FAO INTER-DEPARTMENTAL

W O R K I N G G R O U P O N

O R G A N I CA G R I C U LT U R E

The fact sheets in this package provide an overview of the crucial connections that link organicagriculture to farmers, their traditions, their resources, their communities and the global markets withtheir potential for export and trade. The fact sheets also provide insight into the many ways that organicagriculture contributes to rural livelihoods and sustainable use of natural resources.

Organic agriculture contributes to food security by improving household food self-sufficiency or bybuilding farmers’ self-reliance:

with its blend of modern science and traditional knowledge, organicagriculture can convert low-input and subsistence farms into more

productive systems with increased capacity to manage locallyavailable resources;

the market for certified organic agriculture products providesincome opportunities to farmers; and

organic agriculture’s focus on efficient use of natural resources andbiodiversity, and on recycling of renewable resources, helps sustain a

healthy environment.

Enhanced food production, income generation and ecological conservation set the path towardssustainable development.

o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re : WHAT IS I T ?

Organic agriculture has its roots in traditional agriculturalpractices that evolved in countless villages and farmingcommunities over the millennia. By trial-and-error localfarmers passed their best results from generation togeneration. The modern face of organic agriculture emergedin the late 1960s, when farmers and consumers began torecognize that the enormous amount of chemicals being usedin both crop and animal production could have direconsequences for the earth and its people.

Although its initial modern image was of health nuts andhippies, organic agriculture has moved into the mainstream.It is now the fastest growing food sector. From coffee inMexico to tea in China, from shrimp in Thailand to beef inArgentina, from cotton in Uganda to olives in Italy – today’sorganic farmers build on the past, using modern scientificresearch to guide them in upgrading their traditionalfarming methods.

Science can now explainhow and why thosemethods worked, openingavenues for even furtherimprovement. Newinformation emergesconstantly from scientificresearch, uncoveringnature’s incrediblesecrets like pieces in agigantic ecological puzzle– bees pass throughnatural foot baths in theirhives that reduce mouldin strawberries; bats,long considered croppests, actually providemany services such as

An Internet search for “organic agriculture” yields more than half a million sites in less than one second.

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), a private body that sets standardsfor organic agriculture, has 750 member organizations in more than 100 countries.

Codex Alimentarius Commission, the United Nations body that oversees the world’s food standards,deliberated long and hard to define organic agriculture as a “holistic production management system that

avoids use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, minimizes pollution of air, soil and water, and optimizes thehealth and productivity of independent communities of life, plants, animals and people”.

A N E C O L O G I C A L LY A N D S O C I A L LY F R I E N D LY F O O D S Y S T E M

Cellulose sheets on soil do control weeds

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are no inputs present. Traditional farms do not need to becertified to be considered “organic”; when farmers follow organicmanagement principles, thus producing food while conservingnatural resources, they qualify as “non-certified organic”.

The type of production methods organic farmers choosedepends on more than agro-environmental conditions. It also depends on socio-economic situations, such as theirlabour and investment capacity and on the targeted market.Organic farmers put great efforts into study and training,seeking out developments appropriate for their farms,adapting them, and eventually going through inspection andcertification to access markets, all aimed at creating asustainable system throughout the food supply chain. The goalis for fields and animals to produce to their maximum and forfarmers to protect the quality of their air, soil and streams.

As the organic food system grows, so does its ability toconnect people with their environments.

WHAT IS IT?o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re :

pollinating, dispersing seedsand controlling insects;earthworms, bacteria andfungi serve as soil

“engineers” and createconditions for water and

nutrients to circulate. The more farmers know about thesepuzzle pieces, the better their ability to manage the naturalelements and benefit.

The organic movement exists amidst controversy. Doubtersexpress concerns that without synthetic fertilizers and

pesticides there will not be enough yields to feedthe earth’s growing population, that the

market is driven by developed countrieswhose strict regulations cannot be metby developing-country producers, thatorganic agriculture’s labour-intensiveproduction methods increasedrudgery. Movement supporters point

out that crop yields often decline afterextended chemical use, increased labour

requirements of organic agriculturebalance with decreased expenditures for inputs,

organic products do not have to be certified to be legitimate,and that there is no way to put a monetary value on conservingthe earth’s biodiversity and fragile ecosystems as well as itslocal cultures and culinary traditions.

Absence of synthetic inputs is not the only prerequisite oforganic agriculture. In fact, traditional systems that are“negligent”, that carelessly mine soil nutrients or overgrazepastures, would not qualify for any organic status, even if there

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Organic agriculture: C O M M U N I T Y D E V E LO P M E N To rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

In the midst of a globalized economy, small farmers tend toget lost. With the advent of free trade, with wealthy countriessubsidizing their farmers so their exports undercut localfarmers’ prices, with agricultural lands in the hands of a fewpowerful owners and multinational corporations controllingmost of the world’s food supply, with the emergence ofpatents for biotechnology and seeds, and with the existenceof policies that favour imports over domestic production,small-scale agriculture itself is facing degradation.

In their struggle against seemingly helpless poverty, smallfarmers out of desperation become agents of their owndestruction, overexploiting natural resources because ofland scarcity and lack of economic opportunities. Someabandon their land altogether and go to the cities lookingfor other ways to earn money, leaving behind the only way of

life they understand.

The organic agriculture movementoffers farmers new possibilities forhelping themselves. Although

considered modern, organic agricultureactually is based ontraditional agriculture

knowledge and culture.Over the centuries,traditional agriculture

developed because small farmers experimented, innovated,adapted and worked together. They shared their seeds andnew ideas about how to improve production. Today’s organicagriculture has the same evolution, recognizing there is noone way to address a problem, every case has a specificresponse, and the concerned farmer is the one who knowsbest. Farming methods evolve to match local environments,responding to unique biophysical and socio-economicconstraints and opportunities.

Increased trade, with its exchange of goods, capital andlabour, has also meant the erosion of small farmers’knowledge and collapse of rural institutions. Too often,

F A I R A N D E T H I C A L A G R I - C U L T U R E

Farmers and extensionists in a diversified taro field, Samoa

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decisions on what to grow or how to farmhave been decided by outside “experts”.

Organic agriculture, with its emphasison local resources and local ecologicalknowledge, brings farmers together intheir communities. The market demandfor organic products, as well as theopportunity to develop agri-tourism for

city dwellers who appreciate a healthy,diversified rural landscape, have created new incomeopportunities for organic farmers.

Organic farmers’ and consumers’ groups work to supportmarkets, cut out monopolies and increase farm incomes.Organic farmers, both in developed and developing nations,recognize the need to join with their neighbours, set up support

networks, sharewhat they know,pool theirresources,establishthemselves as anorganized forceand, of course,provide qualityproducts.

Consumers increasingly demand both environmentally friendlyand socially just products which means that organiccertification also requires proof of fair wages, healthy workingconditions and the workers’ right of association.

With the organicmovement, it is moreimportant than everfor farmers to beconnected. Organicfarmers cannotoperate in isolationbecause in order tomaintain the integrityof their air, water andsoil, they depend ontheir neighbours’farming practices.

The deep roots of the organic agriculture movement connectfarmers, consumers and their markets, improving economicconditions and creating a vibrant rural community.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENTo rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Organic gardens for poor urban dwellers

Organic edibles in urban backyards, Victoria, Canada

Organic boxes manufactured by disabled persons, Canada

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Organic agriculture:o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d FO O D S E C U R I T Y

Modern agricultural methods have brought spectacularincreases in productivity – from fields, from animals andfrom people. But in spite of all the research that has goneinto increasing crop yields, growing larger animals, andsaving labour through chemical herbicides, pesticides,fertilizers and new technologies, and in spite of the fact that food production has increased dramatically, almost 800 million people still go hungry.

The reason? The answer is quite simple. Most farmers indeveloping countries are poor. They either cannot afford orcannot find the necessary inputs to improve theirproduction, and they are not connected to markets to buy or

sell food. So as the large landholders who have theresources to purchase the inputs and

learn to use them are able toincrease their holdings and their

incomes, and as international tradebrings down prices even in local

markets, small farmers become less andless able to compete or, in some cases,

even to survive.

Ironically, one solution for these smallfarmers has been on their farms for

centuries. What is now called“organic agriculture”, put

forth as a modern solution toenvironmental problems caused by

PROVIDING MORE FOOD AND INCOME FOR SELF-RELIANT FAMILY FARMS

chemical-dependent farming, is actually an improved form ofthe farming traditionally practiced by small farmers – farmingthat relies on efficient use of available resources such as soil,water, local breeds and varieties of animals and crops, and amix of modern and traditional ecological knowledge.

For countless generations, small farmers in developingcountries have inherited and managed complex farmingsystems adapted to their local conditions. These individualfarming systems have helped them survive harshenvironments, meet their family’s food needs, contribute tolocal/regional markets and still conserve their naturalresources. Many of these farmers would be amazed to knowthat what they learned from their parents is now part of amodern, global movement.

Compost application on potatoes, Guinea

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Another irony is that many small farmsthat never had the advantage of

technological advances could now beconsidered “organic”, although “organic by default”. An estimated 450 million farms were by-passed by GreenRevolution technologies such as mechanization, irrigation,improved seeds and breeds, and synthetic fertilizers andpesticides. These include countless low-level technologysystems which feature polycultures, agroforestry, integratedcrop-livestock systems and productive agro-ecosystems welladapted to local conditions. The absence of thesetechnologies does not automatically make farms organic, butmakes it easier for interested farmers to upgrade their farmsto organic by adding modern scientific organic practices totheir traditional farming methods.

Organic agriculture stresses diversification and adaptivemanagement which significantly decreases vulnerability toweather vagaries or other factors. In spite of amisconception that agro-ecological systems cannot increase

agricultural productivity, thereality is that multicroppingincreases yields significantly.A diversified organic farmingsystem increases farmproduction by 20 to 60 percentas compared to a traditionallow-input system and, at thesame time, improves stabilityby improving soil and waterquality and the ecologicalservices that support agriculture. These methods may notachieve the same yields as the high input systems, but theyprovide a path to increase both yields and incomes. Farmerscan use available resources without fear of major losses, suchas those incurred by farmers who often see their expensiveinputs washed away by unexpected rains.

It all adds up to a direction forimproving food security that is highlypromising. Farmers do not need tobe certified to know that if they adoptorganic agricultural systems andyields become healthier, moredependable and plentiful, their abilityto feed their families, either with the foodthey produce or income from products theysell, will also increase. Even in areas with poor resources andno access to markets, farmers can improve their family foodsupply if they have access to extension or training to re-learnto farm organically, and are willing to replace the externalinputs with their own labour. The result will be an improvedreturn on their labour investment in terms of better income.

The success of organic agriculture in improving food security isthere for those who wish to see it. What is needed now is morestudies to increase understanding of why it works and to developmethods for scaling up and sharing what has been learned.

FO O D S E C U R I T Yo rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Kitchen of an organic restaurant

Organic bread sold at street fair

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T H E E N V I R O N M E N To rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

C R E A T I N G A N U T R I E N T C Y C L E

recognizable reality, cultivation zones will shift, and pests anddiseases will mutate and proliferate. Through intensificationof livestock systems, nitrogen fertilization and irrigation,agriculture contributes to more than 20 percent of globalanthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.

Soil fertility is the cornerstone of organic management.Because organic farmers do not use synthetic nutrients torestore degraded soil, they must concentrate on building andmaintaining soil fertility primarily through their basic farmingpractices. They depend on multicropping systems and croprotations, cover crops, organic fertilizers and minimum tillageto maintain and improve soil quality. The natural fertilizersthey use, such as green manure, farmyard manure, compostand plant residues, build organic content and increase thesoil’s capacity to circulate nutrients, air and water. As cropsuse soil nutrients, they can be replaced with natural rock

Well-managed organic farms are easy to recognize. The soillooks soft and dark from the addition of compost. Often, thereis mulch on the ground. Occasional weeds appear betweenthe crop rows. Flowers and hedges are planted near orbetween the fields to encourage pollination and providehabitat for the helpful insects that feed on crop pests. Thelandscape is diversified because trees and animals are oftenintegrated with the cropping system. In addition, in the fields,farmers and their neighbours work together. Organicagriculture enhances people’s ability to live in harmony withnature and to derive economic benefit from their land.

Forty percent of the earth’s land is agricultural cropland,managed forests or pasture, so it stands to reason that ifagriculture does not exist in harmony with the rest of theearth’s environment, the potential for widespreadenvironmental degradation caused by loss of habitats andforests, and by pollution of air, soil and water fromagricultural chemicals, looms quite large.

This enormous piece of the earth’s real estate both affects, andis affected by, climate change and quality of soil, water and air.

Inappropriate agricultural practices account for28 percent of the soil

erosion of the past50 years. Scientists

warn that asglobal warming

becomes moreand more of a

Compost application, Vuhan, China

Analysis of organic soil quality

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(carbon dioxide, nitrous dioxide and methane). Moreover,mixed farming and soil building allow for increased biologicalactivity by providing support for micro-organisms,earthworms, fungi and bacteria. Soils enriched with faunaand flora not only increase nutrient cycling and agriculturalproductivity but stabilize soils against erosion and floods,detoxify ecosystems and may even help counteract climatechange by restoring “soil’s capacity for carbon sequestration”.

The positive impact of organic agriculture practices on air,soil, water and biodiversity offers opportunities to implementinternational environmental agreements such as theConvention on Climate Change (the Kyoto Protocol), Conventionon Biological Diversity (Decision III/11 on the conservation anduse of agricultural biological diversity) and national strategiesto implement the Convention to Combat Desertification.

minerals such as potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesiumand other trace elements from external sources. Organicagriculture stresses careful management to meet crop needsand avoid excess application of manure and other organicmatter that could cause nitrate leaching.

In Europe, soils managed organically have 30 to 40 percentmore biomass and 30 to 100 percent more microbial activity

than soils managed conventionally. In somedeveloped countries, government

waterworks encourage conversion toorganic agriculture to reduce the costof purifying drinking water. In manydeveloping countries, organicallymanaged soils have substantially

less erosion and better moistureholding capacity – an essential factor

in rain-fed agriculture.

In organic agriculture, the restricted use of mineral fertilizersreduces the use of non-renewable energy (fossil fuels) andreduces the emissions of agricultural greenhouse gases

Field of organic tea, Sechuan, China

T H E E N V I R O N M E N To rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Coconut husks used as mulch in vanilla farm, Niue

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DESERTIFICATIO No rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Desertification, or the degradation of drylands, is caused byovercultivation, overgrazing and deforestation, and results insoil exhaustion and soil erosion. It diminishes soilproductivity, reduces food production and deprives land ofits vegetative cover. It also has negative affects on areas notdirectly involved, because desertification can also lead tofloods, soil salinization, deterioration of water quality, andsilting of rivers, streams and reservoirs.

Organically managed soils are more resilient both to waterstress and nutrient loss. Because of this, they have thepotential to counter soil degradation. Organic farmers feedtheir fields with organic matter that enhances degradedsoils. Micro-organisms have a good feeding base and createa stable soil structure. Water and nutrient retention capacity

RETAINING WATER, CONSERVING SOIL AND RESTORING DEGRADED LAND

increases thanks to a high level of organic matter andpermanent soil cover, allowing a substantial reduction in theamount of water needed for irrigation.

Although there has been little specific research on organicagriculture’s potential for combating desertification, severalpractical trials of organic agriculture systems in arid areashave found that organic agriculture helps bring degradedlands back to fertility and create suitable microclimates indry areas. For example, 70 ha of desert land near Cairowere converted into fertile soil, able to support livestock and

Acaccia albida trees and compost raise soil fertility, Senegal

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D E S E R T I F I C AT I O No rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

bees, through organic and biodynamic agricultural methodsincluding composting, mulching and cover cropping. InKenya and Ghana, organic agroforestry projects were foundto fight drought, control erosion and retain moisture.

Other trials studied organic agriculture’s ability to countererosion. In the tropics, even flat lands erode with the use of

Home gardening benefits from nitrogen-fixing Acaccia Albida, Senegal

Burning of cow manure to fertilize potato field, Guinea

herbicides and the lack of soil cover. In organic agriculture,permanent soil cover is an intrinsic part the system.Locally adapted leguminous crops have been found torestore degraded soils very quickly, suppress weeds, fix

nitrogen and prevent erosion. Whenproperly set up and adapted to soil

and climatic conditions, they donot compete with the main cropsfor nutrients or water.

Even though the adoption oforganic agriculture seems a

viable alternative in arid areas,there is a range of constraints to

adopting organic agriculture systemsor even individual techniques. These

include a lack of knowledge, scarce availability of organicmaterials, insecure land tenure, the perception of organicagriculture as being old fashioned, and the fact thatextension services promote a way of farming dependent onchemical inputs.

In countries suffering desertification, the promotion oforganic agriculture through education and training couldbe key to bringing degraded land back into production.More importantly, sound soil management practices canprevent land degradation and further agriculturalencroachment in fragile areas.

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B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N FO O D A N D AG R I C U LT U R Eo rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Organic agriculture requires an enormous commitment fromfarmers – commitment to a form of agriculture that isknowledge and labour intensive, requiring understanding oflocal varieties and breeds and of local environmentalconditions. However, it is also economically advantageous forfarmers to use these local products that are resistant todisease and extreme conditions, and thus more likely tosurvive, to make it to market.

Many of today’s so-called modern farmers have turned tomonocropping systems that require store-bought improvedseeds and breeds and massive amounts of synthetic inputsand veterinary products meant to increase yields and supplymarkets. Tragically, many of the varieties that represent animportant gene pool for resource-poor farmers are vanishing,replaced by high-yielding, chemically dependent hybrids, and

more recently genetically modifiedorganisms, developed by large seedcompanies.

The organic agriculture movement, with its focuson quality, nutrition, resistance to stress factorssuch as poor soils, harsh climates or diseases,

its reliance on locally adapted plants andanimals, and its goal of increasing

yields, stands as an oasis in themidst of that world. Organic

farmers must commit toestablish a minimum

level of biodiversityto compensate for

the restrictionon syntheticinput usage.

CELEBRATING TRADITIONAL VARIETIES, ADAPTED BREEDS AND SPECIALTY PRODUCTS

Valuing and improving farmers’ indigenous knowledge is avery important part of today’s organic agriculture movement.Traditional farming, fishing and forest communities not onlyunderstand and can apply good ecological theory in decision-making, they understand global environmental threats andtheir potential impact on their livelihoods. Farmers are nottrained scientists, but they are ecologically literate. Theirknowledge has been acquired through on-farm experimenting,observation of natural processes, and sharing.

Throughout the centuries, farmers have developed local breedsand species of plants and animals, nurtured them and adaptedthem to local conditions. They saved their own seeds for

Community organic seed exchange, Wardha, India

Potato varieties, Lima, Peru

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planting from yearto year. When theircrops wereinundated by pestsor there wereharsh weatherconditions, theysaved the seeds ofthe most resistantplants so thattheir resistancewould be manifest

in future generations. In difficult climatic conditions and in theabsence of veterinary services, farmers bred local animals tosurvive adversity and resist diseases. The primary production

strategy of organic farmers is to maintaintraditional plants and animals that may

yield less in the short run but will bemore resilient and better able tosurvive in the long run.

Diversified organic farmingsystems have built-in insurance

policies – if one crop fails, otherswill provide sufficient food for the

family. Wild species also provide serviceswithin organic systems such as pollination, pest control andmaintenance of soil fertility, all of which increasebiodiversity and, in turn, support agricultural production.

Consumer demand for traditional and specialty productscreates new market opportunities and ensures the

B I O D I V E R S I T Y o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

economic viability of traditional products. For example, thecommercial revival of organic quinoa and naturallycoloured cotton from Peru, of organic chocolate processedaccording to an ancient Mayan recipe in Mexico, of localrice varieties in Indonesia, and of native poultry in SouthAfrica has created connections between marginalizedproducers and the market. Organic agriculture’s economicvalorization of endangered genetic resources is key to thesurvival of poor rural communities in marginal areas aswell as of under-utilized species and varieties. An organicmarket can add value to both the local area’s economy andits biodiversity.

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o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d NATURE CONSER VATIO N

resources and increase production. With its focus on croprotations, natural inputs, local breeds and species, andfamily activities, organic is a natural link betweenagricultural practices and the biodiversity that needs to beprotected. If farm land bordering and connecting protectedareas employs organic methods, there is no reason to fearthe loss of wildlife or contamination of air, water and soil.These buffer zones are critical to the success of conservationin the protected areas.

Setting up protected areas such as nationalparks or nature reserves is a common solution

to the problem of conservingbiodiversity. But a protected zone that

provides a safe environment forplants and animals is just one

small piece in a complex, globalenvironmental puzzle. If that piece

does not fit snugly with other piecesof the environment, then the gaps will

defeat the purpose of the protected area. After all, birds andanimals cannot read warning signs, seeds blowing in thewind do not stop spreading because there is a chain linkfence, insects burrowing through soil never know they haveentered or left a protected area, and seeping water does notcarry a compass.

In other words, if protected zones border conventionalagricultural lands, there is no way to stop the seepage ofpollutants, there is no way to warn birds and bees not to landon fields sprayed with potentially dangerous chemicals.Moreover, many of the world’s recognized ecoregions are in

tropical and semi-tropical regions,populated by people living in poverty.

Agriculture, as practised today, hasthe potential to cause serious threatsin many of these regions. Fortypercent of the earth’s land isagricultural and another 12 percent

is protected.

Organic agriculture offers a solution forconnecting all of the pieces. Organic

farming methods can reduce the detrimental effects ofconventional farming and, in fact, can help restore natural

Eco-forestry within organic farm

C O N N E C T I N G A G R I C U LT U R A L L A N D A N D W I L D L I F E H A B I TAT S

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Organicallyfarmed areas notonly provide safebuffer zonesbetween protectedareas, theyincrease theimpact of theprotected areaitself. Manystudies documentbenefits in termsof protected and

improved habitat for native wildlife. From micro-organisms inthe soil to migrating birds, endangered species not onlyreturn, they often flourish in organic settings. The absence of

syntheticpesticides andthe presence ofhedges andhigher cropdensity onorganic farmsmean safe accessto food andshelter forwildlife species.

In addition, organic farms can operate safely within certaintypes of protected areas. There are numerous examples ofsuccessful organic agriculture inside protected areas suchas Muraviovka Park, Russia (wetlands), Yaoluoping NationalResource Reserve, China (mountains), Monte AzulesBiosphere Reserve in Mexico (tropical forests), and theMeso-American Biological Corridor that stretches acrossseven countries.

Most protected areas traditionallybelonged to local villagers, soorganic agriculture allows localpeople to maintain somemanagement control over land

they consider theirs. Organicfarmers protect land through their

farming practices, reap its benefitsfor themselves and, at the same time,

they conserve and improve their natural environment whichbenefits the entire planet.

On organic farms, wild patches between rows are kept for pest predators

N AT U R E C O N S E R VAT I O No rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re a n d

Organic coffee under forest cover

Biodynamic farm in buffer zone of Circeo national park, Italy

Collecting vitamin C rich fruits from forest, Guinea Bissau

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o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re STANDARDS

G U A R A N T E E I N G T H E V A L I D I T Y O F T H E O R G A N I C S Y S T E M

IInn 11999999,, CCooddeexx aaddoopptteedd gguuiiddeelliinneess oonn tthhee PPrroodduuccttiioonn,,pprroocceessssiinngg,, llaabbeelllliinngg aanndd mmaarrkkeettiinngg ooff oorrggaanniiccaallllyypprroodduucceedd ffooooddss that provide a description of the “organic”system and the “organic” labelling claim in order toensure fair trade and to facilitate the development of theorganic sector.

The private sector equivalent of the Codex Alimentariusguidelines is the International basic standards for organicproduction and processing, created by IFOAM. Both theCodex and IFOAM guidelines cover the production of plants,livestock and bees; the handling, storage, processing,packaging and transportation of products; and a list ofsubstances permitted in the production and processing oforganic foods. IFOAM also has provisions for fibres,aquaculture and non-wood forest products.

With organic products, the label tells a big story. Informedconsumers know that the label will tell them everything fromthe name and type of organization that certified the product’s“organic” validity to the type of standards that the productmet throughout its growth and processing. These standardsmake organic agriculture the food industry’s most welldefined food supply system.

Certification bodies ascertain thatproducts meet the standards set byeither private or public institutions. Incountries that have organic legislation,certification bodies are approved andsupervised by the government. Somealso are accredited by theInternational Organic AccreditationService (IOAS), an independentnon-governmental organization

that authorizes certifiers who follow thevoluntary standards of the International

Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM).

Administered jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization(WHO), the Codex Alimentarius Commission develops and

adopts international food standards,guidelines and related texts thatserve as the basis for many

national standards. It governs suchcrucial issues as food labelling,

residues of pesticides andveterinary drugs, food hygiene,

food import and export inspectionand certification systems.

Food quality control, Kenya

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protect consumers against deception and fraud;

protect organic products from misrepresentation by non-organic products;

ensure inspection and compliance throughout the process of production, processing, storage,transport and marketing;

harmonize provisions for the production, certification and labelling of organic produce;

facilitate the establishment of equivalence agreements between importing and exporting countries; and

enhance organic agricultural systems locally and globally.

Governments can use these guidelines to develop their ownnational organic agriculture programmes, tailored to theirspecific needs. Most national standards, such as those of

Argentina,European Unioncountries, India,Japan, Tunisiaand the UnitedStates ofAmerica, setforthregulationswhich arelegally binding.In the majororganic markets(i.e. Japan,

European Union countries and the United States ofAmerica), certifiers are approved and supervised by thenational governments.

The Codex and IFOAM guidelines for organic agriculture areminimal, intended to guide governments and privatecertification bodies in setting standards. In other words, theyare “standards for standards” meant to:

Labelling of organic pears

S TA N D A R D S o rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re

The private sector, and certification bodies in particular, haveso far been the main agents in guaranteeing the validity of theorganic system, ascertaining that farms are inspectedaccording to agreed upon organic standards before productsare certified “organic” for labelling. It is a system that aimsat ensuring credibility and building consumer trust.

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REGULATION So rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re

ESTABLISHING GAME RULES, TRADE RULES AND COMPLIANCE RULES

The rapid growth of organic agriculture production andtrade has been accompanied by an increase ingovernmental regulations. Regulations establish rules fororganic farmers and processors through standards, givecredibility to certification bodies through approval andsupervision, protect consumers against mislabelling andfraud through conformity and surveillance, and eventuallycan facilitate trade through equivalence agreements withexport countries. Regulations usually include provisionsthat further promote organic agriculture such as support toresearch, production and marketing.

At the regional level, the European Union (EU) legislation onorganic production, Regulation 2092/91, was adopted in1991 and is amended yearly. The Regulation sets mandatorystandards for organic agriculture with rules on production,labelling and inspection. The aim is to ensure fair

competition among organic producers and to gaincredibility among consumers. EU Member Nations supportthe Regulation with domestic legislation, creating their owninspection and certification schemes. Member Nations arerequired to meet the Regulation's minimum requirements,but they may enact stricter legislation.

In the last decade, many developing countries and countriesin transition used Regulation 2092/91 as a model fordesigning their own national legislation, to assure they willmeet EU import requirements and thus enhance theirexport opportunities.

Along with the European Union, Japan and the UnitedStates of America are the main organic markets. Japanbegan implementing its organic agriculture regulations in2001, the United States of America in 2002. While similar inmany respects, there are also several dissimilarities, bothin coverage and substance. This means that exportingcountries must be aware of the variations in specificrequirements in order to access the different markets. Ofcourse, this need to comply with several regulatory systemsincreases costs at the production, certification andaccreditation levels.

Control of conformity authorizations by organic certifier

Sampling soil of organic olive grove to test fertility

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According to a survey conducted by IFOAM in 2002, about40 nations have completed the process of enacting their

organic legislation, including detailedstandards and institutional

arrangements. Another 15 or sonations are in the process ofdeveloping organic legislation.Government regulations havegrown steadily, but often in an

uncoordinated manner. Theresulting variation in production,

inspection and certification systemshinders farmers’ access to regulated

organic markets and the proliferation of organic labelscan be confusing to consumers.

Compliance with foreignorganic standards is notalways suitable to agro-ecological conditions ofexporting countries.Inspection andcertification costs may beout of reach for smallproducers. Alternativesystems, more relevant tosmall farms and localmarketing, are beingdeveloped by theprivate sector. Manycountries havedeveloped InternalControl Systems andin the United States ofAmerica, a CertifiedNaturally Grownlabelling programmehas been created.

Standards, inspection,certification andaccreditation (or the organic guarantee system) ensurecredibility. There is need for a more harmonized approachto regulate the sector, to ensure that organic rules andstandards are designed and applied consistently and fairly,taking into account all stakeholders' interests. Flexiblerequirements to establish equivalency among regulatorysystems is the main challenge ahead for the organicagriculture community.

FAO, together with the United Nations Conference on Tradeand Development (UNCTAD) and IFOAM are looking intoways to harmonize the organic guarantee system. FAOLEX,FAO’s database on food and agriculture legislation, containsregulations and standards dealing with organicagriculture in some 30 countries and the EU,which are accessible online through theorganic agriculture website.

R E G U L AT I O N So rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re

Organic certifier sampling pears for pesticide residue analysis

FS09_05 27-03-2003 10:15 Pagina 2

MARKETSo rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re

C O N N E C T I N G F A R M E R S A N D C O N S U M E R S

Farmers’ reasons for adopting organic agricultural practicesare often the same reasons consumers have for buying organicproducts. Both farmers and their customers know that organicfarming methods that avoid synthetic pesticides and fertilizersand minimize pollution of soil, air and water, are good for theenvironment and produce food that is perceived as healthier.But beyond the benefit to the earth and its inhabitants, farmersalso must consider another benefit before entering the organicworld – the financial benefit. What about the bottom line?Independent of their environmental motives, farmers needsufficient financial returns, i.e. is it worth it?

Organic is the fastest growing food sector, in both land useand market size. Yet, official statistics are non-existent andglobal assessments are scarce. National statistics gatherersrarely recognize organic production as worthy of being

reported separately. Organicallyproduced commodities are notidentified as such in international trade.Organic products consumed ormarketed locally often are notsubmitted to certification. In addition,when there is no organic market,

certified organic products sell asconventional produce and are not

reported in organic data.Organic box scheme Annually, Biofach gathers the world organic markets

Global retail sales for certified organic products areestimated to reach US$23-25 billion in 2003, but no specificnumbers exist for organic production, consumption, trade orprices. Organic agriculture’s share of food and beverage salesmay be small, 1 to 2 percent, but its move from specialty foodstores onto supermarket shelves, where up to 15 percent ofsome products in specific markets are organic, indicates themovement has mainstreamed. This increased exposure alsoforewarns the potential for multinational food companies andretailers to become major players in organic food supply, interms of contracting production, supermarket offers andinternational trade. If they are to compete, small producers indeveloping countries need access to the required know-howfor production, post-harvest handling and marketing, as wellas to affordable certification systems.

FS10_05 27-03-2003 10:17 Pagina 1

Organic products receivebetter prices in the market.But going organic to takeadvantage of the added valuerequires a long termcommitment. It takes time tocleanse land of chemicals usedin modern farming practicesand to learn techniques ofgood organic management.

Evolving issues such as farm subsidy policy, expensivecertification processes and demand-supply balance affectprices. The intricate cropping system is knowledge and labour

intensive and thus moreexpensive in the start-upphase. Consumer markets aregrowing but reactive, driven byfood safety concerns. Thehigher retail prices of organicproducts are affected byeconomic swings. In addition,organic agriculture is mostsuccessful when it relies onlocal species, varieties andbreeds that are more resistantto disease and grow better in

local environments, but are not well known to consumers. Onthe other hand, organic farmers do not have to pay for syntheticinputs. In addition, they often establish producer-consumergroups to provide direct food marketing through suchactivities as farmers’ markets or home deliveries tosubscribed customers, which increases profits.

M A R K E T So rg a n i c a g r i c u l t u re

Organic section in a supermarket, Italy

Organic supermarkets are emerging

A high volume ofmarketed organicproduce ischanneled togeneral foodshops, includingsupermarkets,by wholesalersand distributors.The increase of market share of organic products is greatlydependent on the involvement of general food retailers in theorganic food market because it lowers costs and thusexpands the consumer base.

In order for the organic sector to thrive, it needs more thangrowing markets. It needs governmental andintergovernmental policies to harmonize standards; providedevelopment support through research and advisory systems,education and consumer information; regulate use of syntheticinputs; and implement global environmental treaties.

In addition, public and private investments in organic agricultureresearch are needed to balance the research and extensionprogrammes that promote intensive use of synthetic inputs.

Specialized organic shop, Madrid

Organic farmers' street market

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o rg a n i c HORTICULTURE M A R K ETS

S A T I S F Y I N G C O N S U M E R S O F A G R O W I N G M A R K E T

forecast, although at a slower rate. The share of organicproducts in the fruit and vegetable market of these countriesis estimated between 3 and 7 percent.

Domestic organic production in developed countries isexpected to rise, but it is unlikely to meet demand for manyproducts, thus providing export opportunities. However,consumers traditionally prefer to buy locally producedorganic fruit and vegetables, and they tend to distrust thecertification procedures of organic products imported fromdeveloping countries.

With this in mind, the best exportopportunities for developing countriesappear to be fresh organic tropicalproducts and off-season temperate-zone produce as well as someprocessed fruit and vegetables. Inaddition, strong promotion efforts areneeded to build consumer trust in thevalidity of imported organic products.

Farmers considering conversion tocertified organic productionshould bear in mind the need foradopting new production andmanagement methods.

Farm pick-up for Community Supported Agriculture, Canada

At first glance, the market for organic products in developedcountries appears to offer great export opportunity todeveloping countries, but in reality, the situation is quitecomplex. In order to be successful, an exporting countryneeds to maintain a competitive price while meeting organicand health standards and providing the same quality asconventional products.

In most developed countries, the demand for organic fruitand vegetables has been growing at 20 to 25 percent a yearfor the past decade and further market expansion is

FS11_05 27-03-2003 10:19 Pagina 1

It can take two to three years forconverted fields to be certified as

organic, which makes long-term planningand careful cost-benefits analysis

indispensable. Yields tend to be lower duringconversion and possibly after.

One attraction of organic agriculture is the premium pricepaid for the products, but the price difference betweenorganic and conventional products is expected to decrease.Therefore, both producers and exporters should assesscarefully the potential of their product in the targetedmarket and identify competing suppliers.

There are many steps that must be taken before organicfresh fruit and vegetables can be exported successfully:

Learn organic farming methods: organic agriculture requires knowledge of the alternative practices thatmake organic farms successful without using synthetic inputs.

Obtain certification: certification can be obtained locally for countries that have national organic standardsand control systems that are equivalent to the organic rules of the country to which exports will be sent.

For countries that do not meet these conditions, farmers and producers need to work through anaccredited organic certification organization or an importer specialized in organic produce.

Set up production infrastructure: for fresh produce to arrive in good condition in the country ofdestination, good post-harvest handling, such as cold storage, and good infrastructure and

logistics, including harbours and airports, are necessary in the exporting country.

Establish trade relations: exporters must have good and reliable relations with an importer, trader orwholesaler in the target market in order to be successful. The importer will be aware of current developments in

markets and regulations.

The Horticulture Group of the FAO Commodities and TradeDivision undertakes market studies and economic and financialcomparisons of organic and conventional fruits and vegetables.

HORTICULTURE MARKETSo rg a n i c

Edible Nasturtium flowers attract pollinator

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TROPICAL AN D SU B - TR O P ICA L F R U ITS o rg a n i c p ro d u c t i o n o f

The modern organic agriculture movement evolved indeveloped countries, mostly in temperate regions. Now, withgrowing interest in organic cultivation as a managementmethod for agricultural production in tropical andsubtropical countries, greater attention needs to be given todeveloping standards and guidelines for organic agricultureapplicable to tropical products and ecosystems.

Motivation for converting to organic management can includemarket demand, lack of access to inputs, environmentalconcerns, social concerns or personal philosophy. Inaddition, farmers’ production targets need to be consideredin terms of both quantity and quality, weighing the costs ofproduction against the expected returns. Clear and objectiveinformation about both the potential and the constraints oforganic agriculture is essential for any farmercontemplating conversion.

Export marketing opportunities for developing countriesinclude those organic horticultural products that are notproduced domestically in temperate countries, such as spices

and tropical fruits and vegetables.

Tropical and subtropicalfruit production takes

place in settingsranging from traditionalhome gardens to large

plantations, making it

A D A P T I N G R E S E A R C H A N D G E N E R A T I N G K N O W L E D G E

difficult to prescribe organic husbandry practices that aresuitable for all. Nonetheless, any fruit growers contemplatingorganic conversion need to have a clear understanding of allaspects of organic production and marketing before takinginvestment decisions.

A challenge for organicfruit producers is themaintenance ofeconomic feasibilitywhile complying withorganic standards. Thismeans dealing withcrop-specific problemswithout usingsubstances prohibitedby organic standards.Alternative approachesare needed, forinstance, to controlripening of pineappleswithout chemicals, orto control banana orcitrus pests anddiseases. Furthermore,conversion to organicagriculture requiresinnovative solutionsthat guarantee purity of Organic tropical fruits farm, Samoa

FS12_05 27-03-2003 10:21 Pagina 1

seeds and planting material and provide assurance againstthe risk of pest and disease spread. Some of these problemsmight have partial local solutions while others requirespecific research to identify or generate the appropriatepermitted management practices.

Organic horticulture makes optimum useof crop residues, green manure andbiological nitrogen fixation, but thisdoes not replace all nutrients removedby crops. Nitrogen supply needs to besupplemented by the provision of otheressential plant nutrients that usuallycannot be replenished sufficiently byorganic matter in acid tropical soils.Considering the nutrient demand ofperennial fruit crops over time, it isimportant to have adequate methods tomaintain soil fertility, especially levels ofphosphorus, potassium and micronutrients, in such a waythat yields can be sustained. There is a strong need to setup networks for sharing empirical experience and scientificresults of various organic methods of fertilization, in order toget a more complete picture of long-term successes that canbe shared with organic farmers.

The Horticulture Crops Group of the FAO Plant Productionand Protection Division is currently collaborating withnational agricultural research and extension institutions,universities and IFOAM to develop technical guidelines fororganic cultivation of fruit in tropical and subtropical regions.

TROPICAL SUB-TROPICAL FRUITSorganic production of and

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P E S T M A N AG E M E N To rg a n i c

P U T T I N G P R E V E N T I O N A H E A D O F C U R E

growing resistant varieties of crops;

growing in the proper season for the variety;

improving soil health to resist soil pathogens and promote plant growth;

rotating crops;

encouraging natural biological agents for control of disease, insects and weeds;

using physical barriers for protection from insects, birds and animals;

modifying habitat to encourage pollinators and natural enemies of pests; and

using semi-chemicals such as pheromone attractants to monitor and trap pests.

Bitterwood spray repels aphids on lettuce, Italy

Pest control in organic agriculture begins by makingsensible choices, such as growing crops that arenaturally resistant to diseases and pests, or choosingsowing times that prevent pest and disease outbreaks.Careful management in both time and space of plantingnot only prevents pests but also increases populations ofnatural predators that can contribute to control of insects,diseases and weeds.

Organic agriculture requires informed decision-makingabout a range of pest management practices which arebeing developed. This decision-making and fieldmanagement process, known as Organic PestManagement (OPM), is an outgrowth of Integrated PestManagement (IPM).

Although the latter allows usage of synthetic inputs, bothsystems emphasize prevention through such methods as:

FS13_06 27-03-2003 10:23 Pagina 1

For curative practices,OPM limits itself to those

products approved bycertification bodies.

But even amongthese products,

there aredifferences in costs,

applicability and accessto be considered by

farmers. There has been a great deal ofresearch into OPM, and farmers’ networks and organicagriculture associations encourage exchanges ofexperiences. Products are approved based on their low riskfor environmental and health impact as well aseffectiveness in controlling target pests.

It is important to point outthat some products allowedfor OPM may be hazardousto applicators. Forexample, red chili mixturesor garlic oil which are usedas pest repellants can beirritating to the skin.Applicators should haveproper protective gear andapplication equipment.

At this point, most organic products, such as larvae of pestpredators, are imported by developing countries. There is aneed to promote local production to reduce importdependency. Wider accessibility and low tariffs should beencouraged. Farmer education in OPM can be improvedwith better written materials, better field courses and, ofcourse, exchange visits to meet with and learn fromsuccessful farmers.

Parkya Biglobosa fruits used as natural insecticides

Neem tree leaves used as natural insecticide

Tagetes minuta used to control soil nematodes, Italy

PEST MANAGEMENTorganic

Preparations of Chrysanthemum flowers control soil pests, Bolivia

IPM programmes use “farmer field school” methods to teachecological approaches to pest management. Similar types ofgroup study are applicable to OPM, especially when combinedwith testing newmethodologies, cropsand marketing. Studygroups and mutualsupport groups couldalso be used for peerreview of practiceswithin a specific organiclabeling scheme. Forexample, CaliforniaCertified OrganicFarmers uses peerreview to ensure thatmembers using itsorganization labeladhere to its morestrict standards anddevelop mutual support systems. Such practices already arefollowed by several organic associations but could be morewidely adopted.

FAO’s Global Integrated Pest Management Facility initiative,called "Agricultural Conversion 2015: Detoxing PestManagement", is surveying organic pest management andvarious non/low toxic pest management products.

Bark of Teli tree used as natural insecticide, Guinea

FS13_06 27-03-2003 10:23 Pagina 2

HORTICULTURE AND POST-HARVEST OPERATIONSo rg a n i c

An organic label on a product represents more thanproof of organic production. It shows that the entire foodchain – from the farm to the table – adheres to organicstandards. For example, processed food may lose itsorganic claim if it contains ingredients of non-organicorigin or if the produce is transported in containers whichhave chemical residues.

The steady increase in market demand for organic fruits andvegetables in recent years has presented an exportopportunity for farmers in developing countries who practicelow-input agriculture. However, they must overcomesignificant hurdles in order to benefit from this opportunity.

Apart from regulations that apply to the production of organicproduce, certain post-harvest activities need to be modified tocomply with organic regulations. Many post-productionoperations for organic produce are identical to non-organic

production. For example, there are few specificrequirements for harvesting organic produce.

Although some root, tuber and bulb cropsrequire a curing period at ambient or

elevated temperature to promotewound healing and

ensure optimumstorage life, there areno specificrequirements for curing,storing or transportingorganic produce.

MAINTAINING THE ORGANIC CLAIM THROUGHOUT THE FOOD CHAIN

Most markets require strict attention to the size, grade,quality and maturity of produce, whether it is organic or not.Fruit and vegetables must be cleaned and graded to complywith these regulations. Although all types of packaging areauthorized, there is an expectation that careful thought willgo into choosing packaging with regard to its environmentalimpact. Degradable packaging material is increasinglyrequested by conscientious consumers.

FS14_06 27-03-2003 10:27 Pagina 1

All harvested fruits and vegetables should be placed as soonas possible in a storage area that is kept at the appropriatetemperature. However, organic products need to be storedand transported with proper identification and physicallyseparated from non-organic products.

As for processing,freezing is the onlyprocessing methodthat keeps produce ina state similar to thefresh crop. Organicfoods can also beprocessed by drying;with the use ofapproved processingaids such as: ascorbic

acid, citric acid, tartaric acid and salt; blanching with hightemperatures to destroy micro-organisms; pasteurizing todestroy micro-organisms that could contaminate the productafter blanching; and with heat treatments that conserveproducts by destroying or inactivating enzymes and killingmicro-organisms.

Juice is an ideal product for theorganic market. It offers a simpleand natural way to processfresh produce, preserves themajority of vitamins andminerals, and largely resolvesthe problem of storage.Canned produce must beprepared in a way that retains, asclosely as possible, thecharacteristics of fresh produce. Otherforms of processing include conservation with sugar whichis principally used for fruit jams and purees, and byfermentation which is a chemical change caused byenzymes, bacteria or micro-organisms.

There are very fewapproved organicpost-harvesttreatments for pestsand diseases. Hot-water (45-55 °C)immersion, steamand forced hot-airtreatments aresometimes used asorganic controlmethods afterharvest.

The Post-Harvest Management Group of the FAOAgricultural Support Systems Division has producedguidelines on "Handling and Processing of Organic Fruitsand Vegetables in Developing Countries".

Cleaning biodynamic greens

Organic cheese making Organic wheat milling

HORTICULTURE POST-HARVESTorganic and operat ions

Organic balsamic vinegar barrels

FS14_06 27-03-2003 10:27 Pagina 2

GRASSLANDSo rg a n i c

SUPPORTING HEALTHY PASTURES FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND LIVESTOCK

Natural grasslands produce with very few or no externalinputs, maintain soil fertility and ground cover, and contributeto the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem functions.Most natural grasslands are relegated to the more marginallands of the South American pampas, the Eastern Europeanand North African steppes, high mountain areas, theSahelian, Soudano and savannah zones of Africa, and NorthAmerican prairies.

In terms of meeting organic objectives, temporary grasslandsoffer a number of advantages including easier maintenanceof high clover content, easy exploitation of residual fertility byarable crops, minimized weed development and betterpossibilities to provide regular, clean worm-free grazing.However, establishment costs are high.

Increasing human and livestock populations, as well asincreased cropland and intensification of cropping systems,affect the sustainability of natural grassland ecosystems. As grassland ecosystems are usually in fragile environmentsunsuited to intensive exploitation, farmers, herders,ecologists, policy-makers and economists need to look for away to combine grassland production and protection.

Many answers can be found in the organic agriculturesystem. Organic production methods and certificationstandards applied to grasslands contribute to themaintenance of the ecosystem, add value to grasslands

products, assure income generation to theirusers, and promote animal welfare. Yet

organically certified and managedgrasslands account for only a smallfraction of the grasslands worldwide.

Grasslands, which are immenselydifferent in their climatic needs,

physical conditions, cultural andhistorical roots and economic situations,

contain 24 percent of the world’s vegetationand cover about 4.6 billion ha (42.8 percent of the earth’ssurface) of which 9 million ha are organically certified.Grasslands are of prime importance in global carbon budget,maintenance of flora and fauna biodiversity, control ofdesertification, maintenance of soil fertility, and the livingconditions of the population.

Grasslands can be natural, made up of indigenous speciesand managed with few external inputs. Or, they can be temporary, used in rotation, alternating betweencropland and grassland and intensively managed. Natural grasslands, Lake Chad

FS15_05 27-03-2003 10:30 Pagina 1

Organic farms in regions with climate, soil type andtopography well suited to cropping are likely to have amixed crop/grassland system, while permanent grasslandsare more frequent in fragile environments and low potential

areas. Because organic standards restrict crop andlivestock inputs, farmers need to employ preventativeapproaches to crop and livestock husbandry such as cropnutrient supply, weed control and animal health if theyare to build and maintain a viable organic system.

Well-managed grasslands used for extensive grazing, suchas those in Australia and Argentina, offer opportunities toadd value to livestock products on the market throughorganic certification.

The Grassland and Pasture Crops Group of the FAO PlantProduction and Protection Division is looking into alternativesfor certification in communal pasture systems and is

preparing “Guidelines onorganic pasture

production in arid andsemi-arid communal

rangelands”.

Implications of the organic standards on grassland management

IMPLICATION FOR GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT

Emphasis on legumes

Emphasis on efficient nutrientcycling within the farm

Design management tominimize weed invasion

Maximize livestock nutrientsupply from forage producedon the farm, especially highprotein forage

Manage grazing to minimizebuild-up of parasite anddisease problems

ORGANIC RESTRICTIONS

No soluble nitrogen

Minimal use of mineralphosphorus and potassium

No synthetic herbicides

Minimum amount of purchasedfeed, minimum proportion of

forage in ruminant diets,prohibition of certain high

protein feeds

No routine preventative use ofveterinary medicines

G R A S S L A N Do rg a n i c

Free-range pigs in temporary pasture, Switzerland

Natural grasslands, Caucasus

Natural pasture, Burundi

FS15_05 27-03-2003 10:30 Pagina 2

APICULTUREo rg a n i c

Natural. Pure. Healthy. Sweet. Honey, no matter where in theworld and in both ancient and modern times, has always beenassociated with these four characteristics. However, therenow seems to be something even more natural, more pure,healthier and sweeter than honey. Today’s producers,consumers and markets have “organic” honey.

As with the rest of agriculture, for the past 50 yearsbeekeeping has increasingly relied on chemicals to solvedisease problems and to adjust to selection and productionpressures. This approach, together with globalization oftrade, has allowed the spreading of once-rare bee diseases,such as the varroa mite. As a result, beekeepers beganexperimenting on their own, developing an array of chemicalsfor disease control inside the beehive. Those chemicalseventually found their way into many honeys.

P U R E R T H A N P U R E , P O L L I N A T I O N S E R V I C E S

Organic beekeeping is a recent phenomenon, growing inresponse to the global changes in beekeeping management,particularly the spread of varroa and its treatments.Conversion to organic practices has barely started in a fewcountries. It has a chance to grow if it is associated withagricultural practices that recognize bees’ importance beyondthe production of honey, such as their role in pollination andtherefore the maintenance of the ecosystem and agricultureproduction levels.

Certified organic beekeeping represents a small percentageof all beekeeping (0.6 percent in some European countries),and is almost non-existent in developing countries. At thesame time, much of the exported honey from developingcountries, even if not certified, is produced under very closeto, if not better, conditions than organic European honey.

Beehive on a village forest, Guinea

Beehives in organic field, Italy

FS16_05 27-03-2003 10:32 Pagina 1

Converting production to have organic certification is nota major obstacle for honey coming from forests or

extensive cultivation areas in countrieswithout major honey bee diseases.

In addition, it is relatively easy tocontrol compliance with residueanalysis and equipment control.However, if there are seriousdisease problems, converting to

organic production meanssubstantial increase in cost, due to

increased losses and labour requiredfor disease control management.

Organic beekeeping for various products (mostly honeyand wax, but also pollen, propolis and royal jelly) has tofollow principles similar to those for other organiclivestock production. Management methods, food sources,material choices, and disease control and prevention areclosely regulated.

Organic beekeepers have to ensure that the food of theirbees is free from pesticides and residues. In general,beehives need to be surrounded by an area with a radiusof at least 3 km2 in which only organic or similaragriculture or clean wild habitat exist, far away from otherpolluting sources such as cities, industrial complexes orhighways. In addition, regulations cover origin of bees,stock replenishing, feed materials, medicines, equipmentand harvesting methods.

No doubt there will bea growing market fororganic honey, althoughthere may be a decreasingnumber of beekeepers inthe developed world whocan comply with theorganic rules.

With the growth of organicagriculture in general, there is hope thatorganic beekeeping will grow, particularly sincepollination and bee forage are essential elements oforganic practices.

A P I C U LT U R Eo rg a n i c

Flamboyante bush provides habitat to pollinators

FS16_05 27-03-2003 10:32 Pagina 2

C E R T I F I E D N O N - WO O D FO R E S T P R O D U CTSo rg a n i c a l ly

As an outgrowth of the expanding market for organic foodproducts, mechanisms are being developed to certifyorganically produced non-wood forest products (NWFP).NWFP are defined as biological goods, other than wood, thatcome from forests, other wooded lands and trees outsideforests. This can include wild or semi-domesticated products, such as edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices, gums,aromatic plants, bush meat and fodder, as well as plant oranimal products for medicinal, cosmetic or cultural uses.

Hundreds of millions of people, mostly in developingcountries, derive a significant part of their subsistenceneeds through the use of NWFP. Income generated throughlocal, national and international trade in NWFP is estimatedat US$11 billion annually.

H A R V E S T I N G W I L D A N D S E M I - D O M E S T I C A T E D S P E C I E S

Organic certification of NWFP is still embryoniccompared to the cultivated products that are themain focus of existing organic productionsystems. However, many organic standardsprovide specific sections on NWFP, such asIFOAM’s Basic standards for organicproduction and processing.

Organic certification promoteseconomically viable andenvironmentally friendly use ofnatural resources. The certificationmechanisms that already exist formonitoring and evaluating production or commercializationof agricultural and timber products can be expanded andadapted for certifying organic NWFP.

Harvesting medicinal herbs (Combretum Glutinosum) in the wild, Senegal

Guarana is a tonic food

FS17_05 27-03-2003 11:39 Pagina 1

Organic systems are based onprecise standards of

production that worktowards supporting optimal

agro-ecosystems. Thesestandards focus mainly onecological aspects of production.

In order to be recognized asorganic products, wildharvested or semi-domesticated products shouldmeet the following criteria:

There are four main certification schemes relevant for NWFP:

Organic certification focuses on criteria such as the renunciation of synthetic fertilizersand pesticides. Under these criteria, wild and semi-domesticated NWFP such as

pinenuts, mushrooms and herbs could be considered organic.

Forest management certification assesses the ecological aspects ofresource management, both at the forest and species or product level, and ensures the sustainableproduction of forest resources.

Social certification, such as fair and ethical trade, assures that labour conditions are acceptable andbenefits are shared equally among those involved in production and trade.

Product quality certification coversproduction standards that focus on the product

as well as on the way it is processed and manufactured.

Children collecting fruits of Santaloides Afseli, Guinea

CERTIFIED NWFPo rg a n i c a l ly

harvesting plan is in place and up to date;

harvest must not have negative influences on growth and production, should notbe destructive to the environment or biodiversity, and should not causedepletion of population or soil erosion;

harvesting areas must be clearly defined with identifiable boundaries;

buffer zones must be delineated around the harvested area to avoidcontamination from external sources; and

prohibited substance should not have been used for at least three years preceding harvest.

Karité and wild edibles fruits, Burkina Faso

FS17_05 27-03-2003 11:39 Pagina 2

o rg a n i c FISH FARMIN G

Although no official statistical data are available concerningthe global production of certified organic aquacultureproducts, it is estimated that total production in 2000 wasabout 5 000 metric tons, primarily in European countries.

This modest quantity represents only about 0.01 percent ofglobal aquaculture production and about 0.25 percent ofEuropean aquaculture production. Little or no productiondata is available for countries outside Europe, but in manycountries, producers are trying to develop organicaquaculture using national or private standards forproduction of a variety of species.

As with other organic foods, consumer demand for organicseafood products from aquaculture is growing. Themarket is still small but species such as trout, salmon,carp, shrimp and oysters are now available from organicsources and the production increase is significant, withtypical growth rates of 25 percent per year. Current demandis concentrated in Western markets, especially in Europe,

but increasing popularity of organic products should bolsterdemand for organic seafood in the world’s largest seafoodmarkets, Japan and the United States of America. Organicseafood prices are typically 25 to 30 percent higher thanthose of non-organic products, which explains much of thegrowing interest in production. Production is expected tocontinue to grow and, when supported by adequatemarketing strategies, should enable farmers to produceand sell profitably to a growing number of well-payingconsumer segments.

Even though draft standards have been developed, manyissues relevant to organic aquaculture still are beingdiscussed and negotiated, such as replacing fishmeal andfish oil in the diets of cultured aquatic organisms,addressing chemical drift and contamination of the water,defining parallel organic feed principles for terrestriallivestock, retaining the integrity of the organic product fromfarmer to consumer, and converting conventional aquaculturesystems into organic systems.

B E T T E R U S E O F T H E A Q U A T I C F O O D C H A I N

Small ponds recycle farm nutrients

Pristine river water flows in organic trout farm

FS18_05 27-03-2003 11:42 Pagina 1

nutrition: acceptable residue levels in fish feeds,replacement of fishmeal and fish oil withalternative protein and lipid sources, use of naturalantioxidants and synthetic amino acids, nutrient fluxes and associated environmental issues;

holding facilities: selection of construction materials, stocking densities, the role of oxygenation, andwater quality; and

post-harvest: slaughter, handling, transport and processing.

Though certified organic aquaculture in developingcountries is still in its infancy, these countries are theproducers of more than 90 percent of global aquacultureproduction. The bulk of this production targets low costfreshwater species which feed low in the aquatic foodchain. Conversion to organic aquaculture would recyclevaluable nutrients, with positive benefits for theenvironment and society.

The FAO Fisheries Department provides expert advice andsupports activities related to organic aquaculture. As a specific initiative of the European Inland FisheriesAdvisory Commission, the ad hoc Working Party on Organic

Fish Farming has been established to assemble materialon the status of organic fish farming and marketconditions, define research needs and review severaltechnical areas.

The low production inorganic aquaculture has in

part been due to theabsence of internationally

recognized and universally acceptedregulations and standards. The organic aquaculture sectorhas 20 to 25 private and public certifying bodies withstandards that vary considerably from country to country,certifier to certifier, and species to species. To a large extent,these reflect the differences between individual certifiers,farmers and other interested stakeholders in theinterpretation of what organic aquaculture really means andentails, and highlight the urgent need for the adoption of a setof basic principles and production and certification standards.

Technical areas which require further research anddevelopment in organic fish farming include the following:

Organic off-shore salmon farm, Ireland

Salmon with organic label gill tag

F I S H FA R M I N Go rg a n i c

FS18_05 27-03-2003 11:42 Pagina 2

FAO has proclaimed organic agriculture as one of its Priority Areas for Interdisciplinary Action. The medium-term objectives of the Organic Agriculture Programme are to support FAO Member Nationsby increasing their capacity to effectively produce, handle, process, inspect, certify and market organicfoods and fibres.

There are three main areas of work:

strengthening the ability to exchange information and to set up organic agriculture networks,in order to ensure that producers, operators and governments have access to the

reliable and quality information needed for informed decision-making, for directingresearch and extension, and for making investments;

developing and disseminating knowledge and tools that support organic plantprotection, soil and nutrient management, animal husbandry and post-harvestoperations, especially in developing countries and market-marginalized areas; and

assisting governments in designing the types of legal and policy frameworks thatprovide support to farmers by facilitating the marketing and trade of certified organic

products that meet international inspection and certification standards.

The Organic Agriculture Programme is implemented by the Inter-Departmental Working Group onOrganic Agriculture, which regularly makes the results of its work available through its Web site.www.fao.org/organicag

F O O D A N D A G R I C U LT U R E O R G A N I Z AT I O N O F T H E U N I T E D N AT I O N S VIALE DELLE TERME DI CARACALLA 00100 ROME [ ITALY ] WWW.FAO.ORG

FAO INTER-DEPARTMENTAL

W O R K I N G G R O U P O N

O R G A N I CA G R I C U LT U R E

F U R T H E R I N F O R M A T I O N A B O U T O R G A N I C A G R I C U L T U R E I S A V A I L A B L E A T : W W W . F A O . O R G / O R G A N I C A G

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