WHAT IS A LIGAMENT?A ligament is the fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones and is also known as articular ligament, articular larua, fibrous ligament, or true ligament.

Ligament can also refer to:

Peritoneal ligament: a fold of peritoneum or other membranes.Fetal remnant ligament: the remnants of a tubular structure from the fetal period of life.Periodontal ligament: a group of fibers that attach the cementum of teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone.

The study of ligaments is known as desmology (from Greek δεσμός, desmos, "bond"; and -λογία, -logia).

Ligaments are similar to tendons and fasciae as they are all made of collagen except that ligaments join one bone to another bone, tendons join muscle to bone and fasciae connect muscles to other muscles. These are all found in the skeletal system of the human body. Ligaments cannot be regenerated naturally.

WHAT IS A FASCIA?A fascia (/ˈfæʃə/, /ˈfæʃiə/; plural fasciae /ˈfæʃɨ.i/; adjective fascial; from Latin: "band") is a layer of fibrous tissue.A fascia is a structure of connective tissue that surrounds muscles, groups of muscles, blood vessels, and nerves, binding some structures together, while permitting others to slide smoothly over each other.Various kinds of fascia may be distinguished. They are classified according to their distinct layers, their functions and their anatomical location: superficial fascia, deep (or muscle) fascia, and visceral (or parietal) fascia etc..........

WHAT IS APONEUROSIS/APONEUROSES:Aponeuroses (plural of aponeurosis: απο, "away" or "of", and νευρον, "sinew", and pronounced ap·o·neu·ro·sis) are layers of flat broad sheets in place of tendons. They have a shiny, whitish-silvery color, are histologically similar to tendons, and are very sparingly supplied with blood vessels and nerves. When dissected, aponeuroses are papery and peel off by sections. The primary regions with thick aponeurosis are in the ventral abdominal region, the dorsal lumbar region, and the palmar and plantar region.Their primary function is to join muscles and the body parts the muscles act upon, whether it be bone or muscle.

What is a BURSA:A bursa (plural bursae) is a small fluid-filled sac lined by synovial membrane with an inner capillary layer of viscous fluid (similar in consistency to that of a raw egg white). It provides a cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint. This helps to reduce friction between the bones and allows free movement. Bursae are filled with synovial fluid and are found around most major joints of the body.(WORD:Bursa is Latin for purse, so named for the resemblance of an anatomical bursa to a purse)

Developmental Classification

1 Membrane (Dermal) Bones ossify in membrane (intramembranous or mesenchymal ossification), and are thus derived from mesenchymal condensations. Examples: bones of the vault of skull and facial bones.

A defect in membranous ossification causes a rare syndrome called cleidocranial dysostosis. It is characterized by three cardinal features:

* Varying degrees of aplasia of the clavicles;

* Increase in the transverse diameter of cranium, and

* Retardation in fontanelle ossification. It may be hereditary or environmental in origin.

 

Cartilaginous Bones ossify in cartilage (intracartilaginous or endochondral ossification), and are thus derived from performed cartilaginous models. Examples: bone of limbs, vertebral column and thoracic cage.

A defect in endochondral ossification causes a common type of dwarfism called achondroplasia, in which the limbs are short, but the trunk is normal. It is transmitted as a Mendelian dominant character.

Membrano-Cartilaginous Bones ossify partly in membrane and partly in cartilage. Examples: clavicle, mandible, occipital, temporal, sphenoid.

HEAD&NECK:

Q:what is SCALP?

Q:What are the contents of FORAMEN MAGNUM?

Q:What is the clinical importance of PTERION?Q:What is GLABELLA?Q:What is NASION?Q: What is ASTERRION?Q:What is BREGMA?Q:What is LAMBDA?Q:What is vestibule of oral cavity?Q:what is sella turcica?Q:what do you know about ANTERIOR, MIDDLE AND POSTERIOR clinoind process?Q:Which bones form BASI OCCIPUT?Q:What is INION?Q:What is VERTEX?BRAIN:Q:What is DIENCEPHELON?Q:What do you mean by the term CONTRA-LATERAL?Q:What do you mean by the term IPSI-LATERAL?Q:What do you know about 1st order,2nd order and 3rd order NEURON?Q:Why the no of Ascending trancts is greater then the Desending tracts?Q:What is the dfference between dura mater of BRAIN and SPINAL CORD?Q:What is RETICULAR FORMATION?Q:how many columns are present in RETICULAR FORMATION?Q:How many ventricles are present in BRAIN?Q:How

many ventricles are present in SPINAL CORD?Q:How many ventricles are present in CNS?

 

 

ANSWERS:(BY DANIYAL, BEMS(FELLOW) HAMDARD UNIVERSITY KARACHI BATCH-2010

1=skin, connective tissue, aponeurosis, losse connctive tissues, perisotium or pericranium 

2=Medulla oblongata, spinal part of accessory nerve, and right and left vertebral arteries

3=under pterion there is middle maningeal artery and lateral sulcus of brain are present 4=meeting point of both super ciliary arches 5=meeting point of both inter nasal bones with frontal bone of both side .......6=meeting point of occipital, parietal and mastoid part of temporal bone 7=meeting point of both parietal and frontal bone or meeting point of coronal and sagital suture 8=meeting point of both parietal and occipital bone or meeting point of sagital and lambdoid suture9=whn teeth are close the outer area of the mouth is called vestibule of oral cavity 10=tuberculum sellae, dorsum sellae and pituitary fossa these 3 structure collectivly called sella tursica 11=ant cilinoid process is the projection of lesser wing of sphenoid bone towards post cranial fossa, middle cilinoid process is the lateral tip of tuberculum sellae and post cilinoid process is the lateral tip of dorsum sellae some times ant and middle cilinoid process are meet...12=occipital bone and base of sphenoid bone 13=most pointed or tip of the external occipital protuburence14=highest point of the skull15=all mid line structures 16=opposite side 17=same side18=if we talk abt ascending tracks than frm receptor to the spinal cord 1st order nueron thn frm spinal cord to thalamus 2nd order neuron and frm thalamus to cerebral cortex 3rd order neuron or in descending tracks opposite mean 3rd is 1st and 1st is 3rd :)19=because sensory infrmation ke bht sare types hai es leye 20=dura mater of brain is double layer end osteal layer and meningeal layer and dura mater of spinal cord is single layer 21=The reticular formation consists of a deeply placed continuous network of nerve cells and fibers that extend from the spinal cord through the medulla, the pons, the midbrain, the subthalamus, the hypothalamus, and the thalamus.22=5 colums ........ 2 medial 2 lateral and 1 middle 23=4 24=1 24 5

Medical Uses of the Carotid Triangle

In the carotid triangle, many of the vessels and nerves are relatively superficial, and so can be accessed by surgery. The carotid arteries, internal jugular vein, vagus and hypoglossal nerves are frequent targets of this surgical approach.

The carotid triangle also contains the carotid sinus -  a dilated portion of the common carotid and internal carotid arteries. It contains specific sensory cells,

called baroreceptors. The baroreceptors detect stretch as a measure of blood pressure. The glossopharyngeal nerve feeds this information to the brain, and this is used to regulate blood pressure.

In some people, the baroreceptors are hypersensitive to stretch. In these patients, external pressure on the carotid sinus can cause slowing of the heart rate and a decrease in blood pressure. The brain becomes underperfused, and syncope results. In such patients, checking the pulse at the carotid triangle is not advised.

Ant triangle of neck

The muscles in this part of the neck are divided as to where they lie in relation to thehyoid bone. There are four suprahyoid muscles (stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid) and four infrahyoid muscles (omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid, and sternothyroid)

With respect to the vasculature, the common carotid artery passes through the anterior triangle, and bifurcates within the triangle into the external and internal carotid arteries. The internal jugular vein also can be found within this area. It drains blood from the head and neck.

Numerous cranial nerves are located in the anterior triangle. Some pass straight through, and others give off branches to innervate some of the other structures within the triangle. The cranial nerves in the anterior triangle are the facial [VII], glossopharyngeal [IX], vagus [X],accessory [XI], and hypoglossal [XII] nerves.

ABDOMEN:

Q:what is MORPHY' SIGN?

Q:at which level the spleen is present?

Q:in which quadrant the spleen is present?

Q:DO YOU KNOW THE ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF SUPRA RENAL GLAND? 

Q: WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VISCERAL AND PARIETAL PERITONIIUM?

Q:WHY WE SAY THAT GREATER OMENTUM IS FOUR LAYERED?

Q:WHAT is the difference between right and left paracolic gutters?

Q:what is the importance of GREATER OMENTUM?

Q:WHY WE SAY THAT PERITONIUM IS A CLOSED SAC IN MALE ONLY?WHAT HAPPEN IN FEMALE??

Q:WHAT ARE THE CONTENTS OF SPERMATIC CORD?hint:nine contents

Q:which structure passes though the INGUINAL CANAL in female?

Q:what is the difference between common hepatic artery and hepatic artery proper?

Q:In which quadrant does appendix lie?

Q:what is root of mesentery ??

Q:what are INFRA COLIC SPACES?

Q:can you tell the difference between right and left infra colic spaces?

Q:what is the difference between the right and left infra-colic spaces?

PELVIS:

Q:IN WHICH LOBE OF PROSTATE GLAND ADENOMA IS MORE COMMON?

Q:WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A DIRECT AND INDIRECT INGUINAL HERNIA?

Q:what is the difference between male and female pelvis?

Q:what are true and false ligaments of prostate glands??

PERINIUM:

Q: WHAT IS PERINIUM? 

Q:what is ISHIO RECTAL FOSSA?What is its relation with FISTULA IN ANO?? 

Q:WHAT IS SUPERFICIAL PERINEAL SPACE? what are its contents??

Q:what is PERINEAL BODY? GIVE ITS IMPORTANCE?

Q:what is pelvic diaphragm?

Q:what is Urogenital diaphragm?

Bones can be classified by Shape

 

1. Long bones Each long bone has an elongated shaft or diaphysis and two expanded ends (epiphyses) which are smooth and articular. The shaft typically has 3 surfaces separated by 3 borders, a central medullary cavity, and a nutrient foramen directed away from the growing end. Examples of typical long bones are humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges

 2.Short bonesTheir shape is usually cuboid, cuneiform, trapezoid, or scaphoid. Examples: carpal and tarsal bones.

 3.Flat Bones resembles shallow plates and form boundaries of certain body cavities. Examples: bone in the vault of the skull, ribs, sternum and scapula.

 4. Irregular Bones: vertebra, hip bone.

5.Pneumatic:

 Bones Certain irregular bones contain large air spaces lined by epithelium. Examples: maxilla, sphenoid, ethmoid, etc. they make the skull light in weight, help in resonance of voice, and act as air conditioning chambers for the inspired air.

 6.Sesamoid Bones.

  These are bony nodules found embedded in the tendons or joint capsules. They have no periosteum and ossify after birth. They are related to an articular or nonarticular bony surface, and the surfaces of contact are covered with hyaline cartilage and lubricated by a bursa or synovial membrane.

Examples: patella

Function of the sesamoid bones are not definitely known. Their possible function are:

* To resist pressure;

* To minimize friction;

* To alter the direction of pull of the muscle; and

* To maintain the local circulation.

 7.Accessory (Supernumerary) Bones These are not always present. They may occur as ununited epiphyses developed from extra centres of ossification. Examples: sutural bones, os trigonum, os vesalianum, etc. In medicolegal practice, accessory bones may be mistaken for fractures. However, these are often bilateral, and have smooth surfaces without any callus.

OSSIFICATION IN SCAPULA

The scapula is ossified from seven or more centers: one for the body, two for the coracoid process, two for the acromion, one for the vertebral border, and one for the inferior angle.  

Ossification of the body begins about the second month of fetal life, by the formation of an irregular quadrilateral plate of bone, immediately behind the glenoid cavity. This plate extends so as to form the chief part of the bone, the spine growing up from its dorsal surface about the third month. At birth, a large part of the scapula is osseous, but the glenoid cavity, the coracoid process, the acromion, the vertebral border, and the inferior angle are cartilaginous. From the fifteenth to the eighteenth month after birth, ossification takes place in the middle of the coracoid process, which as a rule becomes joined with the rest of the bone about the fifteenth year. Between the fourteenth and twentieth years, ossification of the remaining parts takes place in quick succession, and usually in the following order; first, in the root of the coracoid process, in the form of a broad scale; secondly, near the base of the acromion; thirdly, in the inferior angle and contiguous part of the vertebral border; fourthly, near the extremity of the acromion; fifthly, in the vertebral border. The base of the acromion is formed by an extension from the spine; the two separate nuclei of the acromion unite, and then join with the extension from the spine. The upper third of the glenoid cavity is ossified from a separate center (subcoracoid), which makes its appearance between the tenth and eleventh years and joins between the sixteenth and the eighteenth. Further, an epiphysical plate appears for the lower part of the glenoid cavity, while the tip of the coracoid process frequently presents a separate nucleus. These various epiphyses are joined to the bone by the twenty-fifth year. Failure of bony union between the acromion and spine sometimes occurs, the junction being effected by fibrous tissue, or by an imperfect articulation; in some cases of supposed fracture of the acromion with ligamentous union, it is probable that the detached segment was never united to the rest of the bone.

PPER LIMB:

Q:WHAT IS CARPEL TUNNEL?

Q:WHAT IS ROTATOR CUFF?also tell the importance of it? 

Q: CAN YOU TELL THE NAME OF MUSCLES PRODUCING ABDUCTION/ ADDUCTION / MEDIAL ROTATION/LATERAL ROTATION / FLEXION / EXTENSION  AROUND SHOULDER JOINT? 

Q:TELL THE NAME OF THE ARTERIES MAKING ANASTOMOSISES  AROUND 

ELBOW JOINT

Q:how many are the compartments of Carpel Tunnel?

Q:can you tell the contents of CUBOITAL FOSSA FROM LATERAL TO MEDIAL?

Q:why we give the injection in the supra lateran region?

Q:if the humerus is fractured at sugical neck what would be the draw back of it?

Q:Whenever there is shoulder injury.........humerus dislocation is mostly downwards why???

THORAX:

Q:WHY THE LEFT VENTRICLE OF HEART IS THICK WALLED?

Q: WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VISCERAL AND PARIETAL PLUERA?

Q:What is ANGLE OF LUIS?name the structures pass at the level of this angle?

LOWER LIMB:

Q:Can you tell the boundries of FEMORAL TRIANGLE?

Q:What is SUB SARTORIAL CANAL?

Q:What are the contents of POPLITEAL FOSSA?

Q:What do you know about FEMORAL RAING?

Q:Which muscle is called as TAILOR MUSCLE and why?

Q:Can you name the contents of Femoral triangle?

Q:How many are the compartments of FEMORAL SHEATH?

Q:What do you know about LOCKING AND UN-LOCKING of KNEE JOINT?

Q:NAME all the ligaments of HIP JOINT?

Q:Name all the ligaments of KNEE JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing FLEXION at HIP JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing MEDIAL ROTATION at HIP JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing EXTENSION at HIP JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing LETERAL ROTATION at HIP JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing ADDUCTION at HIP JOINT?

Q:Name the muscles producing ABDUCTION at HIP JOINT?

ABDOMEN:

Q:what is MORPHY' SIGN?

Q:at which level the spleen is present?

Q:in which quadrant the spleen is present?

Q:DO YOU KNOW THE ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF SUPRA RENAL GLAND? 

Q: WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VISCERAL AND PARIETAL PERITONIIUM?

Q:WHY WE SAY THAT GREATER OMENTUM IS FOUR LAYERED?

Q:WHAT is the difference between right and left paracolic gutters?

Q:what is the importance of GREATER OMENTUM?

Q:WHY WE SAY THAT PERITONIUM IS A CLOSED SAC IN MALE ONLY?WHAT HAPPEN IN FEMALE??

Q:WHAT ARE THE CONTENTS OF SPERMATIC CORD?hint:nine contents

Q:which structure passes though the INGUINAL CANAL in female?

Q:what is the difference between common hepatic artery and hepatic artery proper?

Q:In which quadrant does appendix lie?

Q:what is root of mesentery ??

Q:what are INFRA COLIC SPACES?

Q:can you tell the difference between right and left infra colic spaces?

Q:what is the difference between the right and left infra-colic spaces?

PELVIS:

Q:IN WHICH LOBE OF PROSTATE GLAND ADENOMA IS MORE COMMON?

Q:WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A DIRECT AND INDIRECT INGUINAL HERNIA?

Q:what is the difference between male and female pelvis?

Q:what are true and false ligaments of prostate glands??

PERINIUM:

Q: WHAT IS PERINIUM? 

Q:what is ISHIO RECTAL FOSSA?What is its relation with FISTULA IN ANO?? 

Q:WHAT IS SUPERFICIAL PERINEAL SPACE? what are its contents??

Q:what is PERINEAL BODY? GIVE ITS IMPORTANCE?

Q:what is pelvic diaphragm?

Q:what is Urogenital diaphragm?

HEAD&NECK:

Q:what is SCALP?

Q:What are the contents of FORAMEN MAGNUM?

Q:What is the clinical importance of PTERION?

Q:What is GLABELLA?

Q:What is NASION?

Q: What is ASTERRION?

Q:What is BREGMA?

Q:What is LAMBDA?

Q:What is vestibule of oral cavity?

Q:what is sella turcica?

Q:what do you know about ANTERIOR, MIDDLE AND POSTERIOR clinoind process?

Q:Which bones form BASI OCCIPUT?

Q:What is INION?

Q:What is VERTEX?

Q:Can you tell the nerve supply of INTRINSIC MUSCLE OF THE TONGUE?

BRAIN:

Q:What is DIENCEPHELON?

Q:What do you mean by the term CONTRA-LATERAL?

Q:What do you mean by the term IPSI-LATERAL?

Q:What do you know about 1st order,2nd order and 3rd order NEURON?

Q:Why the no of Ascending trancts is greater then the Desending tracts?

Q:What is the dfference between dura mater of BRAIN and SPINAL CORD?

Q:What is RETICULAR FORMATION?

Q:how many columns are present in RETICULAR FORMATION?

Q:How many ventricles are present in BRAIN?

Q:How many ventricles are present in SPINAL CORD?

Q:How many ventricles are present in CNS?

Q:What is the difference between IPSILATERAL AND CONTRALATERAL.

Q:What are pyramids?

Etymology of Abdominal Wall and Inguinal Terms

With particular thanks to Jack Lyons, MD

Aponeurosis - In present day parlance this word for the broad tendon of a flat muscle has nothing to do with nerves as its -neurosis portion might suggest. But the ancient Greeks who coined the word were unable to distinguish between nerves and tendons, both of which were called neuros. Hence the word is a combination of apo-, a prefix indicating away or derivation from; and neurosis meaning a tendon.

Crus - is Latin for leg. Crura is the plural. Thus, the medial and lateral crura of the subcutaneous inguinal ring are simply its two legs. Etymologically it is distinct from words such as cruciform, which are derived from the Latin crux, meaning cross. From the latter root we get crucial and crucifixion.

Pampiniform - The pampiniform plexuscoils along the spermatic cord form resembling the tendrils of an unpruned vine. The Latin word pampinus means just that, a tendril.

Hypochondrium - So, why should this region of the upper abdomen which lies hidden beneath the lower costal cartilages give rise to the adjective hypochondriac (chondros = Greek for cartilage), to one who suffers from an illness without knownorganic basis? Here’s why: On the left, the spleen resides there. To the ancients, this organ was thought to be the seat of melancholy and the source of emotions. And our present understanding of hypochondriasis is that of an emotional rather than an organic condition. In some regions of the country, you will still occasionally hear an old timer use the adjective spleeny to describe someone who does not tolerate pain well. “I’m not one to be spleeny, doc, but it hurts something wicked”. This usage has obviously drifted a bit away from the original meaning.

Gubernaculum - is the Latin word for rudder or helm of a boat. Hence it has the sense of a guide or governor. Notice the relationship to our word gubernatorial as in an election for the governor.

Dartos - This is NOT an eponymic possessive adjective like Scarpa’s or Colles’ and does not need to be capitalized. Rather, it is a Greek derivative that means “that which is flayed or skinned”, perhaps from its appearance.

Umbilicus - from the Latin umbo = a knob or projection. Originally, an umbo was the ornamental knob at the center of a warrior’s shield. Umbilicus is a diminutive of that indicating a small projection. Later on, you will learn that the slight projection at the center of the eardrum is also called the umbo.

Navel - Speakers of Old English used the word nafela for the belly-button. This descended from the Greek omphalos for belly-button, through the Anglo-Saxon word nafe, meaning the center of a wheel where the axle was inserted, to nafela. Our word navel for the hub or center of the body comes from that. Incidentally, nave is still a perfectly good word used to indicate the hub of a wheel. This nave is not related to the nave found in a church. The latter is derived from the Latin word for a ship and is found also in navy and navigation

Falciform - Falx is Latin for sickle, a curve-bladed hand instrument used to cut grasses and grains. Falciform simply means in the shape of, or resembling, a sickle. You might as well remember this relationship as it will crop up several times as you wend your way through human anatomy.

Cremaster - from a Greek word meaning suspender. Its obvious function makes no further explanation necessary.

Albuginea - This goes back to the Latin root albus meaning white. It is the same albus that appears in albumen, meaning the white of an egg, and albumin (with an i) meaning the plasma protein. Albugo is Latin for whiteness; albuginea derives from this and is used for any dense white covering, such as the tunica albuginea of the testis.

Pectineal –This is obviously derived from the Latin word pecten meaning a comb. This was also an old word for the pubis. But what is the connection? No one knows for sure. A relationship to the pubic hair is one of several that have been suggested.

Inguinal – Inguen is the Latin word for the groin. For the Romans, this word was also used for ones ”privates”