Extended essay Sample 3.1

Title:

RiseoftheKhmerRouge

Researchquestion:“TowhatextentwereforeigninfluencesthemaincauseintheKhmerRouge’sriseinpower

inCambodiain1975?”

Wordcount:3.980

2

Tableofcontent

Introduction 3

HistoricalBackgroundofForeignInfluenceinCambodia 4

CercleMarxiste 5

VietnameseAlliance 8

PoliticalTurmoil 9

ChineseAmbitions 11

AmericanInvolvement 12

Assessment 14

Conclusion 15

Bibliography 17

Appendix 22

3

Introduction

TheCommunistPartyofKampuchea,subsequentlyreferredtointhisessayastheKhmer

Rouge,weretherulingpartyofCambodiabetween1975and1979.ThepartywasledbyPol

Pot(SalothSâr),NuonChea,IengSary,SonSen,andKhieuSamphan1andundertheirrule,

thestatewasrenamedDemocraticKampuchea.2Thisinvestigationwillfocusmainlyonthe

influencesofforeignpowersontheriseoftheKhmerRougeregimeinAprilof1975.The

researchoftherisetopoweroftheKhmerRougeissignificantbecausetothisveryday,

therearestillon-goingtrialstoprosecuteleadersoftheregimeforcrimesagainsthumanity.

DuringtheperiodofKhmerRougedominance,theCambodianpopulacewerearrested,

tortured,andexecuted.EventsthathaveshapedandchangedSouthEastAsiahavegreatly

influencedmylifeasIgrewup.Thisfuelsmyon-goinginterestintheinfluencesofforeign

powersoncatastrophiceventssuchastheKhmerRouge.

Initially,theKhmerRougeregimeseemstobesolelyinfluencedbyFrenchcolonialismand

Frenchcommunism.Withfurtheranalysisintovariouscontributingideologies,thisisnotthe

case.Thescopeofthisessaywillfocusonthevariousotherinternationalinfluencesandhow

thoseinfluencesbroughttopoweragroupwhowouldsubsequentlykillapproximately1.7

millionciviliansinjustfouryears.3

1"KhmerRougePage."Cambodia.CambodianInformationCentre,15Aug.1995.Web.10Jan.2013.<http://www.cambodia.org/khmer_rouge/>.2SokUdom,Deth.TheRiseandFallofDemocraticKampuchea.N.p.:n.p.,Winter2009.PDF.3"TheCGP,1994-2012."CambodianGenocideProgram.YaleAssistancetoDocumentationCenterofCambodia,1995-2005,2010.Web.17Jan.2013.<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/>.

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HistoricalBackgroundofForeignInfluenceinCambodia

Fromthe15thto19thcentury,Cambodiawasanationthatunderwentseveraldrastic

changesintermsofterritorialloss,colonialism,andpoliticalturmoil.Despitebeingsituated

betweenSiam(Thailand)andVietnam,twonationsthatweregraduallyincreasinginpower,

Cambodia’sprosperityduringthe16thcenturydidnotprovideenoughcompetitivefooting

withthesetwonations.CambodiawascontrolledandprotectedbySiamuntilthe

VietnameseannexationoftheMekongDeltaduringthe17thcentury.4Vietnam’ssuccessful

attemptofinvasionallowedCambodiatobreakfreefromSiamesecontrol,intoVietnamese

control.AsaresultofVietnamesecontrol,akingdominCambodiawasestablishedunderfull

Vietnamesesuzerainty.5

ThereigningmonarchofCambodiafrom1860to1904,KingNorodomI,struggledtobring

anendtotheutilizationofCambodiaasvassalterritoryforSiamandVietnam.Constant

struggleforliberationfromthecontroloftwodominatingnationsledtoCambodiasigninga

protectiontreatywithFrance.CambodiacametorelyheavilyonFrenchprotectionto

preventVietnameseinvasionontheireasternfrontiers.AfterthetreatybetweenFranceand

Cambodiawassigned,Cambodiastruggledtomaintainitsautonomy.Cambodianmonarchy

heldverylittlepower,maintainedmerelyforculturalreasons.In1941,NorodomSihanouk,

aninexperiencedmonarchfromaweakCambodianhousewasbroughttopowerbyFrance

tobeutilizedasaFrenchpoliticalpawn,withthebeliefthathewouldnotbedefiantto

Frenchwill.6DuringWWII,theJapaneseallowedFrenchcolonialismtoprevailbut

encouragednationalisminCambodia,throughtheJapanesepolicyof“AsiaforAsians”

designedtoridSoutheastAsiaofWesterninfluence,replacingitwithJapanesehegemony.7

Fromearlyon,theseedsofCambodiannationalismweresownbyaforeignpower–Japan.

AfterWWII,theFrenchreturnedtoCambodiatoreinstateitsruleintheregion.Cambodia

wasmadeanautonomousstatewithintheFrenchUnion,butFranceretaineddefacto

4Nelson,Phil."Indochina."Flagspot.,26Aug.2005.Web.<http://flagspot.net/flags/vn-inchn.html>.5"HistoryofCambodia."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,2004.Web.17Jan.2013.<http://www.historyofnations.net/asia/cambodia.html>.6Becker,Elizabeth,andSethMydans."NorodomSihanouk,CambodianLeaderThroughShiftingAllegiances,Diesat89."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,14Oct.2012.Web.10Jan.2013.<http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/asia/norodom-sihanouk-cambodian-leader-through-shifting-allegiances-dies-at-89.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0>.7"UsefulNotes:ImperialJapan."TVTropes.TVTropesFoundation,n.d.Web.<http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/ImperialJapan?from=Main.ImperialJapan>.

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control.8Cambodiaasanationwasnotproperlypreparedforaparliamentarydemocracy

andtheFrenchrefusedtogiveanygenuinepowertotheNationalAssembly.9

CercleMarxiste

AmongthefiveleadingmembersoftheKhmerRouge,PolPot,IengSary,KhieuSamphan,

andSonSenreceivedscholarshipstostudyinParis.Theexperienceexposedthefuture

KhmerRougeleaderstoMarxism-Leninism10,between1949to1951PolPotandIengSary,

joinedtheFrenchCommunistParty(PCF).AtthetimethePCFwasconsideredtobethe

tightest,mostorthodoxMarxist-LeninistofWesternEuropeanCommunism.11TheKhmer

studentpopulationofParismadeuptheKhmer’sStudentAssociation(KSA),theKSAstarted

asanon-politicalassociationbutaftertheBerlinFestivalitspoliticalperspectiveshifted

drasticallytotheleft.12WithintheKSAaneworganizationwascreated,theCercleMarxiste,

consistingof30Khmerstudents.TheCercle,comprisingofasecretivenetworkofcells

subsequentlydiscoveredStalinism,providingthestudentswithasenseofbelonginganda

goal.13ThoughtheywereexposedtoMarxism,theirinterpretationofitwasheavilyinduced

byBuddhism.14TheKhmerstudentsincludingPolPotstudiedvariousworksofStalinsuchas

his1912essayMarxismandtheNationalQuestionandTheHistoryoftheCommunistParty

(Bolshevik).The1938workbyStalinontheaftermathoftheGreatTerrorcanbeconsidered

avitalinformativeinfluencetothecourseoftheregime.15

TheHistoryoftheCommunistParty(Bolshevik)emphasizedonsixbasiclessons,like‘the

needtostayclosetothemasses’andnottobecome‘dizzywithsuccess’.16Thoughwhat

stoodoutmostfortheKhmerCommunistswereStalin’sfourprecepts,focusingonthe

8"CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2013.<http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history>.9"Cambodia:WorldWarIIandItsAftermath."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.12Dec.2012.<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90520/Cambodia/52486/World-War-II-and-its-aftermath>.10"PolPot."MoreorLess.N.p.,24Sept.2001.Web.10Nov.2012.11Guiat,Cyrille."Introduction."Introduction.TheFrenchandItalianCommunistParties:ComradesandCulture.London:FrankCass,2003.Xvii.Print.12Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.62.Print.13Ibid.,65.14Wessinger,Catherine.Millennialism,Persecution,andViolence:HistoricalCases.Syracuse,NY:SyracuseUP,2000.282.Print.15Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.67.Print.16"HistoryofTheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)."Marxists.N.p.,n.d.Web.05Jan.2013.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch11.htm>.

6

importanceofcorrectleadership,‘withoutwhichthecauseoftheproletarianrevolutionwill

beruined.’17StalintaughtthatMarxism-Leninismwasnotaphilosophy,butaguideto

action.TheHistoryalsoprovidedtheCambodianCommunistswithotherinvaluablelessons

ontheimportanceofrevolutionariesutilizingbothlegalandillegalformsofstruggleinorder

togainpower.Stalin’smessagesconstantlyurgedCommuniststoalwaysbeonthe

defensive.18

ThoughStalinismprovidedtheKhmerstudentswithasenseofdirection,Mao’sspeechOn

NewDemocracyinJanuaryof1940,deliveredtoruralworkersinYan’anprovidedan

intricateoutlineforrevolutionincolonialorsemi-colonialstates.19Maotaughtthat

revolutionsinsemi-colonialstateshadtooccurintwostages,firstademocraticrevolution

mustoccur,initiatedbyanallianceofdifferentclassesthenasocialistrevolutionmust

occur.20Maoexplains,‘theuniversaltruthofMarxism,mustbecombinedwithspecific

nationalcharacteristicstoacquireadefinitiveform…tobeuseful,andinnocircumstances

canitbeappliedobjectivelyasamereformula.Marxistswhomakeafetishofformulasare

simplyplayingthefool.’21TheKhmerstudentsneveracceptedMarxismasaresultofits

theoreticalinsightsbututilizeditinattemptstoexpeltheFrenchfromCambodia.

ThoughMaowasflexibleoncombiningnationalculturewithcommunism,onethinghe,like

Stalinremainedinflexiblein,co-operationtotheCommunistParty.WithMaoandStalin,

revolutionswereranbytheindustrialproletariat,Maoinsisted,‘therevolutioncannot

succeedwithoutthemodernindustrialworkingclass.’22Theconceptofanindustrialworking

class,modernorotherwisewasnon-existentinCambodia.23TheCerclehadoneoption,a

national-basedrevolutionforwhichanentirelydifferentmodelwasneeded,amodelPolPot

17HistoryoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)ShortCourse.NewYork:International,1939.391-402.Print.18"WWII:BehindClosedDoors."PBS.PBS,n.d.Web.10Nov.2012.<http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/stalins-spies.html>.19Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.70.Print.20Zedong,Mao."TheChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty."TheChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty.1940.Marxists.2004.Web.19Nov.2012.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_23.htm>.21Mao,Tse-tung.N.d.MS.Marxists.Web.19Nov.2012.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-3/mswv3_02.htm>.22Schoenhals,Michael.China'sCulturalRevolution,1966-1969:NotaDinnerParty.Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,1996.231.Print.23Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.72.Print.

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foundinTheGreatRevolutionbytheRussiananarchist,Kropotkin.Thebook’scontentshad

undeniableparallelstotheconditionsofCambodiaatthetime.24

TheFrenchRevolutionof1789sharedmoresimilaritiestoconditionsinCambodiathan

RussiaandChina.Kropotkin’saimssetoutinTheGreatRevolutionposedasinspirational

ideastoPolPot.

TheRevolutionwaspreparedandmadebytwogreatmovements.Onewasthe

currentofideas–atideofnewideasonthepoliticalreorganizationoftheState–

whichcamefromthebourgeoisie.Theother,thecurrentofaction,camefromthe

popularmasses–thepeasantsandlaborers…Whenthesetwomovementsjoined

togetherforwhatatfirstwasacommongoal–whenforatimetheylenteachother

mutualsupport–theRevolutionoccurred…thephilosopherspreparedthewayfor

thedownfalloftheancientrégime…Itwasnecessarytopassfromtheorytoaction,

fromanidealconceivedbytheimaginationtoitspracticalimplementationbydeeds.

What[we]muststudytoday,aboveeverythingelse,arethecircumstances,which

permittedtheFrenchnation,ataparticularmomentinhistory,tomakethatleap–to

begintomakethatidealareality.25

CambodiainthetwentiethcenturywasFranceduringtheeighteenth.Thoughparallels

betweenthetwonationswerenotapparenttothoseinCambodia,thesimilaritiescriedout

totheKhmerstudents.“PrimeMinisterPolPotandIwereprofoundlyinfluencedbythespirit

ofFrenchthought–bytheAgeofEnlightenment,ofRousseauandMontesquieu”26,explains

KhieuSamphân.ItwasRobespierre’sradicalismthatdrewinsomeofthefuturemembersof

theKhmerRouge.SuongSikoen,whowouldlaterbecomeoneoftheclosestaidsofIeng

Sarywasquotedsaying:

“Robespierre’spersonalityimpressedme.Hisradicalisminfluencedmealot.Hewas

incorruptibleandintransigent...Ifyoudosomething,youmustdoitrightthroughto

24Ibid.,74.25Kropotkin,PetrAlekseevich,andN.F.Dryhurst.TheGreatFrenchRevolution,1789-1793.NewYork:Vanguard,1927.1-2.Print.26Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.73.Print.

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theend.Youcan’tmakecompromises...Youmustalwaysbeonthesideofthe

absolute–nomiddleway,nocompromise.Youmustneverdothingsbyhalves…”27

ThoughKropotkinpraisedtheFrenchRevolution,tohimtheRevolutionneverwentfar

enough.Kropotkinhadamoreaggressiveoutlookonrevolution,“mustneverstophalfway,

forthenitwillsurelyfail…Rather,oncearevolutionhasbrokenout,itmustdeveloptoits

furthestlimits.Atitshighestpoint,countervailingforceswillcombineagainstit…anditwill

beforcedtoyield…Reactionwillsetin…Buttheendresultwillbebetterthatwhatwent

before.”28ThoughKropotkin’swork,TheGreatFrenchRevolutioncontainedmuchmore

viableinformation,threeofhiscorenotionsstuckwithPolPot.29Thesecorenotionsinclude,

arevolution’sneedforanalliancebetweenintellectualsandthepeasantrythatarevolution

oncestarted,mustbecarriedouttotheveryend,andegalitarianismmakesupthebasisof

communism.30

Afterfailinghisexamsthreesuccessiveyears,PolPot’sbursarytostudyinFrancewascut-

off.31OnJanuary13,1953,PolPotarrivedbacktoCambodia.Duringthattime,several

studentsstudyinginFrancewereinformedoftheterminationoftheirbursaries.32Asthe

KhmerstudentsreturnedtoCambodia,theyweregreetedtoacountryunderVietMinh

control.

VietnameseAlliance

During1953,theKhmerVietMinhwereoneofthemostpromisingresistancegroups;itwas

atthetimetheonlyrebelgroupwithinternationalconnections.Theseinternational

connectionsoriginatefromitsalliancewithVietnam.Decisionshadtobemadeonwhether

thefutureKhmerRougewouldattempttoseizepowerfromwithinbyworkingwiththeViet

MinhorbyfightingagainstthembyjoiningforceswiththeSonNgocThanhledKhmer

Issarak.ThedecisiontojoinforceswiththeVietMinhposedtobethebestoptionforthe

27 Suong, Sikoeun. Interview. Phnom Penh Post [Phnom Penh] 15 Nov. 1996: n. pag. Print 28 Kropotkin, Petr Alekseevich, and N. F. Dryhurst. The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793. New York: Vanguard, 1927. 646 and 738-9. Print. 29Short, Philip. "City of Light." Pol Pot. London: John Murray, 2004. 74. Print. 30Adams, Matthew S. "Kropotkin: Evolution, Revolutionary Change and the End of History." Anarchist Studies 19.1 (2011): 56. Print.31Rakower, Michael C. "The Khmer Rouge: An Analysis." To Oppose Any Foe: The Legacy of U.S. Intervention in Vietnam. By Ross A. Fisher, John Norton Moore, and Robert F. Turner. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic, 2006. 209. Print.32Short, Philip. "Initiation to the Maquis." Pol Pot. London: John Murray, 2004. 89. Print.

9

futureKhmerRougeleaders,astheyfeltthatitwouldpreventtheunnecessarycasualtiesof

Cambodiancitizens.33

Forthenextninemonths,Cerclememberssubmitted,withresentmenttoVietnamese

orders.PolPotandotherCerclemembersintroducedthemselvesaspartofthePCF,coming

toaidinthestruggleforindependence.ThoughtheyintroducedthemselvesasCommunists,

thereweredifficultiesingainingthetrustoftheVietMinh,mainlycomprisedofVietnamese

andonlyafewCambodians.ThePariseducatedCambodiansfeltlikepuppetstothe

Vietnamese,astheytookallthedecisionsandlefttheCambodianswithinsignificanttasks.34

“Afterawhiletheyletmework….Iwasthedeputymessofficer.Themessofficer

himselfwasVietnamese.TheCambodianswereonlythereinname”35–FutureKhmer

RougeLeaderSalothSâr(PolPot)

ThoughPolPotsawthatthemovementwasentirelycontrolledbytheVietnamese,itdidn’t

necessarilyfuelanyanti-Vietnamesesentiments.PolPotfeltthatthemovementonitsown

shouldbemoreindependentandself-reliant;hefeltthatagoodrelationshipwithVietnam

wasvitalandoftentookvaluablelessonsfromthemthatwould,inthefutureaidinhisrise

topower.TheVietnamesecommunistswereverytalentedintheartofgainingmass

support;theyhadanintricatesystemof‘armedpropagandateams’36whoworkedcloselyon

theinfiltrationofCambodianhamlets.

PoliticalTurmoil

SihanoukgainedcontroloftheCambodiangovernmentinJuneof1952.37Hecampaignedfor

internationalsupportbytouringseveralnationswithhis“RoyalCrusade”.38Thestrugglefor

independencewasasuccessbytheendof1953,astheFrenchwerereadytocompromiseto

Cambodia’sterms.

33Short,Philip."InitiationtotheMaquis."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.90.Print.34Ibid.,9635Pot,Pol.InterviewbyCaiXimei.May1984.36Short,Philip."InitiationtotheMaquis."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.99.Print.37"Cambodia-HISTORY."Mongabay.Mongabay,n.d.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/cambodia/HISTORY.html>.38Carvin,Andy."BeforetheHolocaust:Sihanouk'sRisetoPower."EdWeb.N.p.,1999.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/history/sihanouk.html>

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InreachingapoliticalsettlementtotheFirstIndochinaWar(FrenchIndochinaWar)atthe

GenevaConferencein1954.Sihanouk’sgovernmentbecamerecognisedastheonlylegal

authoritywithinCambodia,39preventingVietMinhfromgaininganyregionalpowerin

CambodiaastheydidinLaos.40

Duringthelate1960s,oppositiontoSihanouk’sruleincreased.41Thailandandformer

SouthernVietnamposedasbiggestthreatstothesurvivalofCambodiaasaprosperous

nation-state.42ThailandandSouthernVietnamwerecloseallieswiththeUSA,which

Sihanoukdisliked.43Sihanoukenforcedneutralityininternationalaffairsinattemptstogain

freedomtocontrolissueswithinCambodia.44DuetosuspicionofAmericaninvolvementin

twoSouthVietnamese-backedplotsagainsttheCambodianstatein1959and

encouragementinanti-AmericanismbytheFrenchpresident,CharlesdeGaulle,Sihanouk

brokeoffrelationswiththeUnitedStatesin1965.45AfterendingrelationswiththeUSA,

SihanoukarrangedsecretagreementswiththeVietnamesecommunists.Theagreements

madewiththeVietnamesecommunistsenabledthestationingofcommunisttroopson

Cambodianterritoryinoutlyingdistricts,undertheconditionthatCambodiancivilianswere

leftundisturbed.46

InMarchof1970,duringSihanouk’stourofEurope,theSovietUnion,andChina,anti-

VietnamesedemonstrationseruptedinPhnomPenh.47OnMarch12,SirikMatakcancelled

39"TheSihanoukYears."CambodiaHeritageTravel.CambodiaHeritageTravel,2008.Web.26Jan.2013<http://www.cambodiaheritagetravel.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71:the-sihanouk-years&catid=37:cambodia-history&Itemid=44>.40"VietnamWarTimeline."DepartmentofEnglish,UniversityofIllinois.Web.23Jan.2013<http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm>.41"Cambodia(Kampuchea)."UppsalaUniversitet.UppsalaConflictDataProgram,n.d.Web.26Jan.2013.<http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=27>.42Kislenko,Arne."ANotSoSilentPartner:Thailand'sRoleinCovertOperations,Counter-Insurgency,andtheWarsinIndochina."TheJournalofConflictStudies.N.p.,Summer2004.Web.12Jan.2013<http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/292/465>.43"CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.LonelyPlanet,n.d.Web.16Jan.2013<http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history>.44UnitedStates.CentralIntelligenceAgency.NationalSecurity.PrinceSihanoukandtheNewOrderinSoutheastAsia.ByJohnM.Taylor.FreedomofInformationAct:CentralIntelligenceAgency,May2007.Web.16Jan.2013<http://www.foia.cia.gov/CPE/ESAU/esau-25.pdf>.45Tighe,Paul,andDanielTenKate."NorodomSihanouk,FormerKingofCambodia,Diesat89."Bloomberg.BloombergL.P.,15Oct.2012.Web.15Oct.2012.<http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-15/norodom-sihanouk-former-king-of-cambodia-dies-at-89.html>.46"NorodomSihanouk(KingofCambodia)."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.15Oct.2012<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418437/Norodom-Sihanouk>.47"Lon Nol Ousts Prince Sihanouk." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2012<http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lon-nol-ousts-prince-sihanouk>.

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Sihanouk’stradeagreementwithNorthernVietnam;theportofSihanoukvillereceivedan

ordertobeclosedofftotheNorthVietnamesebyLonNol.48Animpossibleultimatumwas

issued:allPAVN(NorthVietnameseArmy)andVietCongforcesweretoevacuatefrom

Cambodiawithin72hoursorweretofacemilitaryaction.49OnMarch16,whenitwasclear

thatthedemandsofLonNolhadnotbeenmet,civiliansgatheredoutsidetheNational

AssemblyinPhnomPenhtoprotestagainstthepresenceofVietnamesetroops.SirikMatak,

afterlisteningtoatape-recordedpressconferencefromParisinwhichSihanoukthreatened

toexecutehimandLonNolashereturnedtoPhnomPenh,convincedLonNoltodeposethe

prince.50OfalltheCommunistparties,theChineseweretheonlyoneswillingtosupport

SihanoukfortheyhadaseparateplanforCambodia.51

ChineseAmbitions

IntheSino-SovietBorderClashof1969,Chinafounditselfinaborderskirmishwiththe

SovietUnion.52ChinahadafearthatintheeventofNorthVietnamesevictory,aunited

Vietnammightfollowsuitwithapro-Sovietandanti-Chinesepolicies.Needingaproxyto

exertleverageonHanoi,Chinabeganplayingadoublegame.53ZhouEnlai,thefirstPremier

ofthePeople’sRepublicofChinawaspubliclycommittedtorestoringthemonarchyin

Cambodia54;atthesametimehewasalsoincreasingChinesesupportfortheCambodia

communist,theKhmerRouge.

DuringSihanouk’sexile,theRoyalGovernmentofNationalUnionofKampucheawasformed

andSihanoukalliedwithcommunistforcesofChina,NorthVietnam,andthePathetLao.55

ThroughChinesepressure,theKhmerRougewereincludedintothisnewlyformed

48Matak,SisowathSirik."OpenLettertoPrinceSihanouk."LettertoPrinceSihanouk.27Aug.1973.KIMedia.KIMedia,4Aug.2011.Web.26Oct.2012<http://ki-media.blogspot.nl/2011/08/open-letter-to-prince-sihanouk-by.html>49"LonNol."KhmerView-LonNol.N.p.,2012.Web.26Oct.2012<http://www.khmerview.com/Lon-Nol.html>.50Marlay,Ross,andClarkD.Neher.PatriotsandTyrants:TenAsianLeaders.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1999.165.Print.5152Burr,William."TheSino-SovietBorderConflict,1969:USReactionsandDiplomaticManeuvers."TheNationalSecurityArchives.N.p.,12June2001.Web.,26Oct.2012<http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49/>.53Marlay,Ross,andClarkD.Neher.PatriotsandTyrants:TenAsianLeaders.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1999.165.Print.54Ibid.,167.55Carvin,Andy."BeforetheHolocaust:TheCoup."BeforetheHolocaust:TheCoup.N.p.,1999.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/history/coup.html>.

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government-in-exile.DespiteSihanouk’shistorywiththeKhmerRouge,hisChinese-fuelled

coalitionbecamelesssignificantcomparedtohishatredtowardsLonNol,referringtohimas

a“completeidiot”.56AlthoughSihanoukhadsupportfromthepeasantry,theywereinno

positiontoriseupagainstLonNol’sarmy.TheKhmerRougeseizedthisopportunitytooffer

Sihanoukfullsupport.

AmericanInvolvement

Sihanouk’sexileinChinaallowedLonNoltoseizepowerinCambodiamarkingthebeginning

ofadownwardspiral.LonNolmisguidedlythoughtthatmilitaryaidfromtheUSAwould

helpintheexpulsionofVietnamesecommunisttroopsanddefeattheKhmerRouge.LonNol

wasunabletoavoidbecomingthepuppetoftheUSAastheycontrolledhisbudget.57Inthe

summerof1971,LonNol’sarmylauncheditslastoffensiveasitprogressivelylostcontrolof

thecountrysideforthefollowingfouryears.58

TheUnitedStatesofAmerica’smainfocusintheregionwastoremoveallVietnamese

Communistinfluencesfromthearea.59InajointcoalitionwithSouthVietnam,theUSleda

groundinvasionofCambodiainMayandJuneof197060,whichfailedtoserveitspurposeof

evictingtheVietnameseCommunistsfromCambodia.Thefailedeffortstoevictthe

VietnameseCommunistsfromtheregionledtotheUSPresidentRichardNixonescalatingair

attackstowardsCambodiatodestroythemobileheadquartersoftheViet-Congandthe

NorthVietnameseArmy.NixondemandedanincreaseinbombsonCambodiaandplacedan

ordertoutilizethebombsdeeperintothecountry.ThebomborderstowardsCambodia

ignoredallpromisesbyNixonmadetotheCongressthatUSplaneswouldremainwithin30

kilometresoftheVietnameseborder.61PresidentNixon’s“MadmanTheory”wasthe

56Sihanouk,Norodom."IntervistaconLaStoria."InterviewbyOrianaFallaci.June1973:16.Print.57Hersh,SeymourM.ThePriceofPower:KissingerintheNixonWhiteHouse.NewYork:Summit,1983.175.Print.58Ibid.59Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:67.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web.20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.60Ibid.61Ibid.

13

centrepieceofhisforeignpolicy.62TheUSportrayedthebombardmentofCambodiaasa

symptomofNixon’sallegedinstability.

“IcallittheMadmanTheory,Bob.IwanttheNorthVietnamesetobelieveI've

reachedthepointwhereImightdoanythingtostopthewar…"forGod'ssake,you

knowNixonisobsessedaboutCommunism...”63–NixontoWhiteHouseChiefofStaff,

H.R.Haldeman

Forthenextthreeyears,underNixon’sorders,theUScontinuouslydroppedbombsdeep

insidetheCambodianborders.Atfirst,thebombingsweretargetedtoremovetheNorth

VietnameseArmyfromthearea,laterthebombingcampaignswereutilizedtodefendthe

LonNolregimefromgrowingthenumberofCambodiancommunistforces.64Thelastphase

ofthebombingsoccurredfromFebruarytoAugustof197365.Thebombingsfocusedon

stoppingtheKhmerRouge’sadvanceintoPhnomPenh.TheUnitedStates’fearoftheKhmer

RougetakingoverledtoanunprecedentedB-52bombardmentthatheavilyfocusedonthe

populatedareasaroundPhnomPenhbutleftfewregionsofthecountryunscathed.66

UntilCongresscutthefundingforthewarandforcedanendtothebombingsonAugust15,

1973,itwasbelievedthatapproximately2,756,941tonnesofordnanceweredroppedin

230,516sortieson113,716sitesinCambodiafromOctober4,1965toAugust15,1973.67

TheUSbombardmentofCambodiamerelytemporarilydelayedtheKhmerRouge’sabilityto

seizepowerofCambodia.Arguably,theUSbombingsofCambodiacreatedevenmorechaos

andgavetheKhmerRougeevenmorepowerthanitwouldhavehadiftheUSrefrained

fromthebombardment.TheKhmerRougeweredrivenoutoftheirbaseareasasaresultof

thebombings,butthisjustencouragedthemtosetupnewbasesinotherpartsofthe

country.Vastareasofthecountrysidetobecomeuninhabitablewhichcausedarapid

62Simon,Harvey.TheMadmanTheory.Bethesda,MD:Rosemoor,2012.Print.63Haldeman,H.R.,andJosephDiMona.TheEndsofPower.NewYork:Times,1978.122.Print.64Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:67.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web.20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.65Ibid.66Thayer,Nate."KhmerRouge,CambodianGovernmentSufferMemoryFailureinCourt:ThisMightHelp."'NateThayer'N.p.,8Dec.2011.Web.12Jan.2013.<http://natethayer.typepad.com/blog/khmer-rouge-tribunal/>.67Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:63.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web..20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.

14

increaseofrefugeesintoPhnomPenh,whichposedasaproblemtotheill-equippedLonNol

regime.Manychildrenwereorphanedduetotheintensebombardment,manywandering

groupsofCambodianchildrenturnedtoanewfatherfigure,theKhmerRougeleader,Pol

Pot.68

“Everytimeaftertherehadbeenbombing…Terrifiedandhalfcrazy,thepeoplewere

readytobelievewhattheyweretold.Itwasbecauseoftheirdissatisfactionwiththe

bombingthattheykeptonco-operatingwiththeKhmerRouge,joiningupwiththe

KhmerRouge,sendingtheirchildrenofftogowiththem....Sometimesthebombsfell

andhitlittlechildren,andtheirfatherswouldbeallfortheKhmerRouge.”69–Chhit

Do,FormerKhmerRougeOfficer

Assessment

NationalisminCambodiahasalwaysbeenstimulatedbyforeigninfluences.Siamand

Vietnam’scontinuousconflictoverCambodianterritorycausedCambodiatofallintoFrench

protectorate.FrenchcolonialismwastheammunitionforKhmerRougeleaders,givingthem

purpose,astheysoughttoridCambodiaofcolonialism.TheFrenchpreventedtheNational

AssemblyfromhavinganyrealgoverningpowerinCambodia,leadingtoanationdivided,

unabletomakemajordecisions.Instillingnationalisticsentimentswithinthenationwasnot

required,asitwasalreadyexistent,encouragedbytheJapanese.AsFranceandJapan

carriedonwiththeirimperialisticambitions,thepathforKhmerRougesuccesswas

unintentionallypaved.

TheleadersoftheKhmerRougestudieddifferentCommunistwritingsofMao,Stalin,

Kropotkin,andMarx.TheKhmerRougeleadersweredrawntothesewritingsforits

potentialofliberationinCambodia,notforitsphilosophy.TheKhmerRougeleaderspulled

differentaspectsofthesuccessofMaoandStalin,manifestingitintotheirownrendition,

towardpower.ThoughtheformsofCommunismasexecutedbyMaoandStalinwerenot

exactlyapplicabletosituationofCambodia,PolPotfoundinspirationinamoresuitable

model.HeavilyinfluencebyKropotkin,PolPotandotherKhmerRougememberscreated

parallelsbetweentheirnationalsituationandtheFrenchRevolution.Theysawtheneedto

68Ibid.69Do,Chhit.InterviewbyBrucePalling.BangkokPost1979:Print.

15

overthrowthemonarchy,theemphasisonradicalismandcompleteexecutionoftheirgoals.

ForeignideologyprovidedtheKhmerRougewithaconcretebasisforthebeginningoftheir

rule.

TheKhmerRougewereopportunists,takingadvantageofanychancetheygotthatwould

potentiallyleadthemtoapathofgreaterpower.Thisledtoanunlikelyalliancewiththe

VietnamesecontrolledKhmerVietMinhinwhich,thefutureKhmerRougeleadersbecame

subordinatesoftheneighboringrace.InsteadofallyingwithSonNgocThanh’smovement,

theyworkedwiththeVietMinhdisassemblingitfromwithin,graduallyshiftingthepowerto

theirhands.ThealliancewithVietMinhposednotonlysignificantintermsofthechanging

thebalanceofpowerbut,providedtheKhmerRougewithlessonsonpropagandathatthey

wouldutilizetolurepopularsupportandindoctrinateasenseofhatredtowardsforeigners.

TheChinesewereresponsibleforshapingtheKhmerRougeintoalegitimategovernmental

force,bypushingPolPottowardsanalliancewithSihanouk.Forminganevenfurther

divisionwithinthenationascitizenswereforcedtochoosesides.Havingthesupportofa

majorpowerlikeChinaprovidedtheKhmerRougewithenoughforcetoguaranteethem

success,aslongastheycontinuedonmakingtherightdecisions.

Americanbombingsbetween1970and1973,leftnotonlyareasofCambodiabarren,but

instilledseverehatredandangerwithinthepeopleaffected.TheKhmerRougeplayedon

thishatredandutilizedpropagandatechniquespickedupfromtheiryearswiththeViet

Minhtoinducesupportfortheirregime.TheUSbombingsoftheregionintendedtoridthe

areaofCommunistsresultedintheexacerbationofthesituation.Peopleweredrawntothe

KhmerRougeastheLonNolregimereliedontheUS.Inturn,CommunisminCambodia

becamemoreappealingthaneverbefore.

Conclusion

1975sawthestartofoneofthebiggestpostWWIIhumancatastrophesinSoutheastAsia,

onewhichwouldrivalthecatastrophesoftheKoreanandVietnamWars.Whatfirstbegan

asattemptstoridaCambodiaofFrenchcolonialismresultedinadownwardsspiralofa

nationfartoofamiliarwiththeeffectsforeigninfluences.TheKhmerRougeregime

16

massacredapproximately1.7millionCambodiancivilians,withinfouryears.Wereforeign

influencesthemaincauseintheriseoftheregime?

TheKhmerRougeexecutedtheirregimebasedonaselectionofvariousforeignideologies,

thepotentconcoctionofCommunistideologyinadditiontoexternalattemptsofits

suppressionallowedfortheoutburstofoneofthemostnotablegenocidesinhistory.In

assessingthereasonbehindthecreationoftheKhmerRouge,it’sclearthatforeign

influencesweretherootofnationalisticambitionsintheKhmerRougeandCambodia.The

chain-reactionsofeventsthattookplaceinCambodia,aidedbyforeignnationsinsupport

andprotestagainsttheKhmerRougegreatlyinfluencedtheirriseinpower.Theunintended

effectsoftheUSbombingsmeanttosuppresstheregimebecamethefinaltrigger,driving

theKhmerRougeintopower.TheKhmerRougecouldnothavegainedpowerwithout

foreigninfluences,forwithoutit;therewouldhavebeennobasisoftheirregime.

17

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Appendix1

Mappingby:TaylorOwen70

70Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:64-5CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web.20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf

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