f. brock fuller- decomposition of the linking number of a closed ribbon: a problem from molecular...

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Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. U S Vol. 7 5 , N o . 8 , p p . 3557-3561, August 1978 Mathematics Decomposition o f t h e linking number of a closed ribbon: A problem from molecular biology (writhing number/DNA/nucleosome) F . BROCK FULLER California Institute o f Technology, Sloan 253-37, Pasadena, California 91125 Communicated b y F . H . C . Crick, M a y 12,1978 ABSTRACT A closed duplex D N A molecule relaxed a n d containing nucleosomes h a s a different linking number from the same molecule relaxed a nd without nucleosomes. What does this s a y about t h e structure o f the nucleosome? A mathematical study f this question is made, representing the D N A molecule by a ribbon. I t i s shown that thelinking number of a closed ribbon c a n b e decomposed into t h e linking number o f a refer- ence ribbon plus a s u m o f locally determined "linking dif- ferences." 1 . Introduction This paper a s i t s origin in a problem from molecular biology. I t h a s been observed that i n a duplex D N A molecule a section about 140base pairs long m ay attach itself t o a group o f protein molecules (histones) to form a compact structure called a nu- cleosome. A n experiment that m ay give some information about t h e structure o f t h e nucleosome i t o compare t h e linking number o f the t w o strandsof a closed D NA molecule relaxed a n d containing nucleosomes with t h e linking number o f the same molecule relaxed a n d without nucleosomes. One c a n then calculate the "linking p e r nucleosome" b y dividing t h e dif- ference o f t h e t w o linking numbers b y t h e number o f nucleo- somes. I t i s n o w tempting t o s a y that this value o f "linking p er nucleosome" i s a property o f h e nucleosome. That this rea- soning rests o n a false assumption i s shown i n Fig. 1 , where t h e D N A molecule i s represented b y a ribbon ( 1 , 2). T he mathematical reason wh y t h e linking number i s n o t additive i s that t h e linking number o f t w o disjoint curves a a n d b h a s t h e properties o f a product a b . B y t h e linking number o f curves that a r e n o t closed i s meant their Gauss integral (3). Suppose, asin Fig. 1 , that a ribbon A i s c u t into sections A i , A = 2Ai, a n d that a = M ai a n d a ' = 2 a ' a r e t he corresponding decompositions o f t he edges. Then Lk(A) = (Faa)(aaj) 2asai + Z aiaj + atap T h e additivity i s upset b y t h e mixed terms ajaj + a ap, i 5 j , which involve the "distant interactions" o f A i with A i . T h e objective o f this paper i s t o s e e t o what extent it is pos- sible, i n spite o f t h e failureof additivity, t o isolate t h e effect o f a o f a closed ribbon o n i ts linking number. I t i s shown i n Section 8 that t he linking number c a n b e expressed as t h e linking number o f a "reference" ribbon plus a su m o f locally determined linking differences, each o f which expresses t he effect o f altering a section of h e reference ribbon. Sections 2 - 6 summarize t h e properties o f Lk, Tw, and W r , including some properties n o t given inearlier papers ( 1 , 2) , i n particular direct interpretationof W r in terms o f spherical area i n Section 6 . Section 7 introduces t h e notion of a cord, a generalization o f t h e notion of ribbon. Section 8 defines t h e linking difference b L k a n d shows ho w i t c a n b e used t o de - compose t h e L k o f a closed cord. There a r e some changes i n terminology from m y earlier paper (1): strip becomes ribbon, t h e arc length s i s replaced by a general parameter t , central curve becomes axis curve, twist w i becomes angular twist rate w 1 , a n d totaltwist number T w becomes twist T w . Differences from Crick's paper ( 2 ) are: T w instead o f T , Lk instead o f L , Wr insteadof W . a n d t h e linking number of t w o curves has t h e opposite sign convention. F o r ribbons this opposite convention i s compensated b y Crick's reversed orientationof o n e edge, s o that t h e definitionsof t h e linking number of a ribbon agree. I wish t o take t h e opportunityhere t o point o u t that the basic relation Lk = T w + W r a n d a number o f t h e results o f m y earlier paper ( 1 ) h a d previously appeared i n a paper by J . H . White (4). 2 . Representation o f a polymer b y a ribbon A stiff polymer, such a s two-stranded DNA, c an b e represented by a ribbon (1, 2). T h e axis of t h e ribbon i s a smooth non-self- intersecting space curve following t h e axis o f t h e polymer. Analytically t h e axis curve c a n b e written X(t), where X i s a vector from t h e origin t o the curve a n d t i s a real parameter. I t i s assumed that tangent velocity vector (d/dt)X i s never zero, s o that a unit tangent vector T(t) i s defined along t h e curve. T h e twisting o f the polymer about it s axis i s represented b y unit normal vectors U(t) everywhere perpendicular t o t he axis curve a n d pointing t o selected reference points o n t h e polymer. T h e axis curve X(t) a n d t h e normals U(t) together constitute a ribbon. T he choice o f thereference points on t he polymer to which t h e normal U(t) point i s , in fact, arbitrary. On e choice f o r two-stranded D N A would b e pointing from t he axis t o on e o f t h e t w o strands. Another choice would b e t o choose t h e ref- erence points i n such a w a y that U(t) would b e constant along a straight unstrained section. F o r t he three quantities Lk, T w , a n d W r , a different choice o f U(t) will change L k a n d T w , b u t will n ot change W r , n o r will i t change t h e differences between t he values o f L k o r T w f o r t w o different positions of t h e same polymer. A ribbon i s closed i f X(t) and U(t) a r e periodic functionsof t with t h e same period. Note that there m ay be "circular" or closed polymers that are not represented b y closed ribbons, especially i n view of the arbitrariness i n t h e choice of U(t). However, these closed polymers will be represented b y closed cords, as defined i n Section 7. 3 . Twist (Tw) o f a ribbon F o r a n y ribbon the rate a t which U(t) revolves about T(t) i n radians p e r units o f t i s t he angular twist rate w l : d t 3557 T h e costs o f publication o f this article were defrayed i n part b y t h e payment o f page charges.This article must therefore b e hereby marked "advertssnent" i n accordance with 1 8 U . S . C . §1734 solely t o indicate this fact.

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Page 1: F. Brock Fuller- Decomposition of the linking number of a closed ribbon: A problem from molecular biology

8/3/2019 F. Brock Fuller- Decomposition of the linking number of a closed ribbon: A problem from molecular biology

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/f-brock-fuller-decomposition-of-the-linking-number-of-a-closed-ribbon-a 1/5

P r o c . N a t i . A c a d . S c i . U S AV o l . 7 5 , N o . 8 , p p . 3 5 5 7 - 3 5 6 1 , A u g u s t 1 9 7 8M a t h e m a t i c s

D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i n k i n g number o f a c l o s e d r i b b o n : A p r o b l e mf r o m m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y

( w r i t h i n g n u m b e r / D N A / n u c l e o s o m e )

F . BROCK FULLER

C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , S l o a n 2 5 3 - 3 7 , P a s a d e n a , C a l i f o r n i a 9 1 1 2 5

C o m m u n i c a t e d b y F . H . C . C r i c k , M a y 1 2 , 1 9 7 8

A B S T R A C T A c l o s e d d u p l e x DNA m o l e c u l e r e l a x e d a n dc o n t a i n i n g n u c l e o s o m e s h a s a d i f f e r e n t l i n k i n g n u m b e r f r o mt h e s a m e m o l e c u l e r e l a x e d a n d w i t h o u t n u c l e o s o m e s . W h a t d o e st h i s s a y a b o u t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e n u c l e o s o m e ? A m a t h e m a t i c a ls t u d y o f t h i s q u e s t i o n i s m a d e , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e DNA m o l e c u l eb y a r i b b o n . I t i s s h o w n t h a t t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a c l o s e dr i b b o n c a n b e d e c o m p o s e d i n t o t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a r e f e r -e n c e r i b b o n p l u s a s u m o f l o c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d " l i n k i n g d i f -f e r e n c e s . "

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o nT h i s p a p e r h a s i t s o r i g i n i n a p r o b l e m f r o m m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y .I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t i n a d u p l e x DNA m o l e c u l e a s e c t i o na b o u t 1 4 0 b a s e p a i r s l o n g m a y a t t a c h i t s e l f t o a g r o u p o f p r o t e i nm o l e c u l e s ( h i s t o n e s ) t o f o r m a c o m p a c t s t r u c t u r e c a l l e d a n u -

c l e o s o m e . A n e x p e r i m e n t t h a t m a y g i v e s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u tt h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e n u c l e o s o m e i s t o c o m p a r e t h e l i n k i n gn u m b e r o f t h e t w o s t r a n d s o f a c l o s e d DNA m o l e c u l e r e l a x e da n d c o n t a i n i n g n u c l e o s o m e s w i t h t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f t h es a m e m o l e c u l e r e l a x e d a n d w i t h o u t n u c l e o s o m e s . O n e c a n t h e nc a l c u l a t e t h e " l i n k i n g p e r n u c l e o s o m e " b y d i v i d i n g t h e d i f -f e r e n c e o f t h e t w o l i n k i n g n u m b e r s b y t h e n u m b e r o f n u c l e o -s o m e s . I t i s n o w t e m p t i n g t o s a y t h a t t h i s v a l u e o f " l i n k i n g p e rn u c l e o s o m e " i s a p r o p e r t y o f t h e n u c l e o s o m e . T h a t t h i s r e a -

s o n i n g r e s t s o n a f a l s e a s s u m p t i o n i s s h o w n i n F i g . 1 , w h e r e t h eDNA m o l e c u l e i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a r i b b o n ( 1 , 2 ) .T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l r e a s o n w h y t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r i s n o t

a d d i t i v e i s t h a t t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f t w o d i s j o i n t c u r v e s a a n db h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a p r o d u c t a b . B y t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o fc u r v e s t h a t a r e n o t c l o s e d i s m e a n t t h e i r G a u s s i n t e g r a l ( 3 ) .S u p p o s e , a s i n F i g . 1 , t h a t a r i b b o n A i s c u t i n t o s e c t i o n s A i , A= 2 A i , a n d t h a t a = M a i a n d a ' = 2 a ' a r e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gd e c o m p o s i t i o n s o f t h e e d g e s . T h e n

L k ( A ) = (Faa)(aaj)2 a s a i + Z a i a j + a t a p

T h e a d d i t i v i t y i s u p s e t b y t h e m i x e d t e r m s a j a j + a a p , i 5 j ,w h i c h i n v o l v e t h e " d i s t a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s " o f A i w i t h A i .

T h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s p a p e r i s t o s e e t o w h a t e x t e n t i t i s p o s -

s i b l e , i n s p i t e o f t h e f a i l u r e o f a d d i t i v i t y , t o i s o l a t e t h e e f f e c t o fa s e c t i o n o f a c l o s e d r i b b o n o n i t s l i n k i n g n u m b e r . I t i s s h o w ni n S e c t i o n 8 t h a t t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s t h el i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a " r e f e r e n c e " r i b b o n p l u s a s u m o f l o c a l l yd e t e r m i n e d l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s , e a c h o f w h i c h e x p r e s s e s t h ee f f e c t o f a l t e r i n g a s e c t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e r i b b o n .

S e c t i o n s 2 - 6 s u m m a r i z e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f L k , T w , a nd W r ,i n c l u d i n g s o m e p r o p e r t i e s n o t g i v e n i n e a r l i e r p a p e r s ( 1 , 2 ) , i np a r t i c u l a r t h e d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Wr i n t e r m s o f s p h e r i c a la r e a i n S e c t i o n 6 . S e c t i o n 7 i n t r o d u c e s t h e n o t i o n o f a c o r d , a

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f r i b b o n . S e c t i o n 8 d e f i n e s t h el i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e b L k a n d s h o w s h o w i t c a n b e u s e d t o d e -c o m p o s e t h e L k o f a c l o s e d c o r d .

T h e r e a r e s o m e c h a n g e s i n t e r m i n o l o g y f r o m m y e a r l i e rp a p e r ( 1 ) : s t r i p b e c o m e s r i b b o n , t h e a r c l e n g t h s i s r e p l a c e d b ya g e n e r a l p a r a m e t e r t , c e n t r a l c u r v e b e c o m e s a x i s c u r v e , t w i s tw i b e c o m e s a n g u l a r t w i s t r a t e w 1 , a n d t o t a l t w i s t n u m b e r Twb e c o m e s t w i s t T w . D i f f e r e n c e s f r o m C r i c k ' s p a p e r ( 2 ) a r e : Twi n s t e a d o f T , L k i n s t e a d o f L , Wr i n s t e a d o f W . a n d t h e l i n k i n gn u m b e r o f t w o c u r v e s h a s t h e o p p o s i t e s i g n c o n v e n t i o n . F o rr i b b o n s t h i s o p p o s i t e c o n v e n t i o n i s c o m p e n s a t e d b y C r i c k ' sr e v e r s e d o r i e n t a t i o n o f o n e e d g e , s o t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h el i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a r i b b o n a g r e e .

I w i s h t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y h e r e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e b a s i cr e l a t i o n L k = Tw + Wr a n d a n u m b e r o f t h e r e s u l t s o f m ye a r l i e r p a p e r ( 1 ) h a d p r e v i o u s l y a p p e a r e d i n a p a p e r b y J . H .W h i t e ( 4 ) .

2 . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p o l y m e r b y a r i b b o n

A s t i f f p o l y m e r , s u c h a s t w o - s t r a n d e d D N A , c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e db y a r i b b o n ( 1 , 2 ) . T h e a x i s o f t h e r i b b o n i s a s m o o t h n o n - s e l f -i n t e r s e c t i n g s p a c e c u r v e f o l l o w i n g t h e a x i s o f t h e p o l y m e r .A n a l y t i c a l l y t h e a x i s c u r v e c a n b e w r i t t e n X ( t ) , w h e r e X i s av e c t o r f r o m t h e o r i g i n t o t h e c u r v e a n d t i s a r e a l p a r a m e t e r .I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t a n g e n t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ( d / d t ) X i s n e v e r

z e r o , s o t h a t a u n i t t a n g e n t v e c t o r T ( t ) i s d e f i n e d a l o n g t h ec u r v e . T h e t w i s t i n g o f t h e p o l y m e r a b o u t i t s a x i s i s r e p r e s e n t e db y u n i t n o r m a l v e c t o r s U ( t ) e v e r y w h e r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h ea x i s c u r v e a n d p o i n t i n g t o s e l e c t e d r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s o n t h ep o l y m e r . T h e a x i s c u r v e X ( t ) a n d t h e n o r m a l s U ( t ) t o g e t h e rc o n s t i t u t e a r i b b o n .

T h e c h o i c e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s o n t h e p o l y m e r t o w h i c ht h e n o r m a l v e c t o r s U ( t ) p o i n t i s , i n f a c t , a r b i t r a r y . O n e c h o i c ef o r t w o - s t r a n d e d DNA w o u l d b e p o i n t i n g f r o m t h e a x i s t o o n eo f t h e t w o s t r a n d s . A n o t h e r c h o i c e w o u l d b e t o c h o o s e t h e r e f -e r e n c e p o i n t s i n s u c h a w a y t h a t U ( t ) w o u l d b e c o n s t a n t a l o n ga s t r a i g h t u n s t r a i n e d s e c t i o n . F o r t h e t h r e e q u a n t i t i e s L k , T w ,a n d W r , a d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e o f U ( t ) w i l l c h a n g e L k a n d T w , b u t

w i l l n o t c h a n g e W r , n o r w i l l i t c h a n g e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e nt h e v a l u e s o f L k o r Tw f o r t w o d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s a m ep o l y m e r .A r i b b o n i s c l o s e d i f X ( t ) a n d U ( t ) a r e p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n s o f

t w i t h t h e s a m e p e r i o d . N o t e t h a t t h e r e m a y b e " c i r c u l a r " o rc l o s e d p o l y m e r s t h a t a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d b y c l o s e d r i b b o n s ,e s p e c i a l l y i n v i e w o f t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n t h e c h o i c e o f U ( t ) .H o w e v e r , t h e s e c l o s e d p o l y m e r s w i l l b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y c l o s e dc o r d s , a s d e f i n e d i n S e c t i o n 7 .

3 . T w i s t ( T w ) o f a r i b b o n

F o r a n y r i b b o n t h e r a t e a t w h i c h U ( t ) r e v o l v e s a b o u t T ( t ) i nr a d i a n s p e r u n i t s o f t i s t h e a n g u l a r t w i s t r a t e w l :

d t

3 5 5 7

T h e c o s t s o f p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s a r t i c l e w e r e d e f r a y e d i n p a r t b y t h ep a y m e n t o f p a g e c h a r g e s . T h i s a r t i c l e m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e h e r e b y m a r k e d" a d v e r t s s n e n t " i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h 1 8 U . S . C . § 1 7 3 4 s o l e l y t o i n d i c a t et h i s f a c t .

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8/3/2019 F. Brock Fuller- Decomposition of the linking number of a closed ribbon: A problem from molecular biology

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/f-brock-fuller-decomposition-of-the-linking-number-of-a-closed-ribbon-a 2/5

P r o c . N a t i . A c a d . S c i . USA 7 5 ( 1 9 7 8 )

A l A 2 A 2 A lLk=O L k = - 2

F I G . 1 . E x a m p l e t o s h o w t h a t t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r ( L k ) o f a c l o s e dr i b b o n t h a t i s a s s e m b l e d f r o m p i e c e s c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d a s a s u mo f n u m b e r s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p i e c e s . T h r e e p i e c e s , A l , A 2 , a n d A 3 ,a r e a s s e m b l e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s t o g i v e t w o c l o s e d r i b b o n s w i t h d i f -f e r e n t l i n k i n g n u m b e r s . T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r s a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y a d d i n g

u p + l ' s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o v e r c r o s s i n g s a s f o l l o w s . O r i e n t b o t h e d g e s

t h e s a m e w a y . T r av e r s e o n e e d g e ; c o u n t + 1 w h e n e v e r t h e o t h e r e d g e

c r o s s e s o v e r f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t , - 1 w h e n e v e r t h e o t h e r e d g e c r o s s e s o v e rf r o m r i g h t t o l e f t ( 1 , 2 ) .

T h e i n t e g r a l o f t h e a n g u l a r t w i s t r a t e c w l , d i v i d e d b y 2 7 r , i s t h et w i s t T w :

Tw =- , d t . [ 3 . 2 ]2 w 7

A c h a n g e o f p a r a m e t e r c h a n g e s w 1 b u t d o e s n o t c h a n g e T w . T h et w i s t Tw c o u n t s t h e n e t n u m b e r o f r i g h t - h a n d e d t u r n s t h a t ar i b b o n m a k e s a b o u t i t s a x i s .

P r o p e r t i e s o f Tw a r e : ( i ) Tw i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r r i g i d m o t i o n so r d i l a t i o n s o f t h e s p a c e c o n t a i n i n g t h e r i b b o n . I t d o e s n o t d e -p e n d o n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n t h e r i b b o n i s t r a v e r s e d . I t s s i g n i sc h a ng e d b y r e f l e c t i o n s i n a p l a n e o r b y r e f l e c t i o n i n a s p h e r e( i n v e r s i o n b y r e c i p r o c a l r a d i i ) p r o v i d e d t h e a x i s c u r v e a v o i d st h e c e n t e r o f t h e s p h e r e . T h e t w i s t Tw i s t h u s a c o n f o r m a l i n -v a r i a n t ( 5 ) .Tw i s n o t a t o p o l o g i c a l i n v a r i a n t e v e n f o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n .

H o w e v e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g i s t r u e . S u p p o s e t h e e n t i r e a x i s c u r v ea n d t h e v a l u e s o f t h e n o r m a l v e c t o r s U a t t h e t w o e n d s o f t h ec u r v e a r e h e l d f i x e d . T h e n t h e v a l u e o f Tw i s d e t e r m i n e d m o -

d u l o 1 ( u p t o - a n i n t e g e r ) a n d h e n c e i s u n c h a n g e d b y a d e f o r -m a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s o f U o n t h e c u r v e b e t w e e n t h e e n d -p o i n t s .

( i i ) Tw i s a d d i t i v e : T w ( a + A 3 ) = T w ( a ) + T w ( ( 3 ) . T h em e a n i n g o f t h e s u m a + # o f t w o r i b b o n s a a n d # m a y b e d e -s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s . S u p p o s e t h e r i b b o n a + # h a s t h e p a r a m e t e rt , a <t < b . T h e n t h e s t r i p a i s t h e p a r t a S t < c o f a + ( f o rs o m e c b e t w e e n a a n d b a n d t h e s t r i p ( i s t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r tc < t < b .

( i i i ) I f t h e a x i s c u r v e o f a r i b b o n i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t s e l f , a si n F i g . 2 , t h e v a l u e o f Tw c h a n g e s c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h o u t a n y

j u m p . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f Tw d o e s n o tr e q u i r e t h a t t h e a x i s c u r v e b e n o n - s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g .

4 . L i n k i n g n u m b e r ( L k ) o f a c l o s e d r i b b o nF o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n t h e e d g e s X ( t )W e U ( t ) a r e , f o r a l l s u f f i -c i e n t l y s m a l l p o s i t i v e E , d i s j o i n t c l o s e d c u r v e s a n d t h e l i n k i n gn u m b e r L k o f t h e c l o s e d r i b b o n i s d e f i n e d a s t h e t o p o l o g i c a l

l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f t h e t w o e d g e s ( 1 , 2 ) o r , e q u i v a l e n t l y , o f o n ee d g e a n d t h e a x i s c u r v e X ( t ) .P r o p e r t i e s o f L k a r e : ( i ) L k i s a n i n t e g e r , u n c h a n g e d b y

c o n t i n u o u s d e f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e r i b b o n . I t d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n

w h i c h d i r e c t i o n t h e r i b b o n i s t r a v e r s e d .( i i ) L k i s u n c h a n g e d b y a n o r i e n t a t i o n - p r e s e r v i n g t o p o l o g i c a l

Lk() L k + 2

F I G . 2 . How Lk c h a n g e s i f a c l o s e d r i b b o n i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t s e l f .T h e b r o k e n l i n e s s h o w w h i c h w a y t h e e n d s o f t h e c r o s s i n g p o r t i o n so f t h e r i b b o n a r e c o n n e c t e d .

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o n t a i n i n g s p a c e i n t o i t s e l f . I t s s i g n i sc h a n g e d b y a n o r i e n t a t i o n - r e v e r s i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , s u c h a sr e f l e c t i o n i n a p l a n e .

( i i i ) I f a r i b b o n i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t s e l f , t h e v a l u e o f L k j u m p sb y ± 2 a c c o r d i n g t o F i g . 2 .

( i v ) T h e t w o e d g e s o f a c l o s e d r i b b o n c a n b e d i s e n t a n g l e d i f ,a n d o n l y i f , L k = 0 a n d t h e a x i s i s a n u n k n o t t e d s p a c e c u r v e .T h i s i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f D e h n ' s l e m m a ( 6 , 7 ) .

5 . W r i t h i n g n u m b e r ( W r ) o f a c l o s e d n o n - s e l f -i n t e r s e c t i n g s p a c e c u r v e

A c l o s e d r i b b o n h a s b o t h a l i n k i n g n u m b e r L k a n d a t w i s t T w .I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e n u m b e r s a r e n o t e q u a l . T h e i r d i f f e r e n c e , L k- T w , i s c a l l e d t h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r W r , s o t h a t

L k = Tw + W r . [ 5 . 1 ]

P r o p e r t i e s o f Wr a r e : ( i ) Wr o f a r i b b o n d e p e n d s o n l y o n i ta x i s c u r v e . T h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r i s t h u s d e f i n e d f o r a n y s m o o t h ,c l o s e d , n o n - s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g s p a c e c u r v e . I t d o e s n o t d e p e n do n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n t h e s p a c e c u r v e i s t r a v e r s e d .

( i i ) Wr i s i n v a r i a n t u n d e r r i g i d m o t i o n s o r d i l a t i o n s o f t h es p a c e c o n t a i n i n g t h e c u r v e . I t s s i g n i s c h a n g e d b y r e f l e c t i o n i na p l a n e o r b y r e f l e c t i o n i n a s p h e r e , p r o v i d e d t h e c u r v e a v o i d s

t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s p h e r e . A c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e l a s t t w op r o p e r t i e s i s t h a t Wr = 0 f o r a n y c l o s e d c u r v e i n a p l a n e o r o n

a s p h e r e ; h e n c e L k = Tw f o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n w h o s e a x i s c u r v el i e s i n a p l a n e o r o n a s p h e r e . T h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r Wr i s ac o n f o r m a l i n v a r i a n t . I t i s n o t a t o p o l o g i c a l i n v a r i a n t .

( i i i ) I f t h e c u r v e i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t s e l f , t h e v a l u e o f Wrj u m p s b y h 2 a c c o r d i n g t o F i g . 3 .

N o t e t h a t e a c h o f t h e t h r e e q u a n t i t i e s , L k , T w , a n d W r , d e -f i n e d f o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n h a s a d e s i r a b l e p r o p e r t y n o t s h a r e d b yt h e o t h e r t w o : L k i s t o p o l o g i c a l , Tw i s a d d i t i v e , a n d Wr d e p e n d so n l y o n t h e a x i s c u r v e o f t h e r i b b o n . T h e r e l a t i o n L k = Tw +Wr i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4 .

6 . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r W r i n t e r m so f s p h e r i c a l a r e a

T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r Wr o f a c l o s e d n o n -

s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g c u r v e i n v o l v e s s o m e t h i n g e x t r a n e o u s t o t h ec u r v e i n t h a t o n e c o n s t r u c t s a c l o s e d r i b b o n h a v i n g t h e c u r v e

a s a x i s a n d c o m p u t e s Wr = L k - T w . S i n c e t h e r e s u l t d o e s n o td e p e n d o n t h e r i b b o n c h o s e n , o n e m a y a s k w h e t h e r i t i s p o s s i b lt o d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e r i b b o n a n d o b t a i n W r d i r e c t l y f r o m t h ec u r v e . T h i s q u e s t i o n i s a n s w e r e d i n p a r t b y t h e f o l l o w i n g t h eo r e m .

T H E O R E M . T h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r W r o f a c l o s e d n o n - s e l f -i n t e r s e c t i n g s p a c e c u r v e h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t i n t e r p r e t a -t i o n . T h e u n i t t a n g e n t s T ( t ) t o t h e c u r v e t r a c e o u t , i f t h e is t a r t i n g p o i n t s a r e t r a n s l a t e d t o t h e o r i g i n , a c l o s e d c u r v e o n

t h e u n i t s p h e r e . L e t A b e t h e s o l i d a n g l e i n s t e r a d i a n s ( a r eo n t h e u n i t s p h e r e ) e n c l o s e d b y t h i s c u r v e . T h e n

1 + Wr=-A m o d u l o 2 .2 w x

[ 6 . 1

D i s c u s s i o n . E q . 6 . 1 i s o n l y g o o d m o d u l o 2 b e c a u s e t h e s o l ia n g l e e n c l o s e d b y t h e c u r v e T ( t ) i s d e t e r m i n e d o n l y u p t o i n

t e g e r m u l t i p l e s o f 4 w x ( t h e a r e a o f t h e u n i t s p h e r e ) . H o w e v e r

Wr>X )

F I G . 3 . How t h e v a l u e o f Wr j u m p s i f a c l o s e d n o n - s e l f - i n t e rs e c t i n g c u r v e i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h i t s e l f . Th e b r o k e n l i n e s s h o w w h i c

w a y t h e e n d s o f t h e c r o s s i n g s o l i d l i n e s a r e c o n n e c t e d .

% 3 0 - 5 8 M a t h e m a t i c s : ' F u l l e r

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I If IWr x + 2

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P r o c . N a t l . A c a d . S c i . USA 7 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 3 5 5 9

Tw n s i n aW r = n ( - s i n a )

a = p i t c h a n g l e o f h e l i xn = n u m b e r o f t u r n s

F I G . 4 . Lk = Tw + Wr f o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n . P a r t o f t h e r i b b o n i sw r a p p e d n t i m e s a r o u n d a c y l i n d e r i n s u c h a way t h a t t h e a x i s curv e

o f t h e r i b b o n i s a h e l i x w i t h p i t c h a n g l e a. Th e r e s t o f t h e r i b b o n l i e si n a p l a n e t a n g e n t t o t h e c y l i n d e r . F o r a = 1 / 2 w r t h e a x i s o f t h e r i b b o ni s a p l a n e curv e so t h a t Wr =0a n d Lk = T w . F o r s m a l l a , Tw i s s m a l la n d Lk i s n e a r l y W r . I f t h e u n i t t a n g e n t s t o t h e a x i s curve o f t h e r i b b o nare r e f e r r e d t o t h e o r i g i n , t h e i r e n d p o i n t s t r a c e o u t a c l o s e d curve on

t h e u n i t s p h e r e . N o t e t h a t t h e ar ea e n c l o s e d b y t h i s curve i s a h e m i -

s p h e r e ( 2 w r ) p l u s n t i m e s a ca p o f ar ea 2 r ( 1 - s i n a ) n = 2 w r ( 1 + W r ) ,a n e x a m p l e o f t h e ar ea i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Wr g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 6 .

t h e v a l u e o f W r ca n b e f o u n d b y u s i n g E q . 6 . 1 t o g e t h e r w i t h a

c o n t i n u i t y a r g u m e n t . S u p p o s e f i r s t t h a t t h e curve i s u n k n o t t e d .T h e n a c i r c l e ( W r = 0 ) ca n b e d e f o r m e d s m o o t h l y i n t o t h ecurve. D u r i n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n t h e v a l u e o f Wr c h a n g e s con-

t i n u o u s l y ; h e n c e t h e r e i s o n l y on e c o r r e c t v a l u e t o c h o o s e o u t

o f t h e d i s c r e t e s e t o f v a l u e s g i v e n b y E q . 6 . 1 . I f t h e c u r v e i s

k n o t t e d , t h e n i t w i l l b e necessary t o pass t h e d e f o r m e d c i r c l et h r o u g h i t s e l f on e or more t i m e s t o a r r i v e a t t h e g i v e n curve.

B u t i t i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e t o k e e p t r a c k o f t h e c o r r e c t v a l u e o f W rb e c a u s e t h e r e w i l l b e a j u m p o f ±2 i n t h e v a l u e o f Wr e a c h t i m e

t h e curve p a s s e s t h r o u g h i t s e l f i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h F i g . 3 . A s a n

e x a m p l e , i n F i g . 4 t h e curve o f u n i t t a n g e n t s T ( t ) i s a g r e a t

c i r c l e , e n c l o s i n g a n a r e a 2 w r , p l u s n t u r n s a r o u n d a c i r c u l a r" c a p , " e n c l o s i n g a n ar ea 2 w r n ( 1 - i n a ) . F o r a = 1 / 2 r t h e cu rve

i s i n a p l a n e , so t h a t Wr =0. T h u s + W r = 1 + n ( I - i n a )i s c o r r e c t f o r a= 1 / 2 w. B y E q . 6 . 1 t h e e q u a t i o n i s c o r r e c t m o d u l o2 f o r a n y a i n t h e range 0< a < 1 / 2 w r ; b y c o n t i n u i t y t h e e q u a-

t i o n r e m a i n s c o r r e c t as a a r i e s d o w n t h e range 0 < a < 1 / 2T.

P r o o f : T h e p r o o f o f E q . 6 . 1 i s a c o n s eq u e n c e o f t h e G a u s s -

B o n n e t t h e o r e m i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l f o r m s , w h i c hs a y s t h a t f o r a n y c l o s e d curve on t h e u n i t s p h e r e w i t h a u n i t

t a n g e n t t o t h e s p h e r e d e f i n e d a t e a c h p o i n t o f t h e c u r v e :

T o t a l r o t a t i o n o f t a n g e n t + a r e a e n c l o s e d b y c u r v e 0m o d u l o 2 w r . [ 6 . 2 ]

F o r a c l o s e d r i b b o n t h e u n i t t a n g e n t T ( t ) t o i t s a x i s sweeps o u t

a c l o s e d curve o n t h e u n i t s p h e r e a n d t h e n o r m a l U ( t ) i s a u n i tv e c t o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o T ( t ) a n d h e n c e t a n g e n t t o t h e s p h e r e .T h e t o t a l r o t a t i o n o f U ( t ) i s 2 w r T w , so [ 6 . 2 ] , d i v i d e d b y 2 w r ,

says

Tw+-A =0 m o d u l o l . [ 6 . 3 ]2 7 r

C o m p a r i n g t h i s w i t h Tw + Wr = L k 0m o d u l o 1 we se e t h a tW r 1 / 2 w A m o d u l o 1 . T o g e t 1 + W r = 1 / 2 w r A m o d u l o 2 ( E q .6 . 1 ) , n o t e t h a t E q . 6 . 1 i s c o r r e c t f o r a c i r c l e a n d s i n c e i t i s c o r r e c t

m o d u l o 1 i t r e m a i n s c o r r e c t m o d u l o 2 i f t h e c i r c l e i s d e f o r m e dw i t h o u t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h i t s e l f . I f t h e d e f o r m e d c i r c l e p a s s e s

t h r o u g h i t s e l f , t h e r e s u l t i n g +2 j ump h a s no e f f e c t m o d u l o 2 .R e l a t e d t o E q . 6 . 1 i s t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e o r e m .T H E O R E M . L e t X l ( t ) a n d X 2 ( t ) b e two c l o s e d n o n - s e l f - i n -

t e r s e c t i n g space curves s h a r i n g t h e same p a r a m e t e r t . S u p p o s e

t h a t X l ( t ) ca n b e d e f o r m e d i n t o X 2 ( t ) t h r o u g h n o n - s e l f -

i n t e r s e c t i n g c u r v e s X \ ( t ) , 1 < A < 2 , i n s u c h a w a y t h a t T I ( t )a n d T A ( t ) a r e n e v e r o p p o s i t e l y d i r e c t e d . T h e n t h e w r i t h i n gn u m b e r s o f t h e t w o s p a c e c u r v e s a r e r e l a t e d b y

d t1 T , X T 2 . - d t ( T , + T 2 )

W r 2 - W r l = 2 r + t d t . [ 6 . 4 ]r 2- W r 1 2 = r 1 +T,* T 2N o t e t h a t E q . 6 . 4 i s a n e q u a l i t y , n o t a c o n g r u e n c e m o d u l o 2 .

W h a tt h e

i n t e g r a l c a l c u l a t e s i s t h e a r e as w e p t

o u t b y t h eu n i q u es h o r t e s t g e o d e s i c ( g r e a t c i r c l e a r c ) f r o m T I ( t ) t o T 2 ( t ) a s t r u n s

o v e r a p e r i o d .A t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f E q . 6 . 4 w o u l d b e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e

w r i t h i n g n u m b e r o f a c l o s e d " b e n t h e l i x , " t a k i n g X l ( t ) t o r e p -r e s e n t t h e c u r v e d " a x i s " a n d X 2 ( t ) t o r e p r e s e n t t h e b e n t h e l i xw i n d i n g a r o u n d i t .

7 . C o r d s

B y a c o r d w e s h a l l m e a n a n o n - s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g s p a c e c u r v eX ( t ) - i t s a x i s c u r v e - t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a n g u l a r t w i s t r a t e w , ( t )d e f i n e d a l o n g t h e c u r v e . E a c h r i b b o n t h u s d e t e r m i n e s a c o r d ,w h i l e t o e a c h c o r d c o r r e s p o n d s a f a m i l y o f r i b b o n s w i t h t h es a m e a x i s c u r v e a n d s u c h t h a t a n y t w o r i b b o n s o f t h e f a m i l yd i f f e r b y a c o n s t a n t a n g l e a l o n g t h e c u r v e . T h e n o r m a l s U ( t )

f o r t h e r i b b o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g i v e n c o r d a r e t h e s o l u t i o n so f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n , E q . 3 . 1 . T h e t w i s t Tw o f a c o r d h a st h e s a m e d e f i n i t i o n a n d p r o p e r t i e s a s t h e t w i s t o f a r i b b o n .A c l o s e d c o r d i s o n e w h o s e a x i s c u r v e i s c l o s e d , r e p r e s e n t e d

b y a p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n X ( t ) o f t , a n d w h o s e a n g u l a r t w i s t r a t ew ( t ) i s a l s o p e r i o d i c w i t h t h e s a m e p e r i o d . N o t e t h a t t h e r i b b o n sc o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c l o s e d c o r d n e e d n o t b e c l o s e d , s i n c e t h en o r m a l U ( t ) n e e d n o t r e t u r n t o i t s i n i t i a l v a l u e w h e n t h e a x i sc u r v e i s t r a v e r s e d o n c e .

T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r L k o f a c l o s e d c o r d i s d e f i n e d b y t h ee q u a t i o n L k = Tw + W r , w h e r e Wr i s t h e w r i t h i n g n u m b e r o fi t s a x i s c u r v e . T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a c o r d h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s( 1 ) - ( 3 ) o f t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a r i b b o n , e x c e p t t h a t i t i s ar e a l n u m b e r , a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n i n t e g e r .

T h e d e f o r m a t i o n i n v a r i a n c e a n d t h e t o p o l o g i c a l i n v a r i a n c ep r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a c o r d a r e n o t o b v i o u s f r o mi t s d e f i n i t i o n . T o s e e t h e s e w e g i v e a n a l t e r n a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o no f L k i n p u r e l y t o p o l o g i c a l t e r m s . L e t U ( t ) , - c o < t < + c , b ea s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n , E q . 3 . 1 . T h e c u r v e s X ( t )+ E U ( t ) , f o r v a r i o u s s o l u t i o n s U ( t ) a n d v a r i o u s s u f f i c i e n t l ys m a l l p o s i t i v e c , a r e t h e t r a j e c t o r i e s o f a f l o w o n a t u b u l a rn e i g h b o r h o o d o f t h e a x i s c u r v e X ( t ) . T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r L ko f t h e c o r d i s t h e a v e r a g e r a t e a t w h i c h o n e o f t h e t r a j e c t o r i e sl i n k s t h e a x i s c u r v e , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s e . A t r a j e c t o r y X ( t ) +e U ( t ) f o r 0 < t < n p , w h e r e p i s t h e p e r i o d o f X ( t ) , c a n b ec o m p l e t e d t o a c l o s e d c u r v e c n b y a d d i n g t o i t a c i r c u l a r a r c o fr a d i u s E . T h e n

L k = l i m - L k ( c n , a x i s c u r v e ) . [ 7 . 1 ]

nA d b - c

nT h e l i m i t [ 7 . 1 ] w i l l e x i s t f o r f l o w s t o p o l o g i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t

t o t h e g i v e n o n e , a s f o l l o w s f r o m t h e t h e o r y o f d i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n s o n a t o r u s ( 8 ) ; L k i s t h e P o i n c a r e r o t a t i o n n u m b e r o ft h e f l o w o n t h e t o r u s o f p o i n t s a t a d i s t a n c e e f r o m t h e a x i s c u r v e ,u s i n g a s r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e a n g l e s a c l o s e d c u r v e X ( t ) + E V ( t ) ,V ( t ) a u n i t v e c t o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o T ( t ) t h a t i s n o t l i n k e d w i t ht h e a x i s c u r v e .

T h e l i m i t [ 7 . 1 ] i s n o t a n e f f i c i e n t w a y t o c a l c u l a t e L k . T o d ot h a t o n e c a n u s e t h e d e f i n i t i o n L k = Tw + Wr i n t h e f o l l o w i n gw a y : A f t e r W 1 , a n d h e n c e T w , i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e a l t e r e dc o r d i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a c l o s e d r i b b o n . T h e n

L k ( c o r d ) = L k ( c l o s e d r i b b o n ) - ( c h a n g e i n T w ) . [ 7 . 2 ]

M a t h e m a t i c s : F u l l e r

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P r o c . N a t l . A c a d . S c i . U S A 7 5 . ( 1 9 7 8 )

T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f c l o s e d r i b b o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d b yc o u n t i n g o v e r c r o s s i n g s ( r e f s . 1 a n d 2 a n d F i g . 1 ) .

8 . T h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e 5 L k

W e h a v e s e e n i n S e c t i o n 1 t h a t t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r L k o f ac l o s e d c o r d c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d b y a d d i n g u p c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o mp i e c e s o f t h e c o r d . B u t w e s h a l l s e e t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t et h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o L k o f a p i e c e o f t h e c l o s e d c o r d , i nt h e f o l l o w i n g s e n s e . S u p p o s e a s e c t i o n o f a c l o s e d c o r d i s a l t e r e d .T h e n t h e r e s u l t i n g c h a n g e i n L k i s t h e s u m o f a " l o c a l " t e r m ,

t h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e O L k , c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e o l d a n d n e ws e c t i o n s w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e s t o f t h e c o r d , p l u s a n " i n -t e r a c t i o n " t e r m , e x p r e s s i n g h o w t h e r e s t o f t h e c o r d t h r e a d s i t sw a y b e t w e e n t h e o l d a n d n e w s e c t i o n s . I n m o s t c a s e s t h e c a l -c u l a t i o n c a n b e a r r a n g e d s o t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n t e r m i s z e r o .

D e f i n i t i o n : L e t a a n d ( 3 b e t w o c o r d s w h o s e e n d s a g r e e i np o s i t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n . L e t y b e a c o r d t h a t c o m p l e t e s a a n d ( 3t o c l o s e d c o r d s a + y a n d ( l + ' y ( s e e F i g . 5 ) . T h e n t h e l i n k i n gd i f f e r e n c e b L k ( a , f l ; " y ) o f a a n d ( f r e l a t i v e t o ' y i s d e f i n e d b y

b L k ( a , 4 ; T ) = . L k ( Q + y ) - L k ( a + A y ) . [ 8 . 1 ]

R e m a r k : T h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e 5 L k ( a , f l ; y ) i s d e f i n e d f o rr i b b o n s a a n d f t i f t h e i r e n d s a g r e e i n p o s i t i o n ( X ) , d i r e c t i o n ( T ) ,a n d n o r m a l d i r e c t i o n ( U ) . I n t h i s c a s e i t i s a n i n t e g e r .

A t f i r s t g l a n c e t h e d e f i n i t i o n ( E q . 8 . 1 ) d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e

u s e f u l b e c a u s e o f t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f b L k ( a , f l ; y ) o n y . T h e p o i n ti s t h a t t h e d e p e n d e n c e i s q u i t e c r u d e . T o b e g i n w i t h , w e n o t et h a t 6 L k ( a f l ; , y ) d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e a x i s c u r v e c o f y , s i n c e a n yc h a n g e i n t h e t w i s t o f y a f f e c t s L k ( ( 3 + y ) a n d L k ( a + - y )e q u a l l y a n d s o c a n c e l s o u t . We m a y t h u s w r i t e 6 L k ( a , f l ; c ) ,w h e r e c i s a c u r v e t h a t c o m p l e t e s t h e a x i s c u r v e s a a n d b o f aa n d f 3 t o c l o s e d n o n - s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g c u r v e s a + c a n d b + c .S e c o n d , a d e f o r m a t i o n o f c d o e s n o t c h a n g e b L k ( a , ( 3 ; c ) s o l o n ga s c d o e s n o t c r o s s a o r b [ i f c c r o s s e s i t s e l f , t h e r e s u l t i n g ± 2 j u m pa f f e c t s L k ( ( 3 + a y ) a n d L k ( a + y ) e q u a l l y ] . I f t h e e f f e c t o f cc r o s s i n g a o r b i s a n a l y z e d , o n e a r r i v e s a t t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e o -r e m .

T H E O R E M . L e t a a n d I f b e t w o c o r d s w h o s e e n d p o i n t s a g r e ei n p o s i t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n ( s e e F i g . 6 ) . L e t a a n d b b e t h e i r a x i s

c u r v e s a n d l e t c b e a c u r v e t h a t c o m p l e t e s a a n d b t o c l o s e dn o n - s e l f - i n t e r s e c t i n g c u r v e s a + c a n d b + c . L e t c ' b e a n o t h e rs u c h c u r v e . T h e n

b L k ( a , ( 3 ; c ' ) = b L k ( a , ( ; c ) + 2 L k ( b - a , c ' - c ) . [ 8 . 2 ]

T h e e x p r e s s i o n L k ( b - a , c ' - c ) r e q u i r e s s o m e e x p l a n a t i o n ,s i n c e t h e c l o s e d c u r v e b - a m e e t s t h e c l o s e d c u r v e c ' - c a t t h et w o e n d p o i n t s o f a a n d b a n d t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r i s d e f i n e d o n l yf o r t w o d i s j o i n t c l o s e d c u r v e s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e t w o c u r v e sb - a a n d c ' - c l i e o n o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f a p l a n e e l e m e n t i n t h ev i c i n i t y o f e a c h o f t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e y m e e t . T h e r e i s t h u s a

w e l l - d e f i n e d w a y t o p u l l t h e m a p a r t n e a r t h e s e t w o p o i n t s a n dL k ( b - a , c ' - c ) i s d e f i n e d t o b e t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f t h es e p a r a t e d c u r v e s .

F I G . 6 . How t h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e 6 L k ( a f 3 ; c ) d e p e n d s o n c , i ll u s t r a t e d f o r r i b b o n s a a n d , .

b L k ( a , ; ' y ) = 1 -0 = 1 ; B L k ( a j 3 ; ' y ' ) = 3-0 = 3 .

L k ( c ' - c , b - a ) = 1 ; E q . 8 . 2 i s h e r e 3 = 1+2X 1 .

I n t h i s e x a m p l e t h e c o m p l e t i n g c u r v e s c a n d c ' t h r e a d t h e i r w a ya r o u n d a n d b e t w e e n a a n d ( 8 b y e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t p a t h s . T h el i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e b L k ( a A ; c ) i s t h e s a m e f o r a l l c t h a t s t a y o u t s i d e t h ei n t e r i o r o f a t o p o l o g i c a l b a l l c o n t a i n i n g a a n d ( 3 .

W e s e e f r o m E q . 8 . 2 t h a t 5 L k ( a , f 3 ; c ) = b L k ( a , f l ; c ' ) i f L k ( b- a , c ' - c ) = 0 . An i m p o r t a n t c a s e w h e r e t h i s h a p p e n s i s i f aa n d ( 3 a r e c o n t a i n e d i n a t o p o l o g i c a l b a l l w h o s e i n t e r i o r e x c l u d e sc a n d c ' .

T o p r o v e E q . 8 . 2 o n e f i r s t n o t e s t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n i s c o r r e c ti f c ' = c . T h e n o n e s h o w s t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w os i d e s o f t h e e q u a t i o n d o e s n o t c h a n g e i f c ' i s d e f o r m e d , f o r t h et e r m s i n t h e e q u a t i o n a r e n o t c h a n g e d b y a d e f o r m a t i o n o f c 'u n l e s s c ' c r o s s e s a o r b . T h e n a c h a n g e o f ± 2 i n 5 L k ( a , f 3 ; c ' ) ib a l a n c e d b y a c h a n g e o f i 1 i n L k ( b - a , c ' - c ) . F i n a l l y , s i n c e

a n y c ' c a n b e d e f o r m e d i n t o c , t h e e q u a t i o n m u s t h o l d f o r a n yc a n d c ' .A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e i s j u s t a m a t t e r o f i n -

t e r p r e t i n g t h e d e f i n i t i o n a n d E q . 8 . 2 . S u p p o s e a s e c t i o n o f ac l o s e d c o r d i s c h a n g e d ; l e t a b e t h e o l d s e c t i o n , f l t h e n e w , a n dl e t p b e t h e r e s t o f t h e c o r d . T h e c o r d i s t h u s c h a n g e d f r o m a+ p t o ( + p . C a l c u l a t e 6 L k ( a , ( 3 ; c ) f o r a n y c o n v e n i e n t c . T h i sq u a n t i t y i s " l o c a l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i n v o l v e s o n l y a a n d f t a n dd o e s n o t i n v o l v e t h e r e s t o f t h e c o r d . T h e n , f r o m E q . 8 . 2 , t h er e p l a c e m e n t o f a b y P c h a n g e s t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r a c c o r d i n gt o

L k ( ( 3 + p ) - L k ( a + p ) = b L k ( a , f t ; c ) + 2 L k ( b - a , r - c ) ,w h e r e r i s t h e a x i s c u r v e o f p . T h e " i n t e r a c t i o n " t e r m 2 L k ( b -a , r - c ) i s z e r o u n l e s s r a n d c t h r e a d t h e i r w a y a r o u n d o r b e -t w e e n a a n d b b y e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t p a t h s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a s

r e m a r k e d a b o v e , i f a a n d ( l a r e i n a t o p o l o g i c a l b a l l w h o s e i n -t e r i o r e x c l u d e s b o t h r a n d c , t h e n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n t e r m iz e r o .

D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a c l o s e d c o r d c a nb e d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s ( s e e F i g . 7 ) . S u p p o s e a c l o s e d c o r dc o n t a i n s a n u m b e r o f m y s t e r i o u s s e c t i o n s ( n u c l e o s o m e s ) e a c hc o n t a i n e d i n a t o p o l o g i c a l b a l l , a n d s u p p o s e t h a t t h e i n t e r i o r o fe a c h b a l l e x c l u d e s t h e r e s t o f t h e c o r d a n d t h e o t h e r b a l l s . I n s i de a c h b a l l r e p l a c e e a c h m y s t e r i o u s s e c t i o n b y a s t a n d a r d s e c t i o no n e t h e n o b t a i n s a " r e f e r e n c e " c o r d . L e t b L k i b e t h e l i n k i nd i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m y s t e r i o u s a n d t h e s t a n d a r d s e c t i o n i nt h e i t h b a l l , r e l a t i v e t o a c u r v e o u t s i d e t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e b a l l .T h e n , a p p l y i n g E q . 8 . 2 r e p e a t e d l y , o n e h a s t h e d e c o m p o s i -t i o n

L k ( o r i g i n a l c o r d ) = L k ( r e f e r e n c e c o r d ) + E b L k i .

L k

L k ( a + Y ) = O L k ( B + Y ) = - l

F I G . 5 . E x a m p l e o f t h e l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e f o r t w o r i b b o n s a a n d( w h o s e e n d s a g r e e ( a f t e r r e f . 2 , f i g u r e 4 b ) . U s i n g t h e S y s h o w n ,b L k ( a , 3 ; - y ) = L k ( ( 3 + ' y ) - L k ( a + y ) = ( - 1 ) - ( 0 ) = - 1 . S i n c eB L k ( a , 3 ; - y ) d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e a x i s c u r v e c o f y , i t c a n a s w e l l b ew r i t t e n b L k ( a , f t ; c ) .

+ 5 8 L k X

F I G . 7 . D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a c l o s e d c o r dc o n t a i n i n g " n u c l e o s o m e s . " T h e l i n k i n g n u m b e r i s e x p r e s s e d a s t h el i n k i n g n u m b e r o f a " r e f e r e n c e " c o r d p l u s a su m o f l i n k i n g d i f f e r e n c e sr e l a t i v e t o c o m p l e t i n g c u r v e s t h a t s t a y o u t s i d e t h e t o p o l o g i c a l b a l ls h o w n ( b y b r o k e n c i r c l e s ) .

3 5 6 0 M a t h e m a t i c s : F u l l e r

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M a t h e m a t i c s : F u l l e r

I w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e b e n e f i t o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d conver-

s a t i o n s w i t h F . H . C . C r i c k .1 . F u l l e r , F . B r o c k ( 1 9 7 1 ) P r o c . N a t l . A c a d . S c d . USA 68, 8 1 5 -

8 1 9 .2 . C r i c k , F . H . C . ( 1 9 7 6 ) P r o c . N a t l . A c a d . S c i . U S A 7 3 , 2 6 3 9 -

2 6 4 3 .

3 . F u l l e r , F . B r o c k ( 1 9 6 2 ) M a t h e m a t i c a l P r o b l e m s i n t h e B i o l o g i c a lS c i e n c e s , P r o c e e d i n g s o f S y m p o s ia i n A p p l i e d M a t h e m a t i c s , e d .R . E . B e l l m a n ( A m e r i c a n M a t h e m a t i c a l S o c i e t y , P r o v i d e n c e , R I ) ,

V o l . 1 4 , pp . 6 4 - 6 8 .

P r o c . N a t d . A c a d . S c i . U S A 7 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ) 3 5 6 1

4 . W h i t e , J . H . ( 1 9 6 9 ) A m . J . M a t h . 9 1 , N o . 3 , 6 9 3 - 7 2 7 .

5 . B a n c h o f f , T . F . & W h i t e , J . H . ( 1 9 7 5 ) M a t h . S c a n d . 3 6 , 2 5 4 -

2 6 2 .

6 . P a p a k y r i a k o p o u l o s , C . D . ( 1 9 5 7 ) A n n . o f M a t h . , 6 6 , N o . 1 ,1 - 2 6 .

7 . F r a n k - K a m e n e t s k i i , M . D . , L u k a s h i n , A . V . & V o l o g o d s k i i , A . V .( 1 9 7 5 ) N a t u r e ( L o n d o n ) 2 5 8 , 3 9 8 - 4 0 2 .

8 . H a r t m a n , P . ( 1 9 6 4 ) O r d i n a r y D i f f e r e n t i a l E q a t i o n s ( W i l e y , Ne w

Y o r k ) .