Fallacies in Language

1. EquivocationExample- http://onegoodmove.org/fallacy/equiv.htm (second example)

The sign said "fine for parking here", and since it was fine, I parked there.

It shows how the person misunderstood or got confused with the word fine which has the meanings of good or penalty or to pay.

2. AmphibolyExample- http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/fallacies/amphiboly.htm

Young men and women. (are the women young?)

It shows how the sentence can mislead readers with its faulty grammatical construction with the women, it gives us the question of “are the women young?”

3. AccentExample-http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/general/bldef_accent.htm

I told Jack that I never want to see another Bruce Willis movie. As a result, he never shows me another one - he just keep showing me the same one, over and over.

(example above, there is ambiguity created by the word "another”)

4. CompositionExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/composition.html

A main battle tank uses more fuel than a car. Therefore, the main battle tanks use up more of the available fuel in the world than do all the cars.(First Example Found on the site)

This shows how they took together or grouped the car and tanks as one which should be taken separately for its big difference, for it shows how the tank consumes lots of fuel compared to the car but in reality cars consume more available fuel in the world for the number of cars compared to tanks has a big difference.

5. DivisionExample-http://atheism.about.com/library/glossary/general/bldef_division.htm

The United States is the richest country in the world; therefore, everyone in the United States must be rich and live well.

(First Example Found on the site)

It shows how they took together the country and people which should have been taken separately for it’s the country who is rich, not every people who lives in it.

6. Figure of SpeechExample-http://www.slideshare.net/ulrick04/12-fallaciesWhat is immaterial is not material and what is insoluble is not soluble therefore what is inflammable is not flammable.(13th slide)

This shows the argument from the similarity of the words immaterial and material to a similarity of meaning which is the opposite of the word.

Fallacies not in the Language or Non-Linguistic Fallacies

1. AccidentExample-http://newsroom-magazine.com/2009/academic/logic-system/fallacy-of-accident-logic-definition/

It is good to return things you have borrowed. Therefore, you should return an automatic rifle to the madman from whom it was borrowed.(First Example on the Site)

This shows how returning things are abused for as a human being one knows what’s right or wrong in this world, so in the sentence, it shows that one must return a gun which is owned by a madman, which can cause accidents to others.

2. Absolute and qualified statementExample- http://www.slideshare.net/ulrick04/12-fallacies

Water boils at 212 FahrenheitTherefore water boils at 212 Fahrenheit on the top of Mt. Everest(example found on the 18th slide on the site)

This shows that water boils at 212 Fahrenheit on ground level but when a person tries to boil water on a high altitude like Mt. Everest, it would boil but it is not that hot.

3. Begging the question

A. Circulus in probandoExample- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_argument

"Only an untrustworthy person would run for office. The fact that politicians are untrustworthy is proof of this."

This shows how they proved the conclusion on the basis of the first premise that only untrustworthy person would run for office whose truth implies on the truth of the conclusion that politicians are untrustworthy.

B. Assumptio non probateExample- http://forensicsargumentation.blogspot.com/2009/02/fallacies-in-argumentation-and-debate.htmlAll persons who have killed another must be sentenced to death.(this premise has to be proved first)Mr. A has killed another person.(either Mr. A committed a crime or had killed only for self defense)Therefore: Mr. A must be sentenced to death.(self defense cannot be sentenced to death, therefore a Fallacy)

C. Complex Question or Loaded questionExample- http://www.lich-mc.com/vietnam/complexquestion.htm

Where did you hide the cookies you stole?You were asked where you hide the cookies you stole. You replied "under the bed." It follows that you did in fact steal the cookies.

This shows how the question where did you hide the cookies you stole which presupposes the truth that you answered under your bed, so it shows that you really stole the cookies.

4. Ignoring the issue or ignorantio elenchi

A. Argumentum ad HominemExample- http://forensicsargumentation.blogspot.com/2009/02/fallacies-in-argumentation-and-debate.html

How can you argue for vegetarianism when you wear leather shoes?

This shows how this person A rejected person B if his claim about vegetarianism because person A could or maybe doesn’t like leather shoes.

i. Abusive ad HominemExample-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hominem#Ad_hominem_abuse

"You can't believe Jack when he says the proposed policy would help the economy. He doesn't even have a job."

This shows how person A degrades person B’s proposal just because he doesn’t have a job.

ii. Circumstantial ad hominemExample-http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/circumstantial-ad-hominem.html "She asserts that we need more military spending, but that is false, since she is only saying it because she is a Republican."

This shows how her claim is false for in her position nobody is expected to make such claims, which is that she’s a Republican and Republicans are expected to increase the military spending for their safety.

iii. Ad hominem based on inconsistencyExample-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_quoque#Inconsistency_versionYou say aircraft are able to fly because of the laws of physics, but this is false because twenty years ago you also said aircraft fly because of magic.

This shows how the Person A’s claim is false because of its inconsistency with what he said before, He said airplanes can fly because of the laws of physics but he said twenty years ago it can fly because of magic.

iv. Tu QuoqueExample-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hominem#Ad_hominem_tu_quoque

a father may tell his son not to start smoking as he will regret it when he is older, and the son may point out that his father is or was a smoker.

This does not change the fact that his son may regret smoking when he is older, and the fact his father was a smoker means he can talk from a position of experience. And this shows the father is guilty of it.

B. Argumentum ad misericorduamExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/misery.html

Oh, Officer, There's no reason to give me a traffic ticket for going too fast because I was just on my way to the hospital to see my wife who is in serious condition to tell her I just lost my job and the car will be repossessed.

This shows how the man appealed to the police officer’s pity or emotions to get out of his faults or crime, by using his wife as an excuse.

C. Argumentum ad baculumExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/force.html

Chairman of the Board: "All those opposed to my arguments for the opening of a new department, signify by saying, 'I resign.'"

This shows how the chairman of the board uses threats or force to his subordinates to agree with him by saying that he would resign which shows he used his power to prove his intentions or point.

D. Argumentum ad ignorantiamExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/ignorance.html

In spite of all the talk, not a single flying saucer report has been authenticated. We may assume, therefore, there are not such things as flying saucers.

This shows how little do we know about flying saucers and how ignorant we are so in this argument we concluded that this is false for it can’t be proven.

E. Argumentum ad verecundiamExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/authority.html

The brilliant William Jenkins, the recent Nobel Prize winner in physics, states uncategorically that the flu virus will be controlled in essentially all of its forms by the year 2,050. The opinion of such a great man cannot be disregarded.

This shows how other listeners can easily believe or trust this person because of his fame or authority as a nobel prize winner, which can still be untrue for it is only his opinion that flu viruses can be controlled in all forms by the year 2,050.

F. Argumentum ad populumExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/popular.html

"Man could alleviate his misery by marriage. This close companionship enhances the joys of one and mitigated the sorrow of the other, and anyone knew God always provided for married people." (Lee Emily Pearson, Elizabethans at Home, (Stanford Univ. Pr.), 289.)

This shows how man could alleviate his misery by marriage, which could sometimes work, or could cause more misery to himself which shows to a conclusion unsupported by good evidence.

5. False CauseExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/cause.html

"Napoleon became a great emperor because he was so short."(If this were a causal inference, then all short people would become emperors.)

This shows how they assigned a reason that napoleons height gave him power and made him a great emperor which is false, the reason could be that he is smart or intelligent and knows how to handle problems.

6. Post Hoc, ergo propter hocExample- http://philosophy.lander.edu/logic/cause.html

"Every severe recession follows a Republican Presidency; therefore Republicans are the cause of recessions."

This shows how invalid the conclusion, which is the republicans are the cause of the recessions because there is a temporal connection between the events of every severe recessions the president is a republican then there is a causal connection between them.

7. False alternativesExample- http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Logical%20Fallacies.htm#false-alternatives

Is she a Democrat or a Republican?" (She may be a socialist, a libertarian, a Leninist, an anarchist, a feminist or any number of other things, including one who is strictly apolitical.)

This shows how they could give a false alternative for she could be neither of the two choices and could be or have a different work or profession.

8. False or weak analogyExample- http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/fallacies.html

Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous."

This shows the comparison between a gun and hammers on their purchase restrictions for hammers are also used as a building material and less fatal compared to a gun so the analogy here is not that strong to support the conclusion of the argument.

9. Hasty or Illicit generalizationExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/hasty-generalization.html

Smith, who is from England, decides to attend graduate school at Ohio State University. He has never been to the US before. The day after he arrives, he is walking back from an orientation session and sees two white (albino) squirrels chasing each other around a tree. In his next letter home, he tells his family that American squirrels are white.

Here is where smith generalized in his conclusion that American squirrels are whiteWithout having sufficient evidence that American squirrels are white.

10. SubjectivismExample- http://www.docstoc.com/docs/4541969/FALLACY-OF-SUBJECTIVISM-THE-FALLACY-OF-SUBJECTIVISM-OCCURS-WHENEVER

Who knows if humans are contributing to global warming?

After all different sides have their own opinion and since this issue is subjective there’s no way to determine if humans are contributing to global warming.

11. Appeal to common beliefExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/appeal-to-belief.html

God must exist. After all, I just saw a poll that says 85% of all Americans believe in God.

It shows how this person tries to establish a claim that God exists for he believes or he saw a poll that says 85% of all Americans believe in God which gave him the idea that many people believe in God so he must believe in God too.

12. Appeal to common practiceExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/appeal-to-common-practice.html

"Yeah, I know some people say that cheating on tests is wrong. But we all know that everyone does it, so it's okay."

It shows how this person believes that cheating is okay for he knew that everyone does it so he thought that its right and it’s a common practice for students.

13. Peer pressure (the bandwagon)Example- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/bandwagon.html

Bill says that he likes the idea that people should work for their welfare when they can. His friends laugh at him, accuse him of fascist leanings, and threaten to ostracize him from their group. He decides to recant and abandon his position to avoid rejection.

Here it shows how bill decided to abandon his position because of his friends for his friends doesn’t like it or don’t want to do it, so because of peer pressure and maybe for the sake of the group and friendship.

14. Appeal to spite or indignationExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/appeal-to-spite.html

Bill: "I think that Jane did a great job this year. I'm going to nominate her for the award." Dave: "Have you forgotten last year? Remember that she didn't nominate you last year." Bill: "You're right. I'm not going to nominate her."

This shows how Bill discredits Jane for nomination just because Jane didn’t nominate bill last year.

15. The horse laughExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/appeal-to-ridicule.html

"Sure my worthy opponent claims that we should lower tuition, but that is just laughable."

That shows how this person rejected his opponent’s claims that they should lower tuition by laughing at it.

16. Two wrongs make a rightExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/two-wrongs-make-a-right.html

Bill has borrowed Jane's expensive pen, but found he didn't return it. He tell's himself that it is okay to keep it, since she would have taken his.

This is where bill claimed that it’s okay to keep Jane’s pen for he thought she would also do the same thing to bill. So this shows how person A gave a particular reason to justify the claim is that the other (Person B) would do the same thing.

17. Apple polishingExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/appeal-to-flattery.html

"Might I say that this is the best philosophy class I've ever taken. By the way, about those two points I need to get an A..."

This shows how this student tried to flatter and convince his teacher by saying that this class is the best, for the points he needs to get an A.

18. Poisoning the wellExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/poisoning-the-well.html

"Don't listen to him, he's a scoundrel."

This shows how that person A directly accusing person b without having the chance to defend himself.

19. Genetic FallacyExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/genetic-fallacy.html

I was brought up to believe in God, and my parents told me God exists, so He must."

This shows how the kid believed in God for he said that his parents told him that God exist so he believed in it, which is the cause of this person’s belief rather than its justification.

20. Slippery SlopeExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/slippery-slope.html

"We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!"

This shows how they concluded that increasing the tuition would lead to a very high tuition like $40,000 per semester which there is really not enough basis for thinking that this chain reaction would actually happen or occur.

21. Smokescreen or red herringExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/red-herring.html

"We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous."

Here it shows how the subject has been changed from the measure to the ballots, which means that they introduced a distracting or irrelevant discussion.

22. Straw manExample- http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/straw-man.html

"Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."

Here it shows how the person over reacted to the announcement of Senator Jones that they should not fun the attack submarine program, which he should have analyzed more that maybe the senator has another plan to make a better defense for their country and not defenseless.

23. Suppressing evidence or factsExample- http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/#Suppressed%20Evidence

Buying the Cray Mac 11 computer for our company was the right thing to do. It meets our company’s needs; it runs the programs we want it to run; it will be delivered quickly; and it costs much less than what we had budgeted.

This shows how they tried to suppress the evidences by saying that the computer meets the company’s needs and runs the programs they want it to run from because maybe the computer wasn’t delivered quickly and the computers could cost a lot than what they budgeted.

24. Argument from silenceExample-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_from_silence

Bobby: I know where Mary lives.Billy: Where?Bobby: I'm not telling you!Billy: You're just saying that because you don't know!

Billy's conclusion may not be justified: perhaps Bobby doesn't want to tell him.

25. Non sequiturExample- http://www.iscid.org/encyclopedia/Non_Sequitur1. All cows graze in fields

2. All cows see the moon at nightC. All cows can jump over the moon

This shows how these premises doesn’t follow each other, since the conclusion simply doesn’t follow its premises.