faa instrument procedures hb - chap 1 - departure procedures
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IFRtakeoffsanddeparturesarefast-pacedphasesof
flight,andpilotsoftenareoverloadedwithcriticalflight
information.Whilepreparingfortakeoff,pilotsarebusy
requestingandreceivingclearances,preparingtheiraircraft
fordeparture,andtaxiingtotheactiverunway.DuringIFR
conditions,theyaredoingthiswithminimalvisibility,and
theymaybewithoutconstantradiocommunicationifflying
outofanon-toweredairport.Historically,takeoffminimums
forcommercialoperationshavebeensuccessivelyreducedthroughacombinationofimprovedsignage,runway
markingsandlightingaids,andconcentratedpilot
trainingandqualifications.Todayatmajorterminals,some
commercialoperatorswithappropriateequipment,pilot
qualifications,andapprovedOperationsSpecifications
(OpSpecs)maytakeoffwithvisibilityaslowas300feet
runwayvisualrange(RVR).Oneoftheconsequencesof
takeoffswithreducedvisibilityisthatpilotsarechallenged
inmaintainingsituationalawarenessduringtaxioperations.
SurfaceMovementSafety
Oneofthebiggestsafetyconcernsinaviationisthesurface
movementaccident.Asadirectresult,theFederalAviation
Administration(FAA)hasrapidlyexpandedtheinformation
availabletopilots,includingtheadditionoftaxiwayand
runwayinformationinFAApublications,particularlythe
IFRU.S.TerminalProceduresPublication(TPP)bookletsand
Airport/FacilityDirectory(A/FD)volumes.TheFAAhasalso
implementednewproceduresandcreatededucationaland
awarenessprogramsforpilots,ATC,andgroundoperators.
Byfocusingresourcestoattackthisproblemheadon,the
FAAhopestoreduceandeventuallyeliminatesurface
movementaccidents.
AirportSketchesandDiagrams
Airportsketchesanddiagramsprovidepilotsofalllevels
withgraphicaldepictionsoftheairportlayout.National,
AeronauticalInformationSystems(AIS),formerlyknown
asAeronauticalProducts(AeroNav),provideanairport
sketchonthelowerleftorrightportionofeveryinstrument
approachchart.[Figure1-1]Thissketchdepictstherunways,
theirlength,widthandslope,thetouchdownzoneelevation,
thelightingsysteminstalledontheendoftherunway,and
taxiways.GraphicaldepictionsofNOTAMSarealsoavailable
forselectedairportsaswellasfortemporaryflightrestriction(TFRs)areasonthedefenseinternetNOTAMservice(DINS)
website.
Forselectairports,typicallythosewithheavytrafficor
complexrunwaylayouts,AISalsoprintsanairportdiagram.
ThediagramislocatedintheIFRTPPbookletfollowingthe
instrumentapproachchartforaparticularairport.Itisafull
pagedepictionoftheairportthatincludesthesamefeatures
oftheairportsketchplusadditionaldetails,suchastaxiway
Runway numbers
Runway slope
Runway length and width
Figure1-1.AirportdiagramincludedontheOshkosh,Wisconsin
VORRWY9ApproachChartasdepictedintheIFRTPP.
identifiers,airportlatitudeandlongitude,andbuilding
identification.Theairportdiagramsarealsoavailableinthe
A/FDandontheAISwebsite,locatedatwww.aeronav.faa.
gov.[Figure1-2]
AirportFacilityDirectory(A/FD)
A/FD,publishedinregionalbookletsbyAIS,provides
textualinformationaboutallairports,bothvisualflight
rules(VFR)andIFR.TheA/FDincludesrunwaylengthand
width,runwaysurface,loadbearingcapacity,runway
slope,runwaydeclareddistances,airportservices,and
hazards,suchasbirdsandreducedvisibility.[Figure1-3]
SketchesofairportsalsoarebeingaddedtoaidVFRpilotsin
surfacemovementactivities.InsupportoftheFAARunway
IncursionProgram,fullpageairportdiagramsand“Hot
Spot”locationsareincludedintheA/FD.Thesechartsare
thesameasthosepublishedintheIFRTPPandareprinted
forairportswithcomplexrunwayortaxiwaylayouts.
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Longitude and latitude
Airport name and locationOn-airport buildings
Taxiway designations
Precise runway direction
Runway slope
Figure1-2. AirportdiagramofOshkosh,Wisconsinasdepicted
intheA/FD.
SurfaceMovementGuidanceControlSystem(SMGCS)
TheSurfaceMovementGuidanceControlSystem(SMGCS)
wasdevelopedtofacilitatethesafemovementofaircraft
andvehiclesatairportswherescheduledaircarrierswere
conductingauthorizedoperations.AdvisoryCircular120
57wasdevelopedin1992andfollowedbyAC120-57A
in1996. In2012,FAA Order8000.94waspublishedto
provideproceduresforestablishingAirportLow-Visibility
Operations(LVO)andSurfaceMovementGuidance
andControlSystems. ItestablishedthenecessaryFAAheadquartersandoperatingservices,roles,responsibilities,
andactivitiesforoperationsat14CFRPart139airports
usingRVRsoflessthan1,200feetforeachrunway.The
Orderappliestoallusersofthesystematalllevelswho
areformallylisted.TheFAArequiresthecommissioning
ofan“FAAapprovedLVO/SMGCSOperation” forallnew
CategoryIIIILSsupportedrunways.Sincethereareno
regulatorytakeoffminimumsfor14CFRPart91operations,
theinformationprovidedbythisACandOrdermust
beunderstoodsothatthegeneralaviationpilotcan
understandLVOandSMGCSduringdayornight.
TheSMGCSlowvisibilitytaxiplanincludestheenhancement
oftaxiwayandrunwaysigns,markings,andlighting,
aswellasthe creationof SMGCSvisual aid diagrams.
[Figure1-4]Theplanalsoclearlyidentifiestaxiroutes
andtheirsupportingfacilitiesandequipment.Airport
enhancementsthatarepartoftheSMGCSprograminclude,butarenotlimitedto:
• ControllableStopbarslights—theseconsistofarow
ofred,unidirectional,in-pavementlightsthatcan
becontrolledbyATC.Theyprovideinteractionswith
andaircraftthatpreventrunwayincursionsduring
takeoffoperations.Thesearerequiredforoperations
atlessthan500ftRVR
• Non-ControllableStopbarslights—thesearered,
unidirectinoallightsplaceatintersectionswherea
restrictiontomovementisrequired. Theymustbe
incontinuousoperationatlessthan500ftRVR.
• Taxiwaycenterlinelead-onlights—guideground
trafficunderlowvisibilityconditionsandatnight.
Theselightsconsistofalternatinggreen/yellowin-
pavementlights.
• Runwayguardlights—eitherelevatedorin-
pavement,maybe installedat alltaxiways that
provideaccesstoanactiverunway.Theyconsist
ofalternatelyflashingyellow lights.Theselights
areusedtodenoteboththepresenceofanactive
runwayandidentifythelocationofarunwayholding
positionmarking.• Geographicpositionmarkings—ATCverifiesthe
positionof aircraftandvehiclesusinggeographic
positionmarkings.Themarkingscanbeusedeither
asholdpointsorforpositionreporting.These
checkpointsor“pinkspots”areoutlinedwithablack
andwhitecircleanddesignatedwithanumberora
numberandaletter.
• Clearancebarlights—threeyellowin-pavement
clearancebarlightsusedtodenoteholding
positionsforaircraftandvehicles.Whenusedfor
holdpoints,theyareco-locatedwithgeographicpositionmarkings.
Bothflightandgroundcrews,Part121and135operators,are
requiredtocomplywithSMGCSplanswhenimplemented
attheirspecificairport.Allairporttenantsareresponsible
fordisseminatinginformationtotheiremployeesand
conductingtraininginlowvisibilityoperatingprocedures.
AnyoneoperatinginconjunctionwiththeSMGCSplan
musthaveacopyofthelowvisibilitytaxiroutechartfor
theirgivenairportasthesechartsoutlinethetaxiroutes
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Figure1-3.ExcerptsfromtheAirportFacilityDirectoryofNaplesMuni,Naples,Florida.
andotherdetailedinformationconcerninglowvisibilityoperations.Thesechartsareavailablefromprivatesources
outsideof theFAA.Governmentsources forSMGCS
chartsmaybeavailableinthefuture.Part91operators
areexpectedtocomplywiththeguidelineslistedinAC
120-57,andshouldexpect“FollowMe”service(when
available)whenlowvisibilityoperationsareinuse.Any
SMGCSoutagethatwouldadverselyaffectoperationsat
theairportisissuedasaNoticetoAirmen(NOTAM).
AdvancedSurfaceMovementGuidanceControlSystem(A-SMGCS)
Withtheincreasingdemandforairportstoaccommodate
higherlevelsofaircraftmovements,itisbecomingmore
andmoredifficultfortheexistinginfrastructuretosafely
handlegreatercapacitiesoftrafficinallweatherconditions.
Asaresult,theFAAisimplementingrunwaysafetysystems,
suchasAirportSurfaceDetectionEquipment-ModelX
(ASDE-X)andAdvancedSurfaceMovementGuidanceand
ControlSystem(A-SMGCS)atvariousairports.Thedatathat
thesesystemsusecomesfromsurfacemovementradar
andaircrafttransponders.Thecombinationofthesedata
sourcesallowsthesystemstodeterminethepositionandidentificationofaircraftontheairportmovementareaand
decreasesthepotentialofcollisionsonairportrunways
andtaxiways.
Additionalinformationconcerningairportlighting,
markings,andsignscanbefoundintheAeronautical
InformationManual (AIM)and thePilot’sHandbookof
AeronauticalKnowledge,Appendix1,aswellasonthe
FAA’swebsiteat http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_
safety/.
AirportSigns,Lighting,andMarkingsFlightcrewsuseairportlighting,markings,andsignsto
helpmaintainsituationalawareness.Thesevisualaids
provideinformationconcerningtheaircraft’slocationon
theairport,thetaxiwayinuse,andtherunwayentrance
being used.Overlookingthisinformationcan lead to
groundaccidentsthatareentirelypreventable.Ifyou
encounterunfamiliarmarkingsorlighting,contactATC
forclarificationand,ifnecessary,requestprogressivetaxi
instructions.Pilotsareencouragedtonotifytheappropriate
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collisionthatmayresultinatimecriticalcorrective/
evasiveresponsetoavoidacollision.
• CategoryC—anincidentcharacterizedbyample
timeand/ordistancetoavoidacollision.
• CategoryD—anincidentthatmeetsthedefinition
ofrunwayincursion,suchasincorrectpresenceofa
singlevehicle/person/aircraftontheprotectedarea
ofasurfacedesignatedforthelandingandtakeoffofaircraftbutwithnoimmediatesafetyconsequences.
Figure1-5highlightsseveralstepsthatreducethechances
ofbeinginvolvedinarunwayincursion.
Figure1-5.FAArecommendationsforreducingrunwayincursions.
The FAA recommends that you:
• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly
those concerning airport construction and lighting.
• Read back, in full, all clearances involving
holding short, line up and wait, and crossing runways
to ensure proper understanding.
• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule.
• Develop operational procedures that minimize
distractions during taxiing.
• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of
your position on the airport.
• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in
a timely manner.
• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you.
• Monitor radio communications to maintain a
situational awareness of other aircraft.
• Remain on frequency until instructed to change.
• Make sure you know the reduced runway distancesand whether or not you can comply before accepting
a land and hold short clearance or clearance for
shortened runway.
• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper
authorities.
• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical.
The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in 14 CFR
Part 121, sections 121.542 and 135.100 that requires flight
crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract
them from the performance of their duties during critical phases
of flight.
NOTE:
InadditiontotheSMGCSprogram,theFAAhasimplemented
additionalprogramstoreducerunwayincursionsandother
surfacemovementissues.Theyidentifiedrunwayhotspots,
designedstandardizedtaxiroutes,andinstitutedthe
RunwaySafetyProgram.
RunwayHotspots
ICAOdefinesrunwayhotspotsasalocationonan
aerodromemovementareawithahistoryorpotentialrisk
ofcollisionorrunwayincursionandwhereheightened
attention bypilotsanddrivers isnecessary. Hotspots
alertpilotstocomplexorpotentiallyconfusingtaxiway
geometrythatcouldmakesurfacenavigationchallenging.
Whateverthereason, pilotsneedto beaware that
thesehazardousintersectionsexist,andtheyshould
beincreasingly vigilantwhenapproachingandtaxiing
throughtheseintersections.Thesehotspotsaredepicted
onsomeairportchartsascircledareas.[Figure1-6]TheFAA
OfficeofRunwaySafetyhaslinkstotheFAAregionsthat
maintainacompletelistofairportswithrunwayhotspots
athttp://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/.
StandardizedTaxiRoutes
Standardtaxiroutesimprovegroundmanagementathigh-
densityairports,namelythosethathaveairlineservice.At
theseairports,typicaltaxiwaytrafficpatternsusedtomoveaircraftbetweengateandrunwayarelaidoutandcoded.
TheATCspecialist(ATCS)canreduceradiocommunication
timeandeliminatetaxiinstructionmisinterpretationby
simplyclearingthepilottotaxiviaaspecific,namedroute.
AnexampleofthiswouldbeLosAngelesInternational
Airport(KLAX),whereNorthRouteisusedtotransition
toRunway24L. [Figure1-7]Theseroutesare issuedby
groundcontrol,andifunabletocomply,pilotsmust
advisegroundcontroloninitialcontact.Ifforanyreason
thepilotbecomesuncertainastothecorrecttaxiroute,a
requestshouldbemadeforprogressivetaxiinstructions.
Thesestep-by-steproutingdirectionsarealsoissuedifthecontrollerdeemsitnecessaryduetotraffic,closedtaxiways,
airportconstruction,etc.It isthepilot’sresponsibilityto
knowifaparticularairporthaspreplannedtaxiroutes,to
befamiliarwiththem,andtohavethetaxidescriptionsin
theirpossession.Specificinformationaboutairportsthat
usecodedtaxiwayroutesisincludedintheNoticesto
AirmenPublication(NTAP).
TaxiandMovementOperationsChange
AsofJune30,2010,controllersarerequiredtoissueexplicit
instructionstocrossorholdshortofeachrunwaythatintersectsataxiroute.Followingisasummaryofthese
proceduralchanges:
• “Taxito”isnolongerusedwhenissuingtaxi
instructionstoanassignedtakeoffrunway.
• Instructionstocrossarunwayareissuedoneata
time.Instructionstocrossmultiplerunwaysarenot
issued.Anaircraftorvehiclemusthavecrossedthe
previousrunwaybeforeanotherrunwaycrossing
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At Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport, the following areas have been
designated as hot spots, posing a special challenge to pilots.
HOT6
Landing Runway 30
Be aware that this runway crosses every other available runway
at the airport. When exiting the runway, pilots should make surethey are turning with a “lead-off” taxiline onto a taxiway and not
onto another active runway.
HOT1
Runway 25R and Taxiway D
Aircraft exiting runway 30 at taxiway A turnleft on taxiway D, anticipate reaching their
destination, and fail to hold short of runway25R.
HOT2
Runway 12 and Taxiway B
Aircraft northbound on taxiway B for departureon runway 16R at taxiway intersection D miss
the right turn onto taxiway D and enterrunways 12, 7L, and 25R.
HOT3
Runway 25L/7R at Taxiway B
Aircraft southbound on taxiway B anticipatereaching their destination parking ramp and
fail to hold short of runway 25L/7R.
HOT4
Runway 16R/34L at Taxiway F
Aircraft taxiing to runway 16R from thesouthwest ramp miss the left turn onto
taxiway B, continue eastbound onto taxiwayF, and enter runway 16R/34L.
HOT5
Runway 25L at Taxiway D
After completing a runup on inactive runway34R, aircraft fail to hold short of runway 25L.
Figure1-6.ExampleofrunwayhotspotslocatedatLongBeach/DaughertyFieldAirport(KLGB).
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Standardized Taxi Routes for Los Angeles
International Airport (KLAX)
The following Standardized Taxi routes
may be issued to all taxiing aircraft.
North Route
Taxi via Charlie (C) towards taxiway Sierra (S) taxi northbound on taxiway Sierra (S),and at Check-point-1 contact Ground Control on frequency 121.65, hold short of
taxiway Delta (D). When advised by the north Ground Control, the North Route
continues on taxiway Echo (E) to Runway 24L or the gate, whichever applies.
South Route
If the aircraft is west of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi eastbound on taxiway Echo (E) andturn right on taxiway Romeo (R), if the aircraft is east of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi
westbound on taxiway Echo (E) and turn left on taxiway Romeo (R). And atCheck-point-2, contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway
Charlie (C).
West Route
Taxi via taxiway Charlie (C) west-bound, hold short of taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), contactGround Control on frequency 121.65 when number one approaching Taxiway AA.
Bridge Route
Taxi via taxiway Echo (E) then south on taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), and at Check-point-3contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway Charlie (C).
(AJV-W2 4/23/2010)
North Route
SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010
Figure1-7.LosAngelesInternationalAirportdiagram,NorthRoute,andstandardizedtaxiroute.
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isissued.Thisappliestoanyrunway,including
inactiveorclosedrunways.
• Nevercrossarunwayholdmarkingwithoutexplicit
ATCinstructions.Ifindoubt,ask!
Reminder:Youmaynotenterarunwayunlessyouhave
been:
1. Instructedtocrossortaxiontothatspecificrunway;2. Clearedtotakeofffromthatrunway;or
3. Instructedtolineupandwaitonthatspecificrunway.
Formoreinformationonthechange,refertoFAAOrder
JO7110.65,whichcanbefoundatwww.faa.gov.
WeatherandtheDepartureEnvironment
TakeoffMinimums
Whilemechanicalfailureispotentiallyhazardousduring
anyphaseofflight,afailureduringtakeoffunder
instrumentconditionsisextremelycritical.Intheeventof
anemergency,adecisionmustbemadetoeitherreturnto
thedepartureairportorflydirectlytoatakeoffalternate.If
thedepartureweatherwerebelowthelandingminimums
forthedepartureairport,theflightwouldbeunableto
returnforlanding,leavingfewoptionsandlittletimeto
reachatakeoffalternate.
Intheearlyyearsofairtransportation,landingminimums
forcommercialoperatorswereusuallylowerthantakeoff
minimums.Therefore, itwas possiblethatminimums
allowedpilotstolandatanairportbutnotdepartfromthat
airport.Additionally,alltakeoffminimumsonceincluded
ceiling,aswellasvisibilityrequirements.Today,takeoff
minimumsaretypicallylowerthanpublishedlanding
minimums,andceilingrequirementsareonlyincludedif
itisnecessarytoseeandavoidobstaclesinthedeparture
area.
TheFAAestablishes takeoffminimumsforeveryairport
thathas publishedStandardInstrument Approaches.
These minimums are used by commercially operated
aircraft,namelyPart121andPart135operators.Atairports
whereminimumsarenotestablished,thesesamecarriers
arerequiredtouseFAAdesignatedstandardminimums:
1statutemile(SM)visibilityforsingle-andtwin-engine
aircraft,and1⁄2SMforhelicoptersandaircraftwithmore
thantwoengines.
Aircraftoperatingunder14CFRPart91arenotrequiredto
complywithestablishedtakeoffminimums.Legally,azero/
zerodeparturemaybemade,butitisneveradvisable.If
commercialpilotswhoflypassengersonadailybasismust
complywithtakeoffminimums,thengoodjudgmentand
commonsensewouldtellallinstrumentpilotstofollow
theestablishedminimumsaswell.
AISchartslisttakeoffminimumsonlyfortherunwaysat
airportsthathaveotherthanstandardminimums.These
takeoffminimumsarelistedbyairportinalphabetical
orderinthefront oftheTPP booklet.Ifan airport has
non-standardtakeoffminimums,a T(referredtobysomeaseitherthe“triangleT”or“troubleT”)isplacedinthe
notessectionsoftheinstrumentprocedurechart.Inthe
frontoftheTPPbooklet,takeoffminimumsarelisted
beforetheobstacledepartureprocedure.Somedeparture
proceduresallowadeparturewithstandardminimums
providedspecificaircraftperformancerequirementsare
met.[Figure1-8]
TakeoffMinimumsforCommercialOperators
WhilePart121andPart135operatorsaretheprimaryusers
oftakeoffminimums,theymaybeabletousealternative
takeoffminimumsbasedontheirindividualOpSpecs.
ThroughtheseOpSpecs,operatorsareauthorizedtodepart
withlower-than-standardminimumsprovidedtheyhave
thenecessaryequipmentandcrewtraining.
OperationsSpecifications(OpSpecs)
Withintheairtransportationindustry,thereisaneedto
establishandadministersafetystandardstoaccommodate
many variables.These variables includea wide range
ofaircraft,variedoperatorcapabilities,thevarious
situationsrequiringdifferenttypesofair transportation,
andthecontinual,rapidchangesinaviationtechnology.It isimpractical toaddressthesevariablesthroughthe
promulgationofsafetyregulationsforeachandevery
typeofairtransportsituationandthevaryingdegreesof
operatorcapabilities.Also,itisimpracticaltoaddressthe
rapidlychangingaviationtechnologyandenvironment
throughtheregulatoryprocess.Safetyregulations
wouldbeextremelycomplexandunwieldyifallpossible
variationsandsituationswereaddressedbyregulation.
Instead,thesafetystandardsestablishedbyregulation
shouldusuallyhaveabroadapplicationthatallowsvarying
acceptablemethodsofcompliance.TheOpSpecsprovide
aneffectivemethodforestablishingsafetystandardsthataddressawiderangeofvariables.Inaddition,OpSpecs
canbeadaptedtoaspecificcertificateholderoroperator’s
classandsizeofaircraftandtypeandkindsofoperations.
OpSpecscanbetailoredtosuitanindividualcertificate
holderoroperator’sneeds.
Part121andPart135certificateholdershavetheability,
throughtheuseofapprovedOpSpecs,touselower-than
standardtakeoffminimums.Dependingontheequipment
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Figure1-8.Examplesofnon-standardtakeoffminimumsforColoradoSprings,Colorado.
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Conversion 2 6
t o
RVR (feet) Visibility (sm) 2 0 1 0
1,600 1/4
2,400 1/2Figure1-9. Examplesofweatherinformationof variousflight
informationpublications(FLIP). 3,200 5/8
4,000 3/4
Weatherreportingstationsforspecificairportsacrossthe 4,500 7/8
countrycanbelocatedbyreviewingtheA/FD.Weather 5,000 1
sourcesalongwiththeirrespectivephonenumbersand 6,000 11/4
frequenciesarelistedbyairport.FrequenciesforweatherFigure1-10.RVRconversiontable.
0 1 0
installedinaspecifictypeofaircraft,thecrewtraining,and
thetypeofequipmentinstalledataparticularairport,these
operatorscandepartfromappropriatelyequippedrunways
withaslittleas300feetRVR.Additionally,OpSpecsoutline
provisionsforapproachminimums,alternateairports,and
weatherservicesinVolumeIIIofFAAOrder8900.1,Flight
StandardsInformationManagementSystem(FSIMS).
CeilingandVisibilityRequirementsAlltakeoffsanddepartureshavevisibilityminimums(some
mayhaveminimumceilingrequirements)incorporated
intotheprocedure.Thereareanumberofmethodsto
reportvisibilityandavarietyofwaystodistributethese
reports,includingautomatedweatherobservations.Flight
crewsshouldalwayschecktheweather,includingceiling
andvisibilityinformation,priortodeparture.Neverlaunch
anIFRflightwithoutobtainingcurrentvisibilityinformation
immediatelypriortodeparture.Further,whenceilingand
visibilityminimumsarespecifiedforIFRdeparture,both
areapplicable.
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sources,suchasAutomaticTerminalInformationService
(ATIS),DigitalAutomaticTerminalInformationService
(D-ATIS),AutomatedWeatherObservingSystem(AWOS),
AutomatedSurfaceObservingSystem(ASOS),andFAA
AutomatedFlightServiceStation(AFSS)arepublishedon
approachchartsaswell.[Figure1-9]
Visibility
Visibilityis theability,as determinedby atmospheric
conditionsandexpressedinunitsofdistance,tosee
andidentifyprominent unlightedobjectsbyday and
prominentlightedobjectsbynight.Visibilityis reported
asstatutemiles,hundredsoffeet,ormeters.
PrevailingVisibility
Prevailingvisibilityisthegreatesthorizontalvisibility
equaledorexceededthroughoutatleasthalfthehorizon
circle,whichneednotnecessarilybecontinuous.Prevailing
visibilityisreportedinstatutemilesorfractionsofmiles.
RunwayVisibilityValue(RVV)
Runwayvisibilityvalueisthevisibilitydeterminedfora
particularrunwaybyatransmissometer.Ameterprovides
continuousindicationofthevisibility(reportedinstatute
milesorfractionsofmiles)fortherunway.RVVisusedinlieu
ofprevailingvisibilityindeterminingminimumsforaparticular
runway.
TowerVisibility
Towervisibilityistheprevailingvisibilitydeterminedfrom
theairporttrafficcontroltoweratlocationsthatalsoreportthesurfacevisibility.
RunwayVisualRange(RVR)
Runwayvisualrangeisaninstrumentallyderivedvalue,
basedonstandardcalibrations,thatrepresentsthe
horizontaldistanceapilotseesdowntherunwayfromthe
approachend.Itisbasedonthesightingofeitherhigh
intensityrunwaylightsoronthevisualcontrastofother
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targets,whicheveryieldsthegreatervisualrange.RVR,in
contrasttoprevailingorrunwayvisibility,isbasedonwhat
apilotinamovingaircraftshouldseelookingdownthe
runway.RVRishorizontalvisualrange,notslantvisualrange.
RVRisreportedinhundredsoffeet,sothevaluesmustbe
convertedtoSMifthevisibilityinSMisnotreported.[Figure
1-10]Itisbasedonthemeasurementofatransmissometer
madenearthetouchdownpointoftheinstrumentrunway
andisreportedinhundredsoffeet.RVRisusedinlieuofRVVand/orprevailingvisibilityindeterminingminimums
foraparticularrunway.
TypesofRVR
ThefollowingaretypesofRVRthatmaybeused:
• TouchdownRVR—theRVRvisibilityreadoutvalues
obtainedfromRVRequipmentservingtherunway
touchdownzone.
• Mid-RVR—theRVRreadoutvaluesobtainedfrom
RVRequipmentlocatedneartherunwaymidpoint.
• RolloutRVR—theRVRreadoutvaluesobtainedfrom
RVRequipmentlocatednearesttherolloutendof
therunway.
• FarEndRVR—whenfourRVRvisibilitysensors(VS)
areinstalled,thefarendRVRVSisthetouchdown
RVRVSonthereciprocalrunway.Thefarendsensor
willserveasadditionalinformation.
RVRistheprimaryvisibilitymeasurementusedbyPart
121andPart135operatorswithspecificvisibilityreports
andcontrollingvaluesoutlinedintheirrespectiveOpSpecs.
UndertheirOpSpecsagreements,theoperatormusthavespecific,currentRVRreports,ifavailable,toproceedwithan
instrumentdeparture.OpSpecsalsooutlinewhichvisibility
reportiscontrollinginvariousdeparturescenarios.
AdequateVisualReference
Anothersetoflower-than-standardtakeoffminimumsis
availabletoPart121andPart135operationsasoutlinedin
theirrespectiveOpSpecsdocument.Whencertaintypesof
visibilityreportsareunavailableorspecificequipmentisout
ofservice,theflightcanstilldeparttheairportifthepilot
canmaintainadequatevisualreference.Anappropriatevisualaidmustbeavailabletoensurethetakeoffsurface
canbecontinuouslyidentified,anddirectionalcontrolcan
bemaintainedthroughoutthetakeoffrun.Appropriate
visualaidsincludehighintensityrunwaylights,runway
centerline lights,runway centerline markings, orother
runwaylightingandmarkings.Withadequatevisual
referencesandappropriateOpSpecapproval,commercial
operatorsmaytakeoffwithavisibilityof1600RVRor¼
SM.
Figure1-11.AWSSinstallationatDriggs-Reed,Idaho.
Ceilings
Ceilingistheheightabovetheearth’ssurfaceofthelowest
layerofcloudsorobscuringphenomenathatisreportedas
broken,overcast,orobscurationandnotclassifiedasthin
orpartial.
AutomatedWeatherSystems
Anautomatedweathersystemconsistsofanyofthe
automatedweathersensorplatformsthatcollectweather
dataatairportsanddisseminatetheweatherinformation
viaradioand/orlandline.ThesystemsconsistoftheASOS/
AutomatedWeatherSensorSystem(AWSS)andtheAWOS.
These systems are installedand maintained at airports
acrosstheUnitedStatesbybothgovernment(FAAand
NationalWeatherService(NWS))andprivateentities.They
arerelativelyinexpensivetooperatebecausetheyrequire
nooutsideobserver,andtheyprovideinvaluableweather
informationforairportswithoutoperatingcontroltowers.
[Figure1-11]
AWOSandASOS/AWSSofferawidevarietyofcapabilities
andprogressivelybroaderweatherreports.Automated
systemstypicallytransmitweathereveryonetotwo
minutessothemostup-to-dateweatherinformationis
constantlybroadcast.BasicAWOSincludesonlyaltimeter
setting,windspeed,winddirection,temperature,anddew
pointinformation.Moreadvancedsystems,suchasthe
ASOS/AWSSandAWOS-3,areabletoprovideadditional
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information,suchaswindspeed,windgust,winddirection,
variablewinddirection,temperature,dewpoint,altimeter
setting,anddensityaltitude.ASOS/AWSSstationsproviding
servicelevelsAorBalsoreportRVR.Thespecifictypeof
equipmentfoundatagivenfacilityislistedintheA/FD.
[Figure1-12]
WEATHER DATA SOURCES: AWOS-3 119.675 (704) 735-6954.
AWOS/ASOS/AWSS information
Figure1-12.A/FDentryforanAWOSstation.
The use of the aforementioned visibi lity reports andweatherservicesarenotlimitedforPart91operators.
Part121and135operatorsareboundbytheirindividual
OpSpecsdocumentsandarerequiredtouseweather
reportsthatcomefromtheNWSorotherapproved
sources.Whileeveryoperator’sspecificationsare
individuallytailored,mostoperatorsarerequiredtouse
ATIS,RVRreports,andselectedreportsfromautomated
weatherstations.AllreportscomingfromanAWOS-3
stationareusableforPart121andPart135operators.Each
typeofautomatedstationhasdifferentlevelsofapproval
asoutlinedinindividualOpSpecs.Ceilingandvisibility
reportsgivenbythetowerwiththedepartureinformation
arealwaysconsideredofficialweather,andRVRreportsare
typicallythecontrollingvisibilityreference.
AutomaticTerminalInformationService(ATIS)
ATISisanothervaluabletoolforgainingweather
information.ATISisavailableatmostairportsthathavean
operatingcontroltower,whichmeansthereportsonthe
ATISfrequencyareonlyavailableduringtheregularhours
oftoweroperation.Atsomeairportsthatoperatepart-time
towers,ASOS/AWSSinformationisbroadcastoverthe
ATISfrequencywhenthetowerisclosed.ThisserviceisavailableonlyatthoseairportsthathavebothanASOS/
AWSSonthefieldandanATIS-ASOS/AWSSinterfaceswitch
installedinthetower.
EachATISreportincludescrucialinformationabout
runwaysandinstrumentapproachesinuse,specific
outages,andcurrentweatherconditionsincluding
visibility.Visibilityis reportedin statutemilesandmay
beomittedifthevisibilityisgreaterthanfivemiles.ATIS
weatherinformationcomesfroma varietyof sources
dependingontheparticularairportandtheequipment
installedthere.Thereportedweathermaycomefroma
manualweatherobserver,weatherinstrumentslocated
inthetower,orfromautomatedweatherstations.This
information,nomattertheorigin,mustbefromNWS
approvedweathersourcesfor ittobeusedin theATIS
report.
DigitalAutomaticTerminalInformationService(D-ATIS)
The digital ATIS (D-ATIS) is an alternative method of
receivingATISreports.Theserviceprovidestextmessages
toaircraft,airlines,andotherusersoutsidethe standard
receptionrangeofconventionalATISvialandlineanddata
linkcommunicationstotheflightdeck.Aircraftequipped
withdatalinkservicesarecapableofreceivingATIS
informationovertheirAircraftCommunicationsAddressing
andReportingSystem(ACARS)unit.Thisallowsthepilotsto
readandprintouttheATISreportinsidetheaircraft,thereby
increasingreportaccuracyanddecreasingpilotworkload.
Also,the serviceprovidesacomputer-synthesizedvoice
messagethatcanbetransmittedtoallaircraftwithin
rangeofexistingtransmitters.TheTerminalDataLink
System(TDLS)D-ATISapplicationusesweatherinputs
fromlocalautomatedweathersourcesormanuallyentered
meteorologicaldatatogetherwithpreprogrammedmenus
toprovidestandardinformationtousers.Airportswith
D-ATIScapabilityarelistedintheA/FD.
ItisimportanttorememberthatATISinformationis
updatedhourlyandanytimeasignificantchangeintheweatheroccurs.Asaresult,theinformationisnotthemost
currentreportavailable.Priortodepartingtheairport,you
needtogetthelatestweatherinformationfromthetower.
ASOS/AWSSandAWOSalsoprovideasourceofcurrent
weather,buttheirinformationshouldnotbesubstituted
forweatherreportsfromthetower.
IFRAlternateRequirements
OnAIScharts,standardalternateminimumsarenot
published.Iftheairporthasotherthanstandardalternate
minimums,theyarelisted inthe frontof theapproach
chartbooklet.Thepresenceofatrianglewithan Aontheapproachchartindicatesthelistingof alternate
minimumsshouldbeconsulted.Airportsthatdonotqualify
foruseasanalternateairportaredesignatedwithan AN/A.[Figure1-13]
Therequirementforanalternatedependsontheaircraft
category,equipmentinstalled,approachnavigational
aid(NAVAID),andforecastweather.Forexample,
airportswithonlyaglobalpositioningsystem(GPS)
approachprocedurecannotbeusedasanalternateby
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INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS
IFR ALTERNATE AIRPORT MINIMUMS
Standard alternate minimums for non precision approaches are 800-2 (NDB, VOR, LOC, TACAN, LDA,VORTAC, VOR/DME, ASR or WAAS LNAV); for precision approaches 600-2 (ILS or PAR). Airports withinthis geographical area that require alternate minimums other than standard or alternate minimums withrestrictions are listed below. NA - means alternate minimums are not authorized due to unmonitored facilityor absence of weather reporting service. Civil pilots see FAR 91. IFR Alternate Airport Minimums: Ceiling
and Visibility Minimums not applicable to USA/USN/USAF. Pilots must review the IFR Alternate AirportMinimums Notes for alternate airfield suitability.
NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS NAME ALTERNATE MINIMUMS
AKRON, COCOLORADOPLAINS RGNL ................. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 11NA when local weather not available.
ALAMOSA, COSAN LUIS VALLEY RGNL/BERGMAN FIELD .............. RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2
RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20NA when local weather not available.
ALBUQUERQUE, NMALBUQUERQUE INTLSUNPORT ..................... VOR or TACAN Rwy 8Categories A,B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ;Category D, 900-2 ; Category E, 900-3.
CLAYTON, NMCLAYTON MUNI AIRPARK ............ NDB Rwy 2
NDB Rwy 20RNAV (GPS) Rwy 2
RNAV (GPS) Rwy 20NA when local weather not available.Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ,
Category D, 900-2 .Category D, 800-2 .
COLORADO SPRINGS, COCITY OF COLORADO SPRINGSMUNI .............................. ILS or LOC Rwy 17L
ILS or LOC Rwy 35LILS or LOC Rwy 35R
RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17LRNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 17R 4
RNAV (RNP) Z Rwy 17R5
Categories A, B, 900-2; Category C, 900-2 ;Category D, 900-2 .ILS, Category D, 700-2.
NA when local weather not available.4Categories A, B, 1100-2; Categories C, D,1100-3.
5Categories A, B, C, D, 800-2 .
CORTEZ, COCORTEZ MUNI ............ RNAV (GPS) Y Rwy 21
RNAV (GPS) Z Rwy 21VOR Rwy 21
Category D, 900-3.Categories A, B, 1300-2; Categories C, D,1300-3.
CRAIG, COCRAIG-MOFFAT .................... VOR/DME Rwy 7
2 3 S E P
2 0 1 0 t o2 1 O C T 2 0 1 0
2 3 S E P
2 0 1 0 t o 2 1 O C T 2 0 1 0
City and state location
Airport name and applicable approach
Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums
Other-than-standard IFR alternate minimums are published.
Figure1-13.ExamplesofIFRalternateminimums.
TSO-C129 or C196 users unless certain requirements
aremet(seeAeronauticalInformationManual)even
thoughthe"N/A"hasbeenremovedfromtheapproach
chart.Forselectareanavigation(RNAV)GPSandGPS
approachprocedures,the"N/A"isbeingremovedsothey
maybeusedasanalternatebyaircraftequippedwithan
approach-approvedWideAreaAugmentationSystem
(WAAS)receivercomplayingwith(TSO-C145orC146)
orTSO-C129orC196meeitngcertainrequirements(see
AIM).BecauseGPSisnotauthorizedasasubstitutemeans
ofnavigationguidancewhenconductingaconventional
approachatanalternateairport,iftheapproachprocedure
requireseitherdistancemeasuringequipment(DME)or
automaticdirectionfinder(ADF),theaircraftmustbe
equippedwiththeappropriateDMEorADFavionicsin
ordertousetheapproachasanalternate.
Forairplane14CFRPart91requirements,analternate
airportmustbelisted onIFRflight plansif theforecast
weather atthe destination airport, for atleast 1hour
beforeandfor1houraftertheestimatedtimeofarrival
(ETA),theceilingislessthan2,000feetabovetheairport
elevation,andthevisibilityislessthan3SM.Asimplewayto
remembertherulesfordeterminingthenecessityoffiling
analternateforairplanesisthe“1,2,3Rule.”Forhelicopter
14CFRPart91,similaralternatefilingrequirementsapply.
AnalternatemustbelistedonanIFRflightplanifattheETA
andfor1houraftertheETA,theceilingisatleast1,000feet
abovetheairportelevation,oratleast400feetabovethe
lowestapplicableapproachminima,whicheverishigher,
andthevisibilityisatleast2SM.
Notallairportscanbeusedasalternateairports.Anairport
maynotbequalifiedforalternateuseiftheairportNAVAID
isunmonitored,orif itdoesnothaveweatherreporting
capabilities.Foranairporttobeusedasanalternate,
theforecastweatheratthatairportmustmeetcertain
qualificationsat theETA. Standardairplane alternate
minimumsforaprecisionapproacharea600-footceiling
anda2SMvisibility.Foranon-precisionapproach,the
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minimumsarean800-footceilinganda2SMvisibility.
Standardalternateminimumsapplyunlesshigheralternate
minimumsarelistedforanairport.Forhelicopters,alternate
weatherminimumsareaceilingof200feetabovethe
minimumfortheapproachtobeflown,andvisibilityat
least1SMbutneverlessthantheminimumvisibilityfor
theapproachtobeflown.
AlternateMinimumsforCommercialOperatorsIFRalternateminimumsforPart121andPart135operators
areveryspecificandhavemorestringentrequirements
thanPart91operators.
Part121operatorsarerequiredbytheirOpSpecsand
14CFRPart121,sections121.617and121.625tohave
atakeoffalternateairportfortheirdepartureairportin
additiontotheirairportofintendedlandingiftheweather
atthedepartureairportisbelowthelandingminimums
inthe certificate holder’sOpSpecsforthatairport.The
alternatemustbewithin2hoursflyingtimeforanaircraftwiththreeormoreengineswithanengineoutinnormal
cruiseinstillair.Fortwoengineaircraft,thealternatemust
bewithin1hour.Theairportofintendedlandingmaybe
usedinlieuofanalternateprovidedthatitmeetsallthe
requirements.Domestic Part121operatorsmustalsofile
foralternateairportswhentheweatherattheirdestination
airport,from1hourbeforeto1houraftertheirETA,is
forecasttobebelowa2,000-footceilingand/orlessthan
3milesvisibility.
Forairportswithatleastoneoperationalnavigational
facilitythatprovidesastraight-innon-precisionapproach,astraight-inprecisionapproach,oracirclingmaneuver
fromaninstrumentapproachproceduredeterminethe
ceilingandvisibilityby:
• Adding400feettotheauthorizedCATIheightabove
airport(HAA)/heightabovetouchdownelevation
(HAT)forceiling.
• AddingonemiletotheauthorizedCATIvisibility
forvisibilityminimums.
This isoneexampleof the criteriarequiredforPart121
operatorswhencalculatingminimums.Part135operatorsarealsosubjecttotheirownspecificrulesregardingthe
selectionanduseofalternateminimumsasoutlined
intheirOpSpecsand14CFRPart135,sections135.219
through135.225,andaresimilartothoseusedbyPart
121operators.
Typically,dispatcherswhoplanflightsfortheseoperators
areresponsibleforplanningalternateairports.The
dispatcherconsidersaircraftperformance,aircraft
equipmentanditscondition,androuteofflightwhen
choosingalternates.Intheeventchangesneedtobemade
totheflightplanenrouteduetodeterioratingweather,
thedispatchermaintainscontactwiththeflightcrew
andreroutestheirflightasnecessary.Therefore,it isthe
pilot’sresponsibilitytoexecutetheflightasplannedby
thedispatcher;thisisespeciallytrueforPart121pilots.To
aidintheplanningofalternates,dispatchershavealistof
airportsthatareapprovedasalternatessotheycanquicklydeterminewhichairportsshouldbeusedforaparticular
flight.Dispatchersalsouseflightplanningsoftwarethat
plansroutesincludingalternatesfortheflight.Thistypeof
softwareistailoredforindividualoperatorsandincludes
theirnormalflightpathsandapprovedairports.Flight
planningsoftwareandservicesareprovidedthrough
privatesources.
Though the pilot is the final author ity for the fl ight
andultimatelyhasfullresponsibility,thedispatcheris
responsibleforcreatingflightplansthatareaccurateand
complywiththeCFRs.Alternateminimumcriteriaareonlyusedasplanningtoolstoensurethepilotincommandand
dispatcherarethinkingaheadtotheapproachphaseof
flight.Intheeventtheflightwouldactuallyneedtodivert
toanalternate,thepublishedapproachminimumsor
lower-than-standardminimumsmustbeusedasaddressed
inOpSpecsdocuments.
DepartureProcedures
Instrumentdeparture proceduresare preplanned IFR
proceduresthatprovideobstructionclearancefrom
theterminalareatotheappropriateenroutestructure.Primarily,theseproceduresaredesignedtoprovideobstacle
protectionfordepartingaircraft.Therearetwotypesof
DepartureProcedures(DPs):ObstacleDepartureProcedures
(ODPs)andStandardInstrumentDepartures(SIDs).
Whenaninstrumentapproachisinitiallydevelopedforan
airport,theneedforanODPisassessed.Ifanaircraftmay
turninanydirectionfromarunwaywithinthelimitsofthe
assessmentareaandremainclearofobstaclesthatrunway
passeswhatiscalledadiversedepartureassessment,and
noODPispublished.Adiversedepartureassessment
ensuresthataprescribed,expandingamountofrequiredobstacleclearance(ROC)isachievedduringtheclimb-out
untiltheaircraftcanobtainaminimum1,000feetROCin
non-mountainousareasoraminimum2,000feetROCin
mountainousareas.Unlessspecifiedotherwise,required
obstacleclearanceforalldepartures,includingdiverse,is
basedonthepilotcrossingthedepartureendoftherunway
(DER)atleast35feetabovetheDERelevation,climbingto
400feetabovetheDERelevationbeforemakingtheinitial
turn,andmaintaininga minimumclimbgradientof 200
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1 NM 2 NM
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Positive course guidance must be acquiredwithin 10 NM for straight departures andwithin 5 NM for departures requiring turns.
Required climb gradient of 200 FPNM
Previous TERPS Departure Procedures
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