst. In their research on

impact of emotions in charitable appeals, Merchant et al. (2010) used a questionnaire

comprised of 32 different emotions, adapted from the Pleasantness/Unpleasantness

scale from the works of Watson and Tellegen (1985), Watson et al. (1988) and the


more recent adaptation of these works. (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Watson &

Tellegen, 1985)

5.2.1. Positive and negative emotions

There are two ways of classifying positive and negative emotions: hedonic (how does

it feel to experience the emotion?) and functional (is it a benefit to experience the

emotion or is there a cost for the individual?) (Carlson & Hatfield, 1992, p. 16).

Research shows that a functional classification of emotions is vastly controversial and

may depend on individuals (Carlson & Hatfield, 1992, p. 16).

However, hedonic classification is fairly straightforward: is it pleasant to experience

the emotion or not?

Pleasantness leads an individual to think that everything is safe and comfortable;

unpleasantness signals an individual that something is amiss, that there is a problem

(Dillard & Peck, 2000). The aforementioned Pleasantness/Unpleasantness scale

defines dimensions of pleasantness between high positive affect, pleasantness and

engagement (all positive classifications) and unpleasantness between high negative

affect, unpleasantness and disengagement, comprising of 16 positive emotions and 15

negative emotions ( Watson & Tellegen (1985) as cited in Watson et al., 1988, p. 821;)

Heider’s balance theory posits that negative emotions create unbalanced states, leading

to tension and an effort to move to a balanced state, characterized by positive feelings

(Heider, 1958, p. 201 as cited in Woodside & Chebat, 2001, p. 477).

Research has shown that advertisements can raise positive and negative emotions

(Edell & Burke, 1987, p. 427) and that, in the context of charitable appeals, this

elicitation of mixed emotions is effective in maximising donation intention (Bennett,

2014; Merchant et al., 2010). However, not all emotions are beneficial to charitable

appeals, as the intensity with which people feel emotions may move people away from

the donation act. Especially high intensity negative emotions may lead individuals to

a state of distress and avoidance, compelling individuals not to donate (Bennett, 2014;

Kandrack, 2011).

In the following section we will analyse the literature in relation to which positive and

negative emotions appeal to consumers.


5.2.2. Emotions and feelings related with charitable giving.

The research on the specific emotions and feelings that affect charitable giving and has

been extense and included both positive and negative emotions.

Sargeant and Woodliffe (2007) identified the following emotions and moods that

motivated charitable giving:

Altruism: implies that individuals derive pleasantness from the welfare of

others (Batson et al., 2011). The “warm-glow theory” argues that individuals

can derive utility from donations to public goods, even if these donations do

not have direct utility (Andreoni, 1990). Therefore, altruism can be generated

in order for the individuals to feel pleasant feelings (“impure” altruism) or for

genuine care of other (“pure” altruism) (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007, pp. 292–

294)

Empathy: “an individual’s emotional arousal by the expression of emotion on

another” (Aronfeed, 1968; Berger, 1962; Shelton & Rogers, 1981 as cited in

Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007), empathy has been argued to increase altruistic

behaviour towards another people (Batson et al., 2011). Individuals with an

higher empathetic disposition are more likely to react favourably to charitable

appeals and show an higher willingness to donate (Bennett, 2014).

Sympathy: involves awareness for another person’s state of circumstance and

concern for those circumstances (Batson et al 1997 as cited in Kemp et al.,

2013, p. 70). Differently from empathy, when feeling sympathy the individual

does not need to experience the feelings felt by the other person, just has

awareness of them (Kemp et al., 2013). The amount of sympathy felt by

individuals increases the effect willingness to donate, especially in women

(Kemp et al., 2013).

Fear: is defined as “an emotional state in the presence or anticipation of a

dangerous or noxious stimulus” ( Reber, 1985 as cited in Carlson & Hatfield,

1992). In charitable giving fear for the fate of the victim is an important

motivator to charitable giving (Bennett, 2014; Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007).

As it generates a feeling of unpleasantness it’s generally considered a negative

emotion (Russel, 1980 as cited in Basil et al., 2008, p. 5).

Pity for those in need, has also been shown to motivate a desire to help

(Batson et al., 2011; Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007)


Guilt: Guilt feelings have been proven to enhance prosocial and giving

behaviour, as an attempt for individuals to quell those feelings. (Basil et al.,

2008; Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007; Woodside & Chebat, 2001) They are

shown to influence consumer behaviour ( Bennett, 1998 as cited in Basil et al.,

2008;). Anticipated guilt feelings have been shown to be mediate the empathy-

donation relationship, suggesting that this type of feeling ois integral for the

empathy-donation relationship (Basil et al., 2008; Sargeant & Woodliffe,

2007).

Other emotions that impact charitable giving and are not presented by Sargeant and

Woodliffe (2007) are pride and sadness.

Pride can be described as “positive evaluation of one’s competence or effort in

achieving a goal” ( Weiner, 1986 as cited in Kemp et al., 2013, p. 71). Pride in the

organization is the basis of pride-appeals which were more effective in increasing

donation intention than sympathy appeals, in men. (Kemp et al., 2013, p. 76).

Sadness may be defined as “having, expressing or showing low spirits or sorrow” (

Guralnik, 1982, p. 1252 as cited in Carlson & Hatfield, 1992, p. 264; ). Feelings of

sadness in emotional appeals have shown to increase charitable donation (Bennett,

2014; Kandrack, 2011).

In the following table, a systematized presentation of positive and negative emotions

that influence charitable giving is given:

Positive emotions Negative emotions

Altruism

Sympathy

Pride

Fear

Guilt

Pity

Sadness

Empathy*

Table 1: Emotions that affect charitable behaviour

*To note that empathy has a controversial classification as negative or positive

emotions, since it acts as a mediator to feelings of other people. It can be either positive

(if the feelings are positive) or negative (if the feelings are negative). Research about

empathic concern in giving suggests that negative emotions are mediators for giving

(Basil et al., 2008; Cialdini et al (1987)as cited by Batson et al., 2011, p. 112; ).


5.2.3. Emotions in charitable advertisement.

Emotions play an important role on how individuals perceive advertisement and its

effectiveness. (Edell & Burke, 1987)

Interestingly, the advertisements themselves prime certain emotions that will then be

used by to adjust their attitudes towards the advertisement and the brand (Edell &

Burke, 1987; Woodside & Miller, 2008).

The effects of emotions on charitable advertisements were also widely studied: it’s

widely proved that the priming of certain emotions by advertisements increases the

donation intention (Bennett, 2014; Kemp et al., 2013; Merchant et al., 2010).

Emotions presented in the previous section were especially effective. The role of

mixed emotions will be explored in the next section

5.2.4. Mixed emotions in charitable advertising

A charitable appeal can generate a wide array of emotions in individuals, both negative

and positive (Bennett, 2014; Merchant et al., 2010).

It is argued that, since individuals try to move away from negative feelings to positive

feelings (Woodside & Chebat, 2001), if charitable appeals emphasize negative

emotions in a primary stage, the later generation of positive emotions has been shown

to reduce the unbalanced state of individuals and reduce distress. These anticipated

positive feelings (Merchant et al., 2010), will then increase donation intention, as

donors expect that this will concretize the emotions. They may also diminish the

potential for avoidance of appeals brought forth by too intense negative emotions

(Bennett, 2014).

This analysis of the impact of emotions in donations allows us to refine our question

further:

How can charitable appeals maximise the emotional motives for donation?

5.3. Storytelling

Storytelling can be defined as “recounting experiences in a coherent narrative format

with the perspective of an audience in mind” (McGregor & Holmes, 1999, p. 403).

Storytelling is pervasive, as stories “fulfil a profound human need to grasp the patterns

of living” (McKee, 2003, p. 52). Furthermore, “people think narratively rather than


argumentatively or paradigmatically” (Weick, 1995, p. 127 and Wells, 1988 as cited

in Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 98).

They help individuals make sense of the world ( Weick, 1995 as cited in Merchant et

al., 2010, p. 756;) and are used in different ways: personal relationships (McGregor &

Holmes, 1999), their role in working environments (Brown, Denning, Groh, & Prusak,

2005), online communications (Woodside & Miller, 2008), mental simulation (Heath

& Heath, 2007, p. 213), knowledge management (Heath & Heath, 2007, pp. 231–234),

among others.

Stories also provide emotional elements to otherwise emotionless facts (Heath &

Heath, 2007, p. 213; McKee, 2003; Papadatos, 2006; Simmons, 2011; Woodside &

Miller, 2008, p. 5).

More importantly, stories were shown to increase the effectiveness of advertisements

both in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. Notable examples include Subway’s

“Jared’s diet” campaign, featuring the (true) story of Jared Fogle fight against obesity

by undertaking a specific Subway diet and walking (Heath & Heath, 2007, pp. 217–

223); the Posner and Volkswagen case study (Woodside & Chebat, 2001),. For non-

profit organizations, the work of Merchant et al (2010) demonstrated that stories can

be an effective way to increase intention to donate in the United States.

5.3.1. Stories characteristics

Generally stories are said to contain 4 main attributes: endurance (stories last in the

memory for years), salience (they create interest in the individuals), sensemaking

(they have the capacity to explain something) and comfort level ( if the story makes

senses and rings true to what individual already knows, individuals feel familiarity )

(Brown et al., 2005, pp. 42–45).

In its simplest form, stories start with a situation where an unexpected obstacle or

problem overturns the balanced life of the protagonist into an unbalanced state. This

is called the inciting incident. (McKee, 2003, p. 52; Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 103).

The story goes on to describe the efforts of the protagonist to overcome this unbalanced

state and go back to its balanced state (McKee, 2003; Woodside & Chebat, 2001).


Theoretical contributions to narrative research allow to elaborate on the previous

sequence. It was found that stories are structured around two elements: chronology

and causality. The events in the story have a defined time frame and they are

interrelated. (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004; Woodside & Miller, 2008).

Inside this general structure, K. Gergen & M. Gergen . (1988) highlight the following

components of an effective story (pp. 20-22)

1. “The establishment of a valued end point”- an outcome of the story that

enables the story to have value that allows a story gist. (concept explained by

Delgadillo & Escalas (2004))

2. “Selection of events relevant to Goal State”: Once the end point has been

established, not all events that happened will be included in the story. The

selection of events relevant to the end point (the story gist) is necessary to make

the story compelling.

3. “The ordering of events”: after the two previous elements are decided, the

events are placed in an ordered arrangement. The arrangement may be linear

or not, depending on the story.

4. “Causality Linkage”: the events in a well-formed story should be

interrelated, so as to have causality between them (story events cause next story

events.), until the end point is reached, as a cause of all the preceding events.

5. “Demarcation signs”: the stories are framed by conventionally signs

marking the beginning and end of the sentence, like the traditional: “Once upon

a time” and “They lived happily ever after.”

K. Gergen & M. Gergen (1988) also argue that for good dramatic effect the story needs

“acceleration and alteration in narrative slope” (p. 27): in narratives were the events in

the story impact more (positively or negatively) the condition of the protagonists are

more successful than were the events barely impact him. The two components of this

narrative slope are acceleration (the rapidity with which events impact the protagonist)

and alteration (the mix of positive and negative impact of events in the protagonist).

This effect is also called the evaluative slope (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004, p. 187;

Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 102).


5.3.2. Types of plot

Practitioners’ contributions to the plot (the device that conveys the theme of the story)

(Papadatos, 2006), allow a practical approach to the existing types of plot.

Papadatos (2006) identified a universal sequences of events for the story gist of

“feeling rewarded” (as we saw in section 5.1, the feeling of reward is one of the

important motivators of prosocial behaviour):

1. Anticipation: there is a future event that caused the protagonist to have hope

in the future (a baby being born to a family member of the protagonist, for

example).

2. Crisis (the inciting incident): an unexpected negative event alters the life

of the protagonist leading to an unbalanced state (the protagonist can’t find

a flight to see the baby).

3. Help along the way: A secondary character provides unexpected help to the

protagonist, giving hope of a balanced life. This is followed by a period of

hard work, where the protagonist exerts himself to balance his life (a

helpful airline telephone assistant finds there is still a place left in a flight

but the protagonist only has 1 hour to pack and arrive in the airport).

4. The goal achieved: The story ends with life returning to a balanced state

and the goal achieved (The protagonist takes the flight and sees its new

baby relative).

As we can see, these findings corroborate McKee (2003) and Woodside (2008) work

on stories.

Meanwhile, Heath & Heath (2007) identify 3 main basic plots shared by stories in the

society (Heath & Heath, 2007, pp. 226–231):

The Challenge plot, where the protagonist overcomes an extraordinary

challenge and succeeds: the inciting incident leads to an overwhelming

obstacle to the protagonist, which he then succeeds to overcame coming

back to balanced states. They affirm this plot inspires individuals to

tackle problems in their lives. The story of David and Goliath is such

an example.

The Connection plot, is about relationships with other people, stories

of people that help each other in unusual circumstances. These stories


inspires individuals to help and be kind to other individuals .An

example of this story is the Good Samaritan fable.

The Creativity plot, involves people making breakthroughs for a long-

standing problem, solving challenges in innovative ways. These plots

inspire people to be more creative and experiment with new

approaches. An example is the MacGyver show.

Stories can then be said to have a common base structure for events (Delgadillo &

Escalas, 2004), with the description of events and plot assuming several forms.

5.3.3. Archetypes

The last important component of the stories is the notion of archetype: “an unconscious

primary form, an original pattern or prototype in the human mind”(Wertime, 2002 as

cited in Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 99). Stories may be a way for individuals to

emulate a certain archetype. Woodside & Miller (2008) propose that brands help

consumers enable archetypes through their personal narratives.

A table of archetypes compiled by Woodside & Miller (2008) is presented below:

Table 2- Archetypes: compiled by Woodside and Miller (2008), p. 114

Merchant et al (2010) argues that non-profit stories allow individuals to live the

archetypical myth of providing assistance, the mother of goodness archetype presented

above (alternative seen in fairy tales as the Fairy Godmother).

This review enables us to refine our first research question, to its final formulation:

How can story-based charitable appeals maximise the emotional motives for

donation?


5.4. Cultural dimensions related to charitable giving

This section will briefly explore cultural differences in donating in Russia, Turkey and

the United Kingdom exploring Hofstede, Schwartz and Globe theories.

Hofstede’s theories of cultural dimensions’ development started when Hofstede

conducted a survey with employees of IBM in more than 70 countries, from 1967 to

1973. The survey allowed the creation of 4 main groups of cultural dimension: Power

Distance, Individualism vs Collectivism, Masculinity vs Feminity and Uncertainty

Avoidance. In 1991, a new dimension was added, based on the work of Michael Harris:

Long-term orientation, which was followed by the addition of Indulgence vs Restraint,

in 2010, based on the work of Minkov. (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).

Research on impact of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in prosocial behaviour tends to

focus in individualism vs collectivism. This dimensions presents the extension to each

individuals are expected to be concerned with others: either just for themselves and

immediate family (individualism) or also for members of an extended in-group

(Collectivism).

However research shows that while collectivist societies present more prosocial

behaviour and willingness to help, they do so only when they perceive the individuals

in need as part of their close in-group. (Janoff-Bulman & Leggatt, 2002)

Two more recently developed theories may have more connection with prosocial

before: Schwartz’ cultural orientations theory and the Globe dimensions.

Schwartz presents 3 distinct dichotomies: autonomy vs embeddedness, egalitarianism

vs hierarchy and harmony vs mastery. For the purposes of this thesis, egalitarianism vs

hierarchy is an important cultural orientation: egalitarian societies recognize people as

moral equals and that they should be concerned about everyone’s welfare. Social

justice, help and responsibility are traits of these cultures. Hierarchic societies have

ascribed roles that carry certain social benefits and responsibilities. People are

expected to care just to the point that their role allows them. (Schwartz, 2006, pp. 140–

141)

It’s expected then that egalitarian countries show greater levels of emotion in reaction

to story-based appeals and donate more.

Other important cultural dimension comes from the GLOBE project.


The GLOBE project (Global Leadership and Organization Behavior Effectiveness

Research Program) is a cross-cultural review of 62 countries concerned with how

leadership and organizational behaviour are affected by cultural dimensions. This

study provides currently 9 dimensions: Performance Orientation, Future Orientation,

Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness, Individualism vs collectivism, Power Distance,

Uncertainty Avoidance, Humane Orientation and In-group collectivism.

Humane orientation relates to values of altruism, benevolence, kindness (House et al.,

2004, p. 570). In cultures with a high humane orientation people are expected to

provide social support to each other, others are important, and members of the society

are expected to promote the well-being of others, values that match the prosocial

behaviour. (House et al., 2004, p. 571)

Therefore it’s expected that some cultures are more impacted by charitable appeals

than others. However, the countries to research present a unique challenge: Turkey and

Russia present a similar Humane Orientation and are close in the Egalitarian vs

Hierarchic scale, while the United Kingdom is not presented in the research. It is

therefore expectable that Russia and Turkey present similar levels of responses to

charitable appeals. However, an interesting question still arises:

What is the impact of cultural dimensions in the emotions created by charitable

appeals?

The following section will developed the two research questions in practical

hypothesis.

6. Research hypothesis

This research will focus in replicating, validating and extending to other cultural

settings the effectiveness of story based appeals proved in recent studies (Merchant et

al., 2010). It will therefore use the same story structure used in Merchant et al. (2010)

research: Stories start by the inciting incident of an individual (the problem the

organization is trying to tackle) (McKee, 2003; Merchant et al., 2010), followed by a

call to action (consumers will act as secondary characters of the story) (Merchant et

al., 2010; Papadatos, 2006). A posterior feedback in the form of an e-mail after the

intention to donate was expressed will serve as the story gist. (Delgadillo & Escalas,

2004; Merchant et al., 2010).


The first step is to identify that story-based appeals increase intention to donate vis-à-

vis non-story based appeals in Russia, Turkey and the United Kingdom:

H1a: Levels of intention to donate are higher to those exposed to a story based appeal

than to those exposed to a non-story based appeal in Russia.

H1b: Levels of intention to donate are higher to those exposed to a story based appeal

than to those exposed to a non-story based appeal in Turkey.

H1c: Levels of intention to donate are higher to those exposed to a story based appeal

than to those exposed to a non-story based appeal in the United Kingdom.

The next stage is to define the impact of each part of the story in emotions. As seen,

both positive and negative emotions affect donation intention (Bennett, 2014; Chang

& Lee, 2009; Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007). When confronted with the problem

statement, individuals are expected to react with feelings of unpleasantness (Merchant

et al., 2010; Woodside & Chebat, 2001). Therefore our second hypothesis:

H2a: The statement of the problem arises more negative emotions than positive

emotions, in Russia.

H2b: The statement of the problem arises more negative emotions than positive

emotions, in Turkey.

H2a: The statement of the problem arises more negative emotions than positive

emotions, in the United Kingdom.

The second part of the story is the action stage: individuals tend to try to move away

from negative states to a positive state (Woodside & Chebat, 2001). When individuals

empathise with the difficulties of another, the opportunity to help will make them feel

better (Andreoni, 1990; Batson et al., 2011). It is therefore posited that when a solution

is provided, in the form of donation to a charity, positive emotions will be elicited.

These are termed as anticipated positive emotions (Merchant et al., 2010):

H3a: The opportunity to donate will arise more anticipated positive emotions than

negative emotions, in Russia

H3b: The opportunity to donate will arise more anticipated positive emotions than

negative emotions, in Turkey.


H3c: The opportunity to donate will arise more anticipated positive emotions than

negative emotions, in the United Kingdom.

The opportunity to donate will then reduce the unbalanced state created in the

individual (Woodside & Chebat, 2001). The opportunity to help will then reduce feels

of unpleasantness (Basil et al., 2008). It will also help consumers to reach an idealized

archetype of Mother of Goodness (the fairy godmother that altruistically helps the

main character) (Woodside & Miller, 2008, p. 114)

Thus our fourth hypothesis (Merchant et al., 2010):

H4a: The levels of negative emotions that consumers experienced after reading the

problem statement will decrease after expressing intention to donate, in Russia.

H4b: The levels of negative emotions that consumers experienced after reading the

problem statement will decrease after expressing intention to donate, in Turkey.

H4c: The levels of negative emotions that consumers experienced after reading the

problem statement will decrease after expressing intention to donate, in the United

Kingdom.

However, story only ends with a story gist, a lessons learned phase that provides the

outcome of the story and acts as a demarcation point. (Delgadillo & Escalas, 2004;

Gergen & Gergen, 1988). Individuals need a clear outcome of the story, so that they

reach the idealized archetype to realize the positive emotions. Feedback after donation

would allow the story to be closed and positive emotions to be concretized (Merchant

et al., 2010). Therefore, our fifth hypothesis:

H5a: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention increase after

receiving a feedback from the organization, in Russia.

H5b: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention increase after

receiving a feedback from the organization, in Turkey.

H5c: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention increase after

receiving a feedback from the organization, in the United Kingdom.

If confronted with no story gist, individuals can still idealize a story gist (Woodside &

Chebat, 2001). However, with no feedback the increase of positive emotions in


donation may not fully concretized the archetype or provide closure (Merchant et al.,

2010). Therefore we should also test the contrary hypothesis:

H6a: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention decrease after

receiving no feedback from the organization, in Russia.

H6b: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention decrease after

receiving no feedback from the organization, in Turkey.

H6c: The levels of positive emotions arising out of donation intention decrease after

receiving no feedback from the organization, in the United Kingdom.

If the story came to a closure, it’s probable that consumers will want to donate again

and fulfil the archetype (Bennett, 2014; Merchant et al., 2010; Woodside & Miller,

2008). Therefore feedback should increase donation intention to the charity over time:

H7a: The levels of intention to donate to the focal charity are higher for consumers

receiving feedback in comparison to those that do not receive feedback from that

charity, in Russia

H7b: The levels of intention to donate to the focal charity are higher for consumers


charity, in Turkey.

H7c: The levels of intention to donate to the focal charity are higher for consumers


charity, in the United Kingdom.

After analysing the effects of the story in the emotion, it’s important to analyse two

important variable components in story-based charitable appeals: inclusion of image

and protagonist (namely who are the protagonists: humans or animals). Previous

research has shown that images increase the impact of the message, especially in a

negative framing context (Chang & Lee, 2009; Hung, 2009). Since the problem

statement is designed to induce negative emotions, this work posits that story-based

appeals in conjunction with a related photograph will arise higher levels of negative

emotions than story-based appeals without a photograph (or with a neutral

photograph):

H8a: Inclusion of a photograph related with the story in the appeal will increase the

level of negative emotions experienced by individuals, in Russia.


H8b: Inclusion of a photograph related with the story in the appeal will increase the

level of negative emotions experienced by individuals, in Turkey.

H8c: Inclusion of a photograph related with the story in the appeal will increase the

level of negative emotions experienced by individuals, in United Kingdom.

Finally, this thesis proposes to see the impact of stories featuring a person and stories

featuring an animal. While research on the “identifiable victim effect” demonstrated

that individuals donate more if they are presented with one single case of misfortune

than with two or more (Small & Lowenstein, 2003), few researches studied the impact

in different types of charity, namely those focused on helping humans or animals

(Bennett, 2003). The finding that more empathic people donate more to animal welfare

(Bennett, 2003), is however significant. This thesis aims to enlarge the literature

existing by proving that the general emotional impact will be larger when the story

features a human than an animal, as empathy with a human is easier:

H9a: Positive emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in Russia.

H9b: Positive emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in Turkey.

H9c: Positive emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in the United Kingdom.

H9d: Negative emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in Russia.

H9e: Negative emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in Turkey.

H9f: Negative emotions will be more pronounced in a story-based human appeal than

in a story-based animal appeal, in the United Kingdom.

Finally, the thesis intends to prove that, despite that, story-based appeals versus non-

story based appeals have a higher impact in animal stories than human stories. Even if

the willingness to donate will be overall less to animals, there will be a sharper increase

in donations to animal.


H10a: (Percentage) increase in donation intention will be higher in story-based animal

appeals vs non-story based animal appeals than in story vs non-story based human

appeals, in Russia.

H10b: (Percentage) increase in donation intention will be higher in story-based animal


appeals, in Turkey.

H10c: (Percentage) increase in donation intention will be higher in story-based animal


appeals, in United Kingdom.

7. Methodology:

The basis of the study will be to replicate the survey of Merchant et al. (2010), using

measurements described below. A translation of the survey to Russian and Turkish

will take place in order to facilitate responses in these countries. Therefore, due to the

inherent difficulties in the study of open questions, the survey will only be comprised

of closed questions, mainly Likert-type questions.

7.1. Measurements

The survey will contain scales on intention to donate to a focal charity and scales on

emotions. It will also take into account scale equivalence for formative measurement

models, since it has an intended cross-cultural application. (Wagner, Wetzels, &

Winklhofer, 2005)

Intention to donate will be measured using the scale adapted from Ranganathan &

Henley (2007) by Merchant et al. (2010, p.758). The scale was adapted to only show

items with a loading higher than 0,7. The scale shows a good reliability (α=0,87)

(Merchant et al., 2010, p. 758; Ranganathan & Henley, 2008, p. 6). The adaptation

features a 3 point Likert scale (Merchant et al., 2010, p. 762).

Emotions will be measured using the PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Scale)

scale, featuring a five-point Likert scale with the extremes “Very slightly or not at all”

(1) and “extremely” (5); a list of words describing emotions is present and survey

takers identify the degree to which they feel it. (Watson et al., 1988). The

Pleasantness/Unpleasantness scale will be used to complement the positive and

negative emotions, in accordance to Merchant et al. (2010) work. (Watson & Tellegen,


1985 as cited in Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). These positive and

negative emotions total 32 items (16 positive, 16 negative) and have a strong reliability

(α= 0,9 for negative emotions, α=0,87 for negative emotions) (Merchant et al., 2010,

p. 758).

7.2. Sample

The sample will include individuals from Turkey, Russia and United Kingdom. As

these findings pretend to replicate a previous studies, age will not be a restrictive

factor. In fact, the thesis will try to overcome the common bias of using United States

students as subjects. This bias has been shown to impact psychological studies as their

behaviour cannot be generalized to other countries, more specifically non-westernized

countries (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010).

The sample size calculator (Raosoft, 2014), recommends a minimum sample size of

377 people for a confidence error of 95% in populations bigger than 20000. This value

is supported by other research in the area of psychology (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970)

Since the hypothesis were designed to be tested separately, this indicates at least 377

respondents in each country, which might be a challenge.

Finally, while the countries were chosen based on convenience of the sample, the

group of countries as the characteristic of having markedly disparate geographical

situations. The fact that two countries have a similar giving behaviour (Russia and

Turkey share the same band of humane orientation in GLOBE study and have

approximate positions in the world giving index (Charities Aid Foundation, 2013, pp.

33–34; House et al., 2004, p. 573)), United Kingdom seems to have a markedly higher

giving behaviour than the former two countries (Charities Aid Foundation, 2013, p.

33).

7.3. Questionnaire structure

The questionnaire will be divided in 3 sections. Section A will deal with questions

related with effectiveness of story-based appeals (Hypothesis 1), Section B will study

the relationship between stories and emotions (Hypothesis 2 to 7) and Part C will study

the impact the different elements of the story have on emotions (Hypothesis 8-10).

Summarily, Part A will present a story-based appeal and a non-story based appeal and

measure intention to donate according to Ranganathan & Henley (2007) scale.


Part B will replicate Merchant et al (2010) study: a story will be manipulated to present

3 different sequences (Problem statement-> Opportunity to donate -> no feedback;

Problem statement-> Opportunity to donate -> basic feedback; Problem statement->

Opportunity to donate -> detailed feedback) and the questionnaire will be randomly

distributed so respondents are assigned to 1 situation.

Part C will present manipulated elements in the stories: a human story-based appeal

with a neutral picture (for example, the logo of the NGO) and a human story-based

appeal with a related picture will be used to prove the impact of image congruency on

the appeal. An animal non-story-based appeal and an animal story-based appeal will

be used to compare the impact of story in donations to animal-related charities. The

PANAS scale and intention to donate scale will be used to rate the overall appeals, so

that emotions in each appeal and intention to donate are easy to compare.

7.4. Possible Issues

Three possible issues with this methodology are survey length, sample needed and

translation effectiveness. While these issues still pose serious concern, the non use of

open ended question will greatly reduce survey length. The brevity of the appeals

should allow for a completion time of around 10 minutes. The needed sample is an

ongoing concern: use of contacts in Turkey, Russia and United Kingdom will be use

to try to maximize response rate. Translation effectiveness, mainly about translating

emotions meaning will be tackled by the use of native speakers with a good english

level. When not possible close translations will be tried.

8. Plan of work

Activity Length

Topic Research 1st July-1st September

Topic Discussion and Decision 1st September – 25th September

Exposé writing (Theoretical

background, Research Questions,

Hypothesis, Methodology)

25th September – 13th October

Methodology and Survey Design 13th October – 16st November

Survey pre-test 1st November- 1st of December

Survey adaptation and translation 1st December – 15th December-

Survey launch 15th December-31st January

Intermediate Presentation 28th January


Data analysis 1st February-1st March

Final thesis preparation March-April

Final thesis presentation

preparation

May

Table 3- Working plan table

9. Overview of chapters

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Relevance of the topic

3. Purpose of the thesis

4. Research Questions

5. Theoretical Background

5.1. Prosocial Behaviour

5.1.1. Charitable appeals and Gift-Giving

5.2. Emotions

5.2.1. Positive and negative emotions

5.2.2. Emotions and feelings related with charitable giving.

5.2.3. Emotions in charitable advertisement.

5.2.4. Mixed emotions in charitable advertising

5.3. Storytelling

5.3.1. Stories characteristics

5.3.2. Types of plot

5.3.3. Archetypes

5.4. Cultural dimensions related to charitable giving

6. Research hypothesis

7. Methodology:

7.1. Measurements

7.2. Sample

7.3. Questionnaire structure

7.4. Possible Issues

8. Analysis of the data

8.1 Analysis of quantitative research

8.2 Main findings

8.3 Discussion and interpretation of the findings


9. Conclusion

9.1 Summary of the work

9.2 Final conclusions

9.3 Limitations and future research

9.4 Managerial and Scientific implications

10. References

Appendix

Personal Affirmation in lieu of oath

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Woodside, A. G., & Miller, K. E. (2008). When consumers and brands talk :

Storytelling theory and research in psychology and marketing. Psychology &

Marketing, 25(2), 97–145. doi:10.1002/mar


Appendix


Appendix I- Definitional Literature

Type Topic Author Title Journal/Publi

sher

Yea

r

Content Importance for the

research

Article Cultural

Differences

Schwartz,

S H

A theory of

cultural

value

orientations :

explication

and

applications.

Comparative

Sociology

(Vol 5, (2-3)

2006 This paper presents 3 Schwartz

theory of cultural values

orientation: autonomy vs

embeddedness (intellectual and

affective autonomy), egalitarianism

vs hierarchy, mastery vs harmony.

It further plots 76 countries in a map

with the relative value in terms of

this dimensions

The study used

membership in

Voluntary

organizations as a

factor (given by the

European Social

Survey). It proved that

societies with more

egalitarianism help

more than the others.

Article Cultural

Differences

Janoff-

Bullman,

R.;

Leggatt,

H.

Culture and

social

obligation:

When

“shoulds”

Journal of

Research in

Personality

(36, 3)

2002 This paper test how cultural

differences between Latin and

Anglo-saxonic culture shape the

ways to help, using these cultures as

basis for individualism vs

Collectivist culture are

more willing to help if

they perceive that

those in need of help

are part of their close


are

perceived as

“wants.”

collectivism differences. It

demonstrates that while for the in-

groups collectivist societies help

more than individualists, for the

out-group there are no helping

differences. Furthermore, for

medium relationships (friends and

not close family), the Latinos

indicated a more willingness to help

and believe they should help.

or medium in-group

instead of the out-

group.

Article Elements of an

Appeal

Chang, C.;

Lee, Y.

Framing

Charity

Advertising :

Influences of

Message

Framing ,

Image

Valence ,

Journal of

Applied

Psychology

(Vol 39, 12)

2009 Negative framing (emphasizing

negative outcomes of lack of action)

are more effective than positive

framing (emphasizing positive

outcomes of action), even more

when moderated by image valence

(use of an image display to increase

salience).

The research gives

more credited to the

theory that negative

emotions in a non-

story appeal work

better than positive

emotions, mainly

when connected with


and

Temporal

Framing on a

Charitable

Appeal

images (and short

temporal statistics). It

gives strength to the

argument that a

negative problem

statement is better .

Article Elements of an

Appeal

Hung, I. Differences

in

perspective

and the

influence of

charitable

appeals :

when

imagining

oneself as

the victim is

Journal of

Marketing

Research (Vol

46, 3)

2009 This research tried to analyse the

effect of different donor

perspectives when confronted with

a appeal: either that of the victim

(when donors empathize with the

victim.) or when feelings of

empathy were minimized by

previous disposition. It found that

elements that help relate with a

victim (such as a picture) increase

donation intention, if donors are on

a victim perspective. However if

This research fits with

our proposal that

story-based appeals

accompanied with a

related picture have

more impact in donors'

emotions than with

neutral or no picture.


not

beneficial.

they have non-empathy perspective

these elements decrease donation

intention.

Article Emotion Kemp, E.;

Bui, M. ;

Chapa, S.

The role of

advertising

in consumer

emotion

management

International

Journal of

Advertising,

(Vol 31, 2)

2012 The paper analysed the effect of

advertising content in consumers’

emotions and behavioural

intentions. It proved that positive-

laden messages in the advert lead to

a higher level of positive emotions

in the consumers and that these

positive emotions increased

intention to buy the products.

It points that the use of

more positive

messages in stories

will lead to more

positive emotions and

these, in turn, increase

buying behaviour.

Article Emotion Edell J.;

Burke M.

Power of

feelings

effects in

understandin

Journal of

Consumer

Research (14,

3)

1987 It establishes that positive and

negative feelings can co-occur

when watching an advertisement (it

generates both positive and negative

Establishes the co-

existence of positive

and negative emotions

in consumers when


g advertising

effects

emotions). It also establishes that

these emotions, generated by the

advertisements, have impact in the

attitudes and perception of the

advertisement itself.

watching an

advertisement.

Article Emotion Bennett,

R.

Factors

underlying

the

inclination

to donate to

particular

types of

charity

International

Journal of

Nonprofit and

Voluntary

Sector

Marketing

(Vol. 8, 1)

2003 The study analysed personal values

in the choice of charity to donate. It

used 3 charities (Amnesty

International, representing human

rights; Royal Society for the

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

(RSPCA), representing animal

welfare; the MacMillan Cancer

Relief association (MCC),

representing cancer care) and

surveyed 250 individuals about

their preferences and how their

values affected their choice. It

This research is one of

the few researches

available about

motivations to donate

to animal welfare.

Since empathy is a trait

of potential donors, it

helps us posit that a

story-based appeal, by

arising an higher level

of emotions, will boost

intention to donate to

animal charities.


discovered a relation between the

choice of non-profit to assist and

individuals values (Amnesty

International Donors were

relatively well educated,

materialistic, hedonist, valued

achievement, RSPCA donors

valued hedonism, warm relations,

empathy but are relatively poor

education and MCC donors are

down-to-earth, value self-esteem,

achievement, warm relations and

are higher empathetic.)

Article Emotion, giving

behaviour

Andreoni,

J.

Impure

altruism and

donations to

public

goods: a

Economic

Journal (Vol

100, 401)

1990 This paper posits that donations

increase economic utility to

individuals not only through the

increase in public goods but also

from the act of giving. This

It provides a

theoretical

underpinning to the

altruism motive behind

donation giving


theory of

warm-glow

giving

substitutes the pure altruism theory

to add that the act of giving is also

utility-motivated.

Article Emotion, Giving

behaviour

Kemp, E.

;Kennett-

Hensel, P.

;

Kees, J.

Pulling on

the

Heartstrings:

Examining

the Effects

of Emotions

and Gender

in

Persuasive

Appeals

Journal of

Advertising

(Vol 42, 1)

2013 This paper analyses the effect of

pride and sympathy on

effectiveness of persuasive appeals,

and it's interaction with gender

identity. It finds that sympathy

appeals work better with female

gender identity and pride with male

gender identity. Furthermore it

showed that appeals work better in

high feminity individuals than

masculinity individuals.

Storytelling appeals

generate mixed

emotions. It's

important to

understand if the

emotions and the

willingness to donate

are related with

gender.


behaviour

Basil, D.;

Ridgway,

N.; Basil,

M.

Guilt and

giving : a

process

model of

Psychology

and Marketing

(Vol 25, 1)

2008 The paper analyses the role of guilt

on donation intention, and t its

effect through empathy and self-

efficacy. It concludes that empathy-

Negative emotions of

guilt created by

storytelling's inciting

incident pot are more


empathy and

efficacy.

donation process works by arousing

the negative emotion of guilt, while

self-efficacy works partly because

of it.

effective if the ad also

generates posterior

empathy and enhances

the feeling of self-

efficacy. Individuals

with higher levels of

empathy will be more

willing to donate.


behaviour

Bennet, R. Individual

characteristi

cs and the

arousal of

mixed

emotions:

consequence

s for the

effectiveness

of charity

International

Journal of

Nonprofit and

Voluntary

Sector

Marketing

2014 The paper explores the impact of

four different personality factors in

the intensity of feeling of mixed

emotions of charity advertisements:

empathy, affect intensity (how

much the person feels the

emotions), duality acceptance (the

ability to process contradictory

feelings) and susceptibility to stress,

and if the intensity of feeling these

The study not only

points the kind of

people that should be

targeted, but also how

to engender effective

storytelling. The

negative emotions in

the problem statement

should not be very

high.


fundraising

advertiseme

nts

emotions translates in bigger

intention fo donation. It was

demonstrated that people with high

levels of empathy and affect

intensity feel stronger negative

emotions in the advert, but

generally the production of mixed

emotions in an advertisement was

positively related with higher

donation intention.


Behaviour

Dillard J.;

Peck E.

Affect and

Persuasion:

Emotional

Responses to

Public

Service

Announcem

ents

Communicatio

n Research

(Vol. 27, 4)

2000 It analysed the effectiveness of

emotion on Public Service

announcements. It established that

the effectiveness of the message

was connect to emotion.

Establishes the link

between emotion and

effectiveness of

charitable appeals.



behaviour,

Storytelling,

Merchant,

A; Ford,

J.;

Sargeant,

A.

Charitable

organization

s'

storytelling

influence on

donors'

emotions

and

intentions

Journal of

Business

Research (Vol

63, 7)

2010 This article explores the impact of

story-based appeals in emotions and

intention to donate in US students.

It will serve as the basis of this

thesis. It found that the different

parts of the story produce different

emotions in individuals and that the

mixed emotions it creates increase

donors' intention.

The findings of this

article will be

replicated for Turkey,

Russia and UK.

Article Giving Behaviour Vohs, K.

;Mead, N.

; Good M.

The

Psychologic

al

consequence

s of money.

Science (Vol

314, 5802)

2006 The paper explores the hypothesis

that when people are primed about

money they behave less helpfully

towards others, and are more self-

sufficiently than in a no-money

condition.

Money asking in

adverts leads to a

natural money priming

in donators. A way that

storytelling can help is

through priming for

emotions and helpful

behaviour.


Article Giving Behaviour Sargeant

A.;

Woodlife.

L

Gift giving :

an

interdiscipli

nary review

International

Journal of

Nonprofit and

Voluntary

Sector

Marketing

(Vol 307)

2007 This paper reviews and summarizes

factors that affect gift giving and

charitable donations, including

emotions, non-profit

characteristics, and inhibitors

among others.

It reveals search

findings from other

studies where values

such as altruism,

empathy, social

justice, sympathy, geo-

demographic

conditions and

feedback after giving

affect gift donation

intention.

Article Giving behaviour Liu, W.;

Aaker, J.

The

Happiness of

Giving: The

Time-Ask

Effect

Journal of

Consumer

Research (35,

3)

2008 The paper researches the effect of

considering money or time when

asking for donations. It argues that

money primes a rational part of the

brain and suppresses emotions,

making people less likely to donate

or Volunteer. Asking for

Storytelling may act as

a counter-effect for a

money ask by priming

clearly emotional

responses, increasing

therefore donation.

Since a money ask


Volunteering associates

experiences and positive feelings,

making them more likely to donate.

It proves that when asking for

money, we prime a less emotional

response, decreasing donation.

does not elicit

emotions, an

mechanism to elicit

emotions (storytelling)

works better.

Article Giving Behaviour Webber,

D.

Understandi

ng charity

fundraising

events

International

Journal of

Nonprofit and

Voluntary

Sector

Marketing

(Vol 9, 2)

2003 The paper presents a thorough

research of the effectiveness of

fundraising events, including

motivations for donations,

effectiveness of the event, reasons

to hold it and segmentation of donor

base.

Besides providing an

effective framework in

donors segmentation it

also provides

practitioners opinion

of why people give:

besides warm glow

and philanthropic

(altruism), private

benefit, leadership

(show others that we

give), prestige and


peer pressure are

reasons presented in

the article

Article Giving

Behaviour,

Identifiable

victim effect

Eing-Gar

D.;

Levontin

L.

Giving from

a distance:

Putting the

charitable

organization

at the center

of the

donation

appeal

Journal of

Consumer

Psychology

(Vol 23, 2)

2013 The research analyses an

overlooked area in the study of the

identifiable victim effect: individual

victims vs abstract organizations. It

identifies that a donation to a group

of victims and to an abstract

individual organization do not

produce similar effects.

Furthermore it identifies that if an

appeal is framed as psychologically

near, people are more willing to

donate to a single, specific victim.

The research identifies

a possible strength of

storytelling: framing

the victim as

psychologically near

the potential donor.


Article Identifiable

victim effect

Small, D. ;

Lowenstei

n, G.

elping a

victim or

helping the

victim :

Altruism and

identifiabilit

y

Journal of Risk

and

Uncertainty

(Vol 25, 1)

2003 The paper studies if the identifiable

victim effect (that individual

victims arise more concern in

individuals than statistical victims)

works due to relatable information

about the victim or because she is

identified per se. It finds that low

forms of personalization still

increases caring for the victim.

The study of

effectiveness of the

identifiable victim

effect can help story-

based appeals of

human needs. Due to

the study we can posit

that the presentation of

an individual victim

even with few

personalization

(necessary in victims

that need to remain

anonymous) can still

be effective.

Article Identifiable

victim effect

Kogut, T. ;

Ritov I.

The

‘‘Identified

Victim’’

Journal of

Behavioral

Decision

2005 The paper demonstrated that using a

single identified individual instead

of a group of individuals elicited

It is possible to posit

then that in story-

based appeals, the use


Effect: An

Identified

Group, or

Just a Single

Individual?

Making (Vol

18, 3)

more contributions. This effect only

occurs when the individual is

properly identified.

of only 1 victim, even

if not properly

personalized is

preferable than the use

of 2 or more identified

victims. Therefore ads

with 1 person will be

more effective.

Article Prosocial

Behaviour

Brief, A .;

Motowidl

o, S..

Prosocial

organization

al behaviors

The Academy

of

Management

Review (Vol

11, 4)

1986 The article presents a working

definition of prosocial behaviour

and how organisations engage in

prosocial behaviour.

The paper identifies

donations to charitable

organisation as paper

of prosocial behaviour,

allowing motives that

affect prosocial

behaviour to be taken

into consideration in

the thesis


Article Storytelling Papadatos,

C.

The art of

storytelling :

how loyalty

marketers

can build

emotional

connections

to their

brands

Journal of

Consumer

Marketing

(Vol 23, 7)

2006 Through a practical in-field

experience, the paper highlights the

importance of storytelling to create

an emotional connection between

brands and consumers, as well as

providing a report of findings about

themes and plot sequence in the Air

Miles Reward Program.

It provides a model of

sequence of events:

Anticipation-Crisis-

Help along the way-

Hard work-Goal

achieved and how

storytelling can be

used to emotional

engage consumers.

Article Storytelling

Woodside,

A. ;

Miller, K.

When

consumers

and brands

talk :

Storytelling

theory and

research in

psychology

Psychology

and Marketing

(Vol 25, Issue

2)

2008 The paper established a narrative

sequence of action for storytelling

and analysed the use of brands as

ways to make consumers live an

idealized archetype.

Consumers use brands

as devices in their

stories. Stories told by

organizations integrate

in consumers' own

stories.


and

marketing.

Article Storytelling McGregor

, I. ;

Holmes J.

How

storytelling

shapes

memory and

impressions

of

relationship

events over

time.

Journal of

Personality

and Social

Psychology

(76, 3)

1999 The paper identifies how

storytelling about situation biases

peoples' judgement for that

situation. Even if there is no

intrinsic motivation to support the

facts in the story listening or

describing a story about the events

make people biased in favouring

them. The experiment used close

personal relationships as an

example.

This research supports

the theory tha

consumer-brand

relationships can be

positively affected by

a storytelling approach

to adverts.

Article Storytelling Martens,

M;

Jennings,

J;

Do the

stories they

tell get them

the money

Academy of

Management

Journal (50, 5)

2007 The paper researches the role of

narrative storytelling in resource

acquisition for new firms. It studies

the narrative composition of

This research supports

the effectiveness of

storytelling for

resource acquisition.


Jennings,

D

they need?

The role of

entrepreneur

ial narratives

in resource

acquisition.

entrepreneur stories and

demonstrates that both familiar and

original symbols are used in the

narrative. It concludes that

storytelling is an important resource

acquisition tool for new ventures.

Article Storytelling Delgadillo

, Y.;

Escalas, J.

Narrative

word-of-

mouth

communicati

on :

exploring

memory and

attitude

effects of

consumer

storytelling.

Advances in

Consumer

Research (Vol

31)

2004 This article researches the impact of

story in Word of Mouth. It develops

narrative structure theories and the

concept that story gist is important

for Word of Mouth communication.

It also provides empirical evidence

that storytelling is used in the field

of Word of mouth communication

This research presents

the importance of story

gist, or story closure,

to individuals. It also

provides alternative

structures to

storytelling.


Article Storytelling Gergen

K.;

Gergen M.

Narrative

and the Self

as

relationship.

Advances in

Experimental

Psychology

(21)

2008 This article argues that individuals

see their lives as a narrative and,

therefore, think narratively. It

presents a complete and detailed

structure of narratives.

It reinforces the

importance of

storytelling and

enactment of

archetypes. Also

provides a framework

for narrative structure.

Article Storytelling and

Emotion

Woodside,

A.; Chebat

,J.

Updating

Heider’s

balance

theory in

consumer

behavior: A

Jewish

couple buys

a German

car and

additional

Psychology

and Marketing

(Vol 18, Issue

5)

2001 This paper analyses Heider's

balanced state theory and posits that

when consumption causes an

unbalanced state due to negative

associations, consumers use further

thinking and connections to reach a

balanced state.

Storytelling in non-

profit can be used to

create an unbalanced

state (inciting

incident), with the

opportunity to donate

(call to action) giving

an opportunity to get

back to a balanced

state.


buying-

consuming

transformati

on stories.

Bachelor

Thesis/B

ook

chapter

Emotion, Giving

behaviour

Kandrack,

R.

The

influence of

emotion on

giving.

Duquesne

University

2011 Through a survey of college

students, the author proved that an

increase in donation giving in

statistical victims regarding

individual victims.

The effect of sadness

on increasing

donations for

statistical victims may

provide explanation to

the effect of

storytelling with

groups of people as

actors.

Book Cultural

Differences

Hofstede

G.;

Hofstede

G.;

Cultures and

Organization

s: Software

of the Mind

McGraw Hill

Professional

(Third Edition)

2010 A leading book in cultural

differences between countries, it

identifies 6 cultural dimensions:

Power Distance, Uncertainty

A preliminary study

identified

Individualism vs

Collectivism as a


Minkov

M.

Avoidance; Masculinity vs

Feminity; Individualism vs

Collectivism; Long vs Short term

Orientation; Indulgence vs Restraint

dimension that

affected prosocial

behaviour. However it

only applies to

members of the

donors' in-group.

Book Cultural

Differences

House, R.;

Hanges,

P.; Javidan

M.;

Dorfman

P.; Gupta

V.

Culture,

Leadership,

and

Organization

s. The

GLOBE

study of 62

societies

SAGE

Publications

2010 A leading theory on cultural

orientations, result from a survey to

middle managers in 3 companies. It

identifies several orientations, one

of which is Humane Orientation,

related to prosocial behaviour.

Humane Orientation

seems to be a good

indicator of prosocial

behaviour, as the

donation behaviours

from the World Giving

Index for Russia and

Turkey seem to match

the closeness of

Humane Orientation

practices the countries

have.


Book Emotion Carlson,J.;

Hatfield,

E.

Psychology

of emotion

Harcourt

Brace

Jovanovich

1992 This book explains the research

done in emotion, defining emotion,

the different kinds of emotion, the

theories in emotion and how they

are related.

Provides an easy

explanation of the

concept of emotion,

how to classify

between positive and

negative emotions and

a working definition

for various emotions.

Book Prosocial

Behaviour

Aronson

E.;

Wilson,

T.; Aker;

R.

Social

Psychology,

8th Edition

Pearson

Education

Limited

2014 A general introductory book to

social psychology, most notably

features a chapter on prosocial

behaviour where it summarizes all

the theories (from evolutionary

psychology to altruism to cultural

and situational factors) that impact

prosocial behaviour.

It provides a summary

of reasons and

research on prosocial

behaviour, as well as

cultural impact and

current standing of the

theories.


Book Storytelling Brown,

J,;Dennin

g, S.;Groh,

K.;Prusak,

L.

Storytelling

in

organization

s: why

storytelling

is

transforming

21st century

organization

s and

management

Elsevier

Butterworth

Heinemann

2005 This book presents benefits of

stories to organizations and how

stories use organizations in their

activity. It elaborates on the main

attributes of story and how they

preserve.

It provides context to

the use of story in the

organizations as well

as suggestions of

stories attributes and

why they work.

Book Storytelling Heath, C.;

Heath, D.

Made to

Stick: why

some ideas

take hold

and others

come

unstuck

Random

House

2007 In this book, Dan and Chip Heath

present their 6 main principles on

why ideas are successful. One of

these is the use of stories as part of

the idea. They go on to identify 3

main story plots (Challenge,

Inspiration, and Creativity) and give

It provides practical

examples of

storytelling as

successful ad

campaigns and

identifies 3 main plots

to presented stories.


some examples of the use of stories

in advertising campaigns.

Book

Section

Prosocial

Behaviour

Batson, C.

;Ahmad,

N.;

Stocks, E.

Four forms

of prosocial

motivation:

egoism,

altruism,

collectivism,

and

principlism.

Social

Motivation,

Chapter 6

(Taylor &

Francis Group)

2011 This work presents 4 reasons of why

we help: Egoism (to benefit

ourselves), Altruism (purely for the

sake of others), Collectivism (to

help the group we are in) and

Principlism (help as a moral

obligation). It goes on to describe

the empathy-altruism theory in

which altruism is mediated by

empathy: feeling what other people

feels makes us help more.

The altruism-empathy

theory is useful to

identify empathy as

one of the emotions

charitable appeals

should elicit.

Magazin

e Article

Storytelling McKee R. Storytelling

that moves

people. A

conversation

Harvard

Business

Review (June

2003)

2003 An interview with professor of

screenwriting, Robert McKee,

where he elaborates about parts of

It provides a simple

framework for

storytelling that

matches the need for


with

screenwritin

g coach

Robert

McKee

the story, what are elements of a

good story.

brevity of story-based

appeals.

Magazin

e Article

Storytelling,

Giving Behaviour

Simmons,

H

Storytelling

is a powerful

tool , not a

Jedi mind

trick

Third Sector

(November

2011, p. 19)

2011 It provides a practitioner

explanation of the importance of

storytelling.

It exemplifies the

usefulness of

storytelling in the

Non-Profit sector.

Report Giving Behaviour Charities

Aid

Foundatio

n

(Institutio

nal)

World

Giving

Index

- 2013 It analyses 2012 trends in giving

worldwide. It compares giving

performance in 3 dimensions

(helping a stranger, Volunteering

time and donating money) across

135 countries and compares

worldwide performance since 2008.

It allows to have

analytical data on

donations in the

research countries.


Web

page

Giving Behaviour National

Philantrop

ic Trust

Charitable

giving

statistics

http://www.np

trust.org/phila

nthropic-

resources/char

itable-giving-

statistics/

2014 It provides a summary of giving

behaviour in the United States, as

well as different sources of

fundraising for non-profits.

It confirms that

individual donations

play an important role

in the revenues' of the

charity.

exposé - uni-kassel.de · effective storytelling in charitable appeals. 7 social group) than...

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