Facilitating the Learning of Diverse Learners.

Description of Learning Issue

Factors Learners Learning Theories Learning Environment

Application

Description of Learning Issue

After taking placement exams which help to identify students’ knowledge and skill levels in key areas like math, reading and writing, many students entering community colleges must take remedial classes that help them build their skills before entering college level courses.

Although college placement exams assist in identifying students that need developmental classes, these exams are not as effective at

distinguishing one student’s current knowledge and skill level from another student’s. For

example, at Central New Mexico Community College, placement exam scores determine

writing students’ placement into one of three developmental writing courses.

Instructors must consider ways to help learners beginning at different

knowledge and skill levels achieve learning objectives

within specified time frames.

Scores Level0-52 Lowest53-68 Middle69-84 Highest

The lowest level developmental writing course accepts all students no matter how low their scores were on the placement exam, so the

knowledge and skills of entering students differs greatly. The scoring system helps to bring into

the middle and top level courses students within a similar range of knowledge and skills.

However, students with scores at the lower end of the scale, like 69, often have greater gaps in knowledge and ability than students with scores at the upper end of the grading scale, like 84.

Questions

How can instructors ensure all students meet course objectives despite the fact that entering students begin with significantly different levels of knowledge and skills?

How can instructors ensure that students needing more support receive what they need to learn while more advanced students also receive opportunities to continue to progress in their learning?

Factors

Learning

Environment

Learners

Learning

Theory

APPLICATION

Who are the Learners?

At 24 years-old, Lisa is a single mom of three children under the

age of five. She has received financial assistance that will help her attend college, but she often

has difficulty finding childcare especially when one of the

children is sick. The assistance she receives only pays for

childcare needed for travel and class time, which means Lisa

must be with the children or find other free help if she needs quiet time for homework. Lisa wants to

learn but has little time for homework.

Magdalena is a 56 year-old

mother of five and

grandmother of four. She

completed high school in

Mexico and, in her early twenties,

moved to the states where

she raised her family and learned to

speak and write English through

exposure to others. Her

husband passed away last year, so

she has decided to attend college to

improve her English and

writing skills.

Peter is recently out of jail and on probation. As part of the requirements for his probation, he must enroll in a program at the college in order to develop an

employable skill or trade. He has enrolled in the welding program and is not sure why he has to take this writing class.

Who are the Learners?

Alex just graduated from high school a few months ago. His parents insisted that he attend college. He really dislikes English and writing and would rather be outside shooting hoops or fixing up the car he

bought last year.

Who are the Learners?

Sarah graduated from high school last

year. She is very nervous

about attending college

because she has a

learning disability,

which makes it difficult for

her to concentrate

for long periods of

time. She is also very

intimidated by the idea

of working in groups.

John took the college entrance exam after working all night at Wal-Mart. His score was two points below the mark

that would have placed him in the next level writing class. Early in the

semester, his writing demonstrates his ability to clearly organize his ideas in

writings that contain just a few writing errors.

Cognitive & Learning

Styles

Learning Theory

Cognitive

Orientation

Differentiate

d Instruction

Constructivis

t Orientation

Cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget highlighted key influences on internal cognitive processes: “the organism’s interacting with the environment and being exposed to an increasing number of experiences” (Merriam et al, p. 285).

Learning Theory

Cognitive

Orientation

Ausubel stressed that “learning is meaningful only when it can be related to concepts that already exist in a person’s cognitive structure” (Merriam et al, p. 286).

Cognitivists assert that “learning involves the reorganization of experiences in order to make sense of stimuli from the environment,” and therefore, “prior knowledge plays an important role in learning” (Merriam et al, p. 285).

According to Bruner, the learner must acquire, transform, and evaluate new information in order to fully process and incorporate it within existing knowledge. (Merriam et al, p. 286)

Learning Theory

Cues and scaffolding from the more knowledgeable individual allow the learner to “move through a series of steps” that lead to intellectual growth” (Jones and

Brader-Araje, p 6).

Vygotsky termed this cognitive activity the zone of proximal development which he defined as “the intellectual potential of an individual when provided with

assistance from a knowledgeable adult . . . ” (Jones and Brader-Araje).

Constructivist

Orientation

Constructivists build upon the concept of learning as an internal cognitive activity and suggest that learning occurs when learners are challenged to move beyond

current understandings in increments and with guidance from others.

Cognitive & Learning Styles

Learning Theory

Cranton defines learning styles as ‘preferences for certain conditions or ways of learning’” (Merriam et al, p 407).

While learners possess many different types of intelligence, some are more developed than others according to Gardner. He lists these types as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. Students can process information more efficiently when it is presented in ways that appeal to their intelligence types (Hopper, p. 179).

Learners may also have a preference for different kinds of sensory input showing “visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning preferences” (Merriam et al, p. 408).

According to one cognitive style described

as hemispheric dominance, learners

may show a preference for the linear processing

or examination of concepts from parts to whole (left brain) while

others learners may prefer a holistic approach, the

examination of ideas from whole to parts

(right brain) (Hopper, p. 173).

Besides prior knowledge and experiences, learners’ cognitive styles and learning styles will also affect the

processes involved in acquisition, transformation and evaluation.

Cognitive & Learning

Styles

Learning Theory

Cognitive

Orientation

Differentiate

d Instruction

Constructivis

t Orientation

Differentiated Instruction is an instructional theory that integrates cognitivist and constructivist theories as well as aspects of learners’ cognitive styles and

learning styles (Anderson, p. 50).

Theory to Application

Cognitive

Orientation

Constructivis

t Orientation

Cognitive & Learning

Styles

Differentiate

d Instruction

All learners in a learning situation will come to the

learning event with different knowledge and experiences. Instruction should be designed in a

way that allows each learner an opportunity to

build upon his or her existing knowledge and

experiences.

Since each learner in a classroom setting begins at a different level of understanding, the steps or cues and scaffolding will need to be slightly adjusted for each.

Instruction should cater to different cognitive styles

and learning styles so learners can utilize their learning strengths when acquiring, transforming,

and evaluating new information.

The Learning Environment

The School of Adult General Education (SAGE) at CNM encourages and supports instruction that accommodates “the different learning styles students bring to the classroom” and further suggests that instructors “design a combination of teacher directed, cooperative, collaborative, and individual learning experiences” (SAGE Developmental Reading Course Outlines)

SAGE ensures instructors have access to a variety of materials that promote differentiated instruction: lesson plan ideas for collaborative work, individual work and hands-on activities; supplies that encourage student use and creation of visuals; exercises and handouts that appeal to a variety of learner types; and access to computers to provide additional learning resources and activities.

Although instructors have a number of resources to support differentiated learning, they are constrained by college requirements to meet course objectives within the allotted time: 15 weeks.

Learner Input

Recently, 23 students in a developmental writing class that uses a variety of instructional methods were asked the following question:

What kinds of instruction would you want more of in the class?The students’ answers included the following:

Group work, lectures, handouts/exercises, visuals/sentences on board, hands-on

activities, and writing time in class with one-to-one guidance from instructor.

Use a variety of instructional methods that appeal to different cognitive styles:

reading for main ideas, reading for details, analyzing, questioning, problem solving, cooperative learning, lecturing, and small-group discussion. (Sternberg

and Zhang, p. 251). Regularly provide students

opportunities to work in groups and adjust these

groups according to

shared interests and skill levels. (Huebner)

Determine students that show weaknesses in understanding after

initial topic consideration and design small group

meetings to “re-teach an idea or skill (Tobin,

p. 159).During whole group instruction, model thought processes involved in reading and writing strategies.

(Tobin, p. 165)Use multiple teaching strategies

including modeling, guiding, coaching, and scaffolding to

fade instructor involvement and promote independence. (Tobin,

p. 163).

Seek opportunities to validate students’ successes (Tobin, p. 167).

Differentiated Instruction in the Classroom

Differentiated Instruction in the Classroom

Regularly schedule in-class conferences during which the student can listen as the instructor

takes the role of reader and provides immediate feedback. This allows for

individualized attention to underprepared students and students with disabilities as well

as more advanced students ready to be encouraged to progress further. (Edwards and

Pula)

Provide students with a choice of reading materials and assignments that appeal to

varying interests and varying levels of reading skill. (Tobin, p. 159) (Manning et al,

p. 147)

Provide multiple ways students

can demonstrate understandings. (Tobin, p. 160)

Get to know the students’

backgrounds and interests before

deciding readings and assignments. (Tobin, p. 162)

Build “individual student profiles to plan flexible

groups and tiered lessons.

(Anderson, p. 51)

Allow students’ “choices in

working independently, with partners, or as a team.”

(Anderson p.50)

Bibliography

Anderson, K. (2007). Tips for Teaching: Differentiating Instruction to Include All Students. Preventing School Failure, 51(3), 49-54. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Cusumano, C., & Mueller, J. (2007). How differentiated instruction helps struggling students. Leadership, 36(4), 8-10. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Edwards, A., & Pula, J. (2008). In-Class Conferences as Differentiated Writing Instruction: New Uses for Tutorials. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 74(3), 10-14. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Hopper, C. H. (2010) Practicing College Learning Strategies. (5th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.

Huebner, T. (2010). Differentiated Instruction. Educational Leadership, 67(5), 79-81. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Jones, M. G. & Brader-Araje, L. (2002). The Impact of Constructivism on Education: Language, Discourse, and Meaning. American communication Journal, 5(3). www/ackpirma;/prgjp;domgsvp;5oss3s[ecoa;kpmes/pdf.

Knowles, L. (2009). Differentiated Instruction in Reading: Easier Than It Looks!. School Library Media Activities Monthly, 25(5), 26-28. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Manning, S., Stanford, B., & Reeves, S. (2010). Valuing the Advanced Learner: Differentiating Up. Clearing House, 83(4), 145-149. doi:10.1080/00098651003774851.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007) Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sternberg, R., & Li-fang, Z. (2005). Styles of Thinking as a Basis of Differentiated Instruction. Theory Into Practice, 44(3), 245-253. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4403_9.

Tobin, R. (2008). Conundrums in the Differentiated Literacy Classroom. Reading Improvement, 45(4), 159-169. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.