family adaptation to a young adult with mental retardation.doc

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Family adaptation to a young adult with

mental retardation.

TheResiliencyModel of Family Stress, Adjustment, and Adaptation is a useful theoretical

framework for understanding the adaptation of a family to the transition from school to work andadult life of a son or daughter with mental retardation mental retardation, below average level ofintellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in

the skills necessary for daily living. . The son or daughter's transition to work and adult life can be

analyzed analyze

tr.v.analyzed, analyzing, analyzes

1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.

2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.

3. as a non-normative family stressor co-occurring with stressors associated withnormative

normativeadj.

Of, relating to, or prescribing a norm or standard: normative grammar.

nor aspects of the family life cycle.

The transition to adulthood for a person with mental retardation is a stressful time not only for

the individual but also for the family (Ferguson Ferguson, city (1990 pop. 22,286), St. Louis co., EMo., a suburb of St. Louis; inc. 1894. It is primarily residential. , Ferguson, & Jones, 1988; Hanley-

Maxwell, Whitney-Thomas, & Pogoloff, 1995). The family of the individual who transitions from

school to work is an important factor in the success of the transition (Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1995;Wehman, Sale, & Parent, 1992; West, 1992). The transition of a family member with mental

retardation affects and is affected by the family social system (Ferguson, Ferguson, & Jones, 1988;

Wehman et al., 1992). Thus, the transition from school to work is a significant experience not onlyfor the individual but also for the family. Since 1984 transition services have been a priority for

students with disabilities (Will, 1984). The Office of Special Education andRehabilitative

rehabilitate

tr.v.rehabilitated, rehabilitating, rehabilitates

1. To restore to good health or useful life, as through therapy and education.

2. Services defined the transition from school to work as "an outcome-oriented processencompassing a broad array of services and experiences that lead to employment" (Will, 1984, p.2).

While transition impacts the individual and the family in a number of ways (Ferguson, Ferguson, &Jones, 1988; Hanley-Maxwell et al., 1995), employment is an integral part of the transitionexperience for persons with mental retardation and their families' (Revell, Wehman, Kregel, West,

& RayfieldRayfield is an English surname. It may refer to one of the following. People

Donald Rayfield, British professor and writer

Walter Leigh Rayfield, one of seven Canadian awarded the Victoria Cross for actions onSeptember 2, 1918

Wallace Rayfield
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John M.

, 1994). According to according to

prep.

1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.

2. In keeping with: according to instructions.

3. Wehman and Kregel (1992) for persons with mental retardation, supported employment has been

the primary means toward competitive employment.

The Resiliency Model of Family Stress, Adjustment and Adaptation (McCubbin & McCubbin,1991), a stress and coping framework based on a family systems approach, provides a theoretical

basis for understanding a family's adjustment to the transition from school to work of their adult

child with mental retardation. The Resiliency Model divides a family's response to life changes intotwo phases, specifically the Adjustment Phase and the Adaptation Phase. In the Adjustment Phase,

the level of family adjustment in response to a stressor event or transition is determined by the

interaction of the following elements: (a) the severity of the stressor or transition; (b) the family'svulnerability, as determined by the concurrentpile-uppileup orpile-up

n.

1.InformalA serious collision usually involving several motor vehicles.

2. An accumulation: "the pile-up of unsold autos" of demands and the family's life cycle stage; (c)

the family's characteristic mode of behavior; (d) the level of the family's resources for meeting the

demands of the stressor; (e) the family's appraisal of the stressor; and (f) the family'sproblemsolvingproblem solving

Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems oflocomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. and coping responses to the stressor.

Adjustment is a short term response to the stressor involving minor changes in the family. If the

demands of the stressor exceed the family's coping strategies The German Freudian psychoanalystKaren Horney defined four so-called coping strategies to define interpersonal relations, one

describing psychologically healthy individuals, the others describing neurotic states. , more

substantial changes are required. The movement to initiate change in the family system characterizes

the beginning of the Adaptation Phase.

The Adaptation Phase describes the family process involving changes "in established roles, rules,

goals and/orand/orconj.

Used to indicate that either or both of the items connected by it are involved.

Usage Note:And/oris widely used in legal and business writing. patterns of interaction" (p. 23). In

the Adaptation Phase, the level of adaptation in response to a crisis situation is determined by the

interaction of the following factors: (a) the pile-up of family demands related to the stressor, the

normative family transition, prior strains, the consequences of the family's efforts to cope, andambiguity Ambiguity

Delphic oracle

ultimate authority in ancient Greece; often speaks in ambiguous terms. [Gk. Hist.: Leach, 305]
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Iseults vow

pledge to husband has double meaning. [Arth. associated with the situation; (b) the family'sadaptive strengths, resources, and capabilities; (c) the family's characteristic mode of behavior or

typology typology /typology/ (ti-polah-je) the study of types; the science of classifying, as

bacteria according to type.

typology

the study of types; the science of classifying, as bacteria according to type. ; (d) the family's

appraisal of the crisis or transition; and (e) the family's problem solving and coping responses.

This article focuses on an analysis of the family demands associated with the young adult's transition

from school to work. In attempting to deal with the family demands created by this transition it is

possible that a family will be dealing with a range of co-occurring stressors (McCubbin &McCubbin, 1991, p.16). These co-occurring stressors contribute to a "pile-up" of demands on the

family. There are two types of stressors which may contribute to the pile-up of demands for thesefamilies. First, there are normative transitions, such as those stresses associated with the Launchingstage of the family life cycle. Second there are prior strains, such as parental hardships related to

transition from the school system, and other non-normative stressors specific to families with a

young adult with mental retardation. An important part of this second group of stressors is (a) the

effect on the family of the employment of the person with mental retardation, (b) the consequencesof the family efforts to cope with this employment, and (c) intra-family and social ambiguity

associated with parental roles in relation to service providers. It is important to note that these

stressors may exist both in families who can adjust to supported employment with minimal familychanges and in families who require more substantial modifications.

Family Life Cycle Transitions: The Launching Stage

The family life cycle perspective focuses on the development of families as they movetemporally

temporal 1

adj.

1. Of, relating to, or limited by time: a temporal dimension; temporal and spatial boundaries.

2. from one stage to the next (Neugarten, 1976). At each stage of the family life cycle families mustaccomplish certain tasks, such as determining family roles and relating to the outside world, in order

to guarantee their survival (AldousAldous is a surname, and may refer to:

Alan Aldous

Montague Aldous

Robert Aldous

William Aldous

It may also be a first name and may refer to:

Aldous Huxley
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This page or section lists people with the surnameAldous. , 1978). The hierarchical A structure

made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or

precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each itemhaving one or more items below it. importance of these family tasks shifts with each stage of the

family life cycle (Aldous, 1978). The developmental movement of a family from one stage to

another is termed a family transition (McCubbin et al., 1980). Within the context of the family lifecycle, these transitions are considered normative "because they are ubiquitous Found in large

quantities everywhere. This English word means "all over the place." (they occur in most families),

expectable (families can anticipate their occurrence at certain scheduled points in the family lifecycle), andshort-term Short-term

Any investments with a maturity of one year or less.

short-term

1. Of or relating to a gain or loss on the value of an asset that has been held less than a specified

period of time. (not chronic)" (McCubbin et al., 1980, p. 860, 858).

Normative transitions involve change (Carter & McGoldrick, 1980;OlsonOlson may refer to:

Olson (constructor), a former racing car constructor

Olson Software

Olson database, also known aszoneinfo database

Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute

Olson (surname), people with the given name Olson

et al., 1983) related to... "the relationship system to support entry, exit, and development of family

members in a functional way" (Carter & McGoldrick, 1980, p. 16). Olson et al. (1983) stated thatthese transition periods are "often marked by feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, and a sense of loss

[and involves] the process of adjustment, reorganization, consolidation and adaptation" (p. 113).

Research has demonstrated the effect of transitions on family well being (Carter & McGoldrick,1980; Olson et al., 1983;Worthington Worthington (wr`thngtn), city (1990 pop. 14,869),

Franklin co., central Ohio, a suburb of Columbus; settled 1803, inc. 1835. Mainly residential, it has

some light industry. Worthington College is there. , 1987). The process of adjustment within a

family can be seen in the stressors identified by parents in various stages of the family life cycle.Significantly during the Launching stage, where adolescents are beginning to leave home and

establish identities and roles outside the home, couples reported the highest number of stressors

when compared with other stages in the family life cycle. Specifically, strains related to the youngadult leaving home were reported by 38 percent of families, and strains related to the young adult

starting postNoun1.starting post - a post marking the starting point of a race (especially a horse

race)stake, post - a pole or stake set up to mark something (as the start or end of a race track); "a pair of

posts marked the goal"; "the corner of the lot was indicated by a high school training were reported

by 45 percent of families (Olson et al., 1983). In a national study of 304 families, family well-being,family satisfaction with marriage, and satisfaction with community life were lowest during the

Adolescent adolescent

adj.

Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence.
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n.

A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. and

Launching stage (McCubbin, ThompsonThompson, city, CanadaThompson, city (1991 pop. 14,977), central Man., Canada, on the Burntwood River. A mining town,

it developed after large nickel deposits were discovered in the area in 1956. , Pirner, & McCubbin,

1988). Families with a young adult with mental retardation, like all families with a son or daughterwho is a young adult, are affected by the changes associated with the Launching stage of the family

life cycle.

Families with a Young Adult with Mental Retardation:

Non-Normative Transitions

While the normative family experiences of a family without a son or daughter with mental

retardation are experienced by most families and occur at predictable times, the non-normative

experiences of a family with a son or daughter with mental retardation can vary from the typicalboth in terms of when the events occur and if they occur (Seltzer & Ryff, 1994). Atypical

atypical /atypical/ (-i-k'l) irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied

specifically to strains of unusual type.

atypical

adj. child characteristics, such as a son or daughter with mental retardation, affect the normativesequence of family developmental tasks as a family transitions from one stage to the next (Olson et

al., 1983; Seltzer & Ryff, 1994).

The impact of transitions on the family can be increased when they occur at times different than

socially expected (Neugarten, 1976). Neugarten (1976) stated that society has informal norms

regarding the "sociallyprescribed prescribev.prescribed, prescribing, prescribes

v.tr.

1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate.

2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment). timetable for the ordering of major life

events" (p. 16) for individuals and families. When these major life events occur off-time, theirimpact can be traumatic (Neugarten, 1976). In the interconnected family, when a son or daughter

does not leave home at the societally prescribed time, the parents can be "left with a sense of strain

and personal failure" (Hagestad & Neugarten, 1985, p. 51). In families with a son or daughter withmental retardation, the accomplishment of these family transitions may be slower or may never

occur (FewellFewell is a Scottish name derived from the Medival word for "people". It has been a

family name since the late fifth century, though the Saxon invasions mixed the native Scottishbloodline with conquering noblemen in 1200. , 1986).

The timing of these family transitions relative to the normative cultural expectations is critical in

terms of the meaning the family attaches to the transition (Fewell, 1986; Neugarten, 1976; Turnbull,Summers, & Brotherson., 1986; Wikler, 1981). Life events are considered by individuals and

families as stresses when they occur at other than socially expected times (Neugarten, 1976).

Developmental transitions in families with a son or daughter with mental retardation are times when
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parents "may experience renewed sorrow andapprehensionThe seizure and arrest of a person who

is suspected of having committed a crime.

A reasonable belief of the possibility of imminent injury or death at the hands of another thatjustifies a person acting in Self-Defense against the potential attack. as [the parents] compare what

is with what might have been" (Fewell, 1986, p. 16). Families with a son or daughter with mental

retardation may experience a crisis at times in the family life cycle when there is a discrepancyDISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a

variance. (q.v.)

2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. between what the parents expect of a child'sdevelopment and of parenting, and what actually occurs (Wikler, 1981). In addition to the stress

associated with transitions in general and the non-normative aspects of the change in a family with a

son or daughter with mental retardation (i.e., occurring off-schedule), the family is faced with thestress of not enough change (Turnbull et al., 1986). Thus, a transition that takes much longer or is

never completed is also a source of stress. While the normative event for families in general is for

the son or daughter to leave home as a young adult there is a higher likelihood that young adults

with mental retardation will continue to live with their parents past age 21 (Peraino, 1992).

While research has focused to a greater extent on families with a son or daughter with mental

retardation in the early stages of development throughadolescence adolescence, time of life fromonset of puberty to full adulthood. The exact period of adolescence, which varies from person to

person, falls approximately between the ages 12 and 20 and encompasses both physiological and

psychological changes. (Rowitz, 1991; Seltzer & Ryff, 1994; Turnbull et al., 1986), there isevidence from research with families with a son or daughter with mental retardation (Wikler,

Wasow, & Hatfield, 1981) that the family life cycle stage associated with launching the young adult

into the adult world is a high point of stress, second only to the initial diagnosis when the child is a

baby (Wikler, 1986; Wikler et al., 1981). Suelzle and Keenan (1981) found that families with ayoung adult with mental retardation experienced significantly less acceptance from neighbors and

decreased utilization of personal support networks when compared with earlier life cycle stages.

Thorin and Irvin (1992) identified stressors experienced by families with a young adult (ages 15 to

21) with severe developmental disabilities developmental disabilities (DD),

n.plthe pathologic conditions that have their origin in the embryology and growth and developmentof an individual. DDs usually appear clinically before 18 years of age. . Parents reported stress

related to (a) parent interactions with service providers, (b) quality of services, (c) financial

concerns, and (d) family problems. Ferguson et al. (1988) stated that the transition of persons withmental retardation from the school system to work and adult life is a period when parents experience

a "combination oferratic erratic

adj.

1. Having no fixed or regular course; wandering.

2. Lacking consistency, regularity, or uniformity: an erratic heartbeat.

3. ornonexistentnonexistence

n.

1. The condition of not existing.

2. Something that does not exist.
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non services with the application of cultural norms that typically include less active parental

involvement in the daily life of the child" (p. 177). This dual demand of "greater need and reduced

involvement" (p.177) causes unique stress for these families during this period. Ferguson and hisassociates found that parents perceived three transition processes associated with their child entering

adult life including: (a)bureaucraticbureaucrat

n.1. An official of a bureaucracy.

2. An official who is rigidly devoted to the details of administrative procedure.

bu transitions, whereby the family changes from involvement with the special education system to

the adult service system; (b) family life transitions, whereby the family changes from the relativelyset routine of school to the more uncertain routines of adult life; and (c) status transitions, whereby

an individual changes from protected child to independent adult. Status transitions were perceived

by parents as a change from parental to professional control over the future of their son/daughter.

Hanley-Maxwell et al. (1995) interviewed parents of students with cognitive disabilities who had

graduated from high school. These parents expressed concerns related to (a) long waiting lists for

services, (b) the lack of social networks for their child, and (c) conflicts between the parents need forindependence from the demands of their child and worries over their son or daughters wellbeing.

Irvin (1993) identified dilemmas for familiescoping with The Coping With series of books is aseries of books aimed at 11-16 year olds, written by Peter Corey and published by Scholastic Hippo.

The first book, Coping with Parents, was released in 1989, and the series continued until the last

book, Coping with Cash the transition of young adults with developmental disabilities to adult life.First, parents want separation and independence for themselves, and separate and satisfying lives for

their young adult. Second, because complete separation and independence are not realistic goals,

parents pace themselves, putting realistic limits on what they can do, and following family routinesthat minimize stress and daily hassles.

Coping with Employment

Employment by a son or daughter with mental retardation affects the family social system in terms

of both actions the family must take (Ferguson et al., 1986; West, 1992) and concerns the family

must consider (Thorin & Irvin, 1992; Wehman et al., 1992). Family involvement has been identifiedas an important factor in the successful employment of their son or daughter with mental retardation

(Jamison, 1993; Wehman et al., 1992). Family concerns related to a son or daughter's involvement

in employment can be grouped into four areas (Wehman et al., 1992). These areas include (a) the

employee on the job, (b) family life changes, (c) interactions with professionals, and (d) attitudesand expectations about involvement in employment.

Family concerns associated with the employee's activities on the job centered around coworkersacceptance, the ability to perform the job, the availability of supports, and the general quality of the

work environment. In a study by Thorin and Irvin (1992), parents reported concerns relating to

supervisor bias or attitude, getting along with supervisors or coworkers, and being taken advantageof in the workplace. When considering supported employment in particular, there is considerable

evidence to support Mank's (1995) conclusion that integration in the workplace with non-disabled
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workers has "been more physical than social" (p. 8). Research has provided evidence that interaction

between workers with mental retardation and other workers is limited, and tends to focus on work

tasks rather than social interaction (Chadsey-Rusch, Gonzalez, Tines, & Johnson, 1989; Rusch,

Johnson, & Hughes, 1990).

Thorin and Irvin (1992) found that 52% of parents had job related concerns in the areas of capability

and supervision. Forty-eight percent of parents were concerned with the young adult's ability to keepthe job, specifically in meeting job expectations, and having responsible work habits and a positive

attitude towards the job. Inge, Hill, Shafer, and Wehman (1994) stated that parents often have

concerns about their son or daughter's competence to perform in a competitive job because theparents have lacked "the opportunity to observe vocational competence" (p. 236). Parents also

expressed concerns related to the quality of the work environment such as job safety (Thorin &

Irvin, 1992).

Family life changes are the changes and disruptions in the "established routines and accepted

responsibilities" (Ferguson et al., 1988, p.182) associated with their son of daughter's involvement in

employment. These changes and disruptions are based on the assumption that most young adultswith mental retardation continue to live at home for five to ten years after leaving the school system

(Peraino, 1992). A significant disruption disruption /disruption/ (dis-rupshun) a morphologic

defect resulting from the extrinsic breakdown of, or interference with, a developmental process. tothe family revolves around the limitedarid arid

adj.

1. Lacking moisture, especially having insufficient rainfall to support trees or woody plants: an aridclimate.

2. changing hours of work by the employee (Ferguson et al., 1988; Hasazi et al., 1985). Supported

employees in particular work about 20 hours per week (Mank, 1995). This reliance on part-time jobs(Wehman & Kregel, in press) has created problems for families who must arrange supervision for

their son or daughter. In some situations this part-time work week means the supported employee

returns to a segregated setting in his or her nonworking day time hours (Mank, 1995). In othersituations parents may need to reduce work hours or quit a job to provide supervision (Ferguson et

al., 1988). Similar family problems are encountered if the supported work hours are constantly

changing (Ferguson et al., 1988). A parent stated that her daughter's changing work hours "makesour whole life so much more hectic hectic

adj.

1. Characterized by intense activity, confusion, or haste: "There was nothing feverish or hectic abouthis vigor" Erik Erikson.

2. than it was before, trying to arrange our life around her schedule" (Ferguson et al., 1988, p. 183).

In addition, if transportation is not provided by the service provider, the family may find it difficultto transport their son or daughter to the work site on a regular basis (Ferguson et al., 1988). Family

involvement in employment extends to other areas such as (a) monitoring medication, (b) ensuring

that the supported employee is prepared to go to work, and (c) providing emotional support andencouragement (West, 1992).

Families report that interaction with service providers is a concern and a source of high stress(Thorin & Irvin, 1992; Wehman et al., 1992). One aspect of this stress is related to families

interacting with a new service system. The decreased availability and predictability of adult services

(Ferguson et al., 1988; Irvin, Thorin, & Singer, 1993) relative to the school system, creates stress
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because of the challenge of an increased need for parents to be involved in securing services.

Professionals' perceptions of families and families' perceptions of professionals are also a source of

stress. Stineman, Morningstar, Bishop, and Turnbull (1993) stated that professionals often viewparents asuninvolved uninvolved

adj.

Feeling or showing no interest or involvement; unconcerned: an uninvolved bystander.

Adj.1. or overly involved. Parents sometimes have concerns related to the delineation of both

parental and professional roles in employment (Jamison, 1993). Irvin (1993) stated that manyparents feeldistrustfuldistrustful

adj.

Feeling or showing doubt.

distrust fully adv.

distrust of professionals for four reasons: (a) while professionals encourage maximizing youngadult independence, they do not understand the cost in terms of time and energy; (b) professionals

tell parents that they do either too much or too little; (c) parents are worn down dealing with the

system and want to avoid further interactions; and (d) it is difficult for parents to believe that

professionals are listening to them.

Implications and Summary

Transition of a young adult with mental retardation is a process that involves not only the individual

with mental retardation but also the family. The family of the individual with mental retardation

affects and is affected by the son or daughter's transition from school. The period when a young

adult with mental retardation is adjusting to the transition from school to work and adult life can beconceptualized as a family transition accompanied by (a) the normative stresses associated with

family transitions in the Launching stage, and (b) the non-normative stresses associated with the

Launching stage for families with a young adult with mental retardation, including the impact of theindividuals employment.

Educators in the schools and service providers in the adult service system can utilize the ResiliencyModel as a useful conceptual frameworkFor the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see .

A conceptual frameworkis used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present apreferred approach to a system analysis project. for analyzing and planning services with the

individual with mental retardation and their family. A key to understanding families in general, andfamilies with a son or daughter with mental retardation is that the family is an interdependentinterdependent

adj.

Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by

recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlappinginterests" system, where family members are changed by families, and "families are changed by the

behavior and developmental courses of individual members" (Aquilino &Supple supple Physical

exam adjective Referring to free movement of a body part , 191, p. 14). This is particularly true for
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families with a young adult with mental retardation involved in the transition to work and adult life

because these individuals are more likely to continue to live with their parents at least until their late

twenties (Peraino, 1992). The Resiliency Model hypothesizes that one can anticipate the families'

adjustment to the stressors outlined in this article by considering these factors: (a) the demands onthe family associated with the Launching stage; (b) the demands associated with the transition

process for families with a son or daughter with mental retardation; (c) the family's characteristic

mode of behavior; (d) the family's resources for meeting the demands of the transition process; (e)the family's appraisal of the transition; and (f) the family's problem solving and coping responses.

The Resiliency Model provides a set of counseling instruments useful to practitioners in assessing

the adjustment of a family involved in the transition process. For example the Family Inventory ofLife Events and Changes (McCubbin & Patterson, 1991) can be used to assess the co-occurring

demands on the family, and the FamilyHardiness hardiness,

n a cluster of attitudes and behaviors that allow people to maintain health and well-being insituations of stress. These include attitudes of commitment, control and challenge; coping habits;

and the creation of social support networks. Index (McCubbin, McCubbin & Thompson, 1991) and

Family Adaptability adaptable

adj.Capable of adapting or of being adapted.

adapt abil and Cohesion cohesion: see adhesion and cohesion.

Cohesion (physics)

The tendency of atoms or molecules to coalesce into extended condensed states. This tendency is

practically universal. Evaluation Scales (Olson, 1986) can be used to assess the family'scharacteristic mode of behavior. The reader is referred to Family Assessment Inventories for

Research and Practice (McCubbin & Thompson, 1991) for a thorough discussion of the use of these

instruments in practice. These assessment instruments have been shown to be useful in assessing

families experiencing normative and non-normative transitions and stressors. In addition astructured interview with the family can be an effective method for interpreting the transition

experience of families with a son or daughter with mental retardation. This areas of concern outlined

in this article provide a framework for discussions between service providers and the family.

The systems approach of the Resiliency Model suggests that program planning is most effective

when all persons with a stake in the transition process are included. Research has provided evidencethat family involvement improves outcomes in independent living and employment areas

(McDonnell, Wilcox & Hardman, 1991; Nisbet, Covert & Schuh, 1992). The basis for involvement

should be a collaborative partnership between the individual and their family. Walker and Singer(1993) offer professionals several principles for improving relationships with families: (a) parents

and professionals should work as allies; (b) professionals should be flexible in accommodatingfamilies' roles; (c) informed consent should be sought; (d) both parents and professionals should

demonstrate knowledge and respect for each other's expertise; (e) since systems can constrainconstrain

tr.v.constrained, constraining, constrains

1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object. SeeSynonyms at force.

2. both parents and professional, it is important to recognize that fact; (f) professionals and parents
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should respect differences in culture, beliefs, class, and family structure.

Future Research

The Resiliency Model provides a testable theory which seeks to explain why some families are

better able to cope with family transitions and stressors. While this article focused on the range of

co-occurring stressors associated with the transition to work and adult life, the Resiliency Modelprovides a useful theoretical framework for understanding the process of adaptation as the son or

daughter grows older (Kosciulek, McCubbin, & McCubbin, 1993; McCubbin & McCubbin, 1991).

An understanding of why certain families are able to adapt successfully to transitions and stressors,while other families do less well, can provide information to service providers, families, and

consumers useful in improving outcomes in families with a member with a disability. Rowitz (1991)

predicted that there would be increasing interest in family issues in mental retardation during thenext decade because of the increasing life spans of persons with mental retardation and the

likelihood that they would live in the community rather than institutions. The Resiliency Model of

Stress, Adjustment and Adaptation provides a useful framework for understanding these family

issues.

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