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Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (RRP CAM 51159-002)

Feasibility Study Report

November 2019

Cambodia: Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project Prek Po Subproject

Prepared by the Pacific Rim Innovation and Management Exponents, Inc. on behalf of the Ministry of Water

Resources and Meteorology for the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/?id=51159-002-3

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TA 9349-CAM: PREPARING THE IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

IMPROVEMENT PROJECT (IAIP), CAMBODIA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List of Tables iii List of Figures v List of Appendixes vi List of Abbreviations vii Executive Summary ix

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. SUBPROJECT ASSESSMENT 4

A. Introduction 4 B. Existing Irrigation System and Canal Layout 6 C. Condition of the Existing System 9 D. Proposed System Modernization 11 E. Irrigation Scheduling and Pump Operation 16 F. System Maintenance 17 G. Options Considered for Secondary Canals 18

III. HYDROLOGY AND WATER AVAILABILITY 19

A. Mekong River Flow in Kampong Cham 19 B. Water Level in Kampong Cham 20 C. Rainfall 21 D. Flood Regime in the Prek Po Subproject Area 21 E. Hydrometeorology Data and Equipment 22 F. Requirements for Upgrading and Extending the Hydromet Network 22 G. Specifications and Cost Basis of Hydrometeorology Upgrade 23

IV. AGRICULTURE 24

A. Introduction 24 B. Overview of the Agricultural Production System 25 C. Recommended Cropping Patterns for Prek Po Subproject 30 D. Crop Water Requirement 31 E. Recommended Practices for Rice Production 35 F. Support Services 39 G. Expected Impact of the Proposed Rice-based Cropping System 43

V. MANAGEMENT OF IMPROVED SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 44

A. Assessment of FWUC in the PPIS 44 B. On Farm Water Management (OFWM) 52 C. Climate Proofing of PPIS 57

VI. SUBPROJECT COST ESTIMATES 62

A. Civil Works 62 B. FWUC Establishment and Capacity Building 63 C. System O&M 64 D. Agriculture Activities 64 E. Upgrading of Hydro-met Station and AWS 65 F. Cost Summary 66

VII. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 66

A. Introduction 66 B. Methodology 67 C. Subproject Costs 68 D. Subproject Benefits 69

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E. Subproject Farm Performance 70 F. Subproject EIRR 71

VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS 72

A. Regulatory Framework for Environmental Impact Assessment 72 B. Baseline Environment 73 C. Assessment Findings 75 D. Public Consultation 77 E. Grievance Redress Mechanism 77 F. Environmental Management Plan 77 G. Conclusion 77

IX. SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS 78

A. Socioeconomic Conditions and Poverty in PPIS Communes 78 B. Ethnic Minority Groups in PPIS Communes 82 C. Land Acquisition and Resettlement 82

X. GENDER ANALYSIS 85

A. Gender Roles and Opportunities in Irrigated Agriculture 85 B. MOWRAM Institutional Capacity 86 C. Mainstreaming Gender in IAIP 88

LIST OF TABLES

Number Title Page

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1 Existing Infrastructure Facilities in the PPIS 5

2 Communes and Villages Covered by the PPIS, Srey Santhor District 6

3 List of Existing Facilities, PPIS 6

4 Details pf Secondary Canals and Number of Structures 15

5 Cost Estimate of Civil and Electromechanical Works, PPIS Option 2 16

6 Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Flows (1,000 MCM),

Mekong River at Kampong Cham 19

7 Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Rainfall (MM),

Kampong Cham 21

8 Agricultural Area of Communes in the Prek Po Service Area 27

9 Existing Cropping Pattern and Rice Production Practices in Prek Po 29

10 Crop Water Requirement (mm/decad/ha) of Different Cropping Patterns 32

11 Crop Water Requirement (m3/ha/crop) Of Rice and Grain Corn Crops 33

12 Comparison of Water Productivity of Non-Rice Dry Season Crops with the High-Yielding Rice Variety, Sen Kro Ob 34

13 Officially Recommended Rice Varieties (CARDI, 2001) 35

14 Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Direct-Seeded Traditional Varieties 36

15 Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Direct-Seeded 90-Day Variety 36

16 Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Transplanted Early Maturing Varieties 37

17 Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Transplanted Early Maturing Varieties 37

18 Recommended Nutrient Management for Phosphorus-Deficient Soils 38

19 Summary Of Recommended Agricultural Inputs 41

20 Stakeholder Analysis 45

21 PDWRAM Staff Involved in Project Implementation 47

22 Institutional Risks and Mitigation Measures for the Prek Po Subproject 48

23 Training Plan Proposed for the Prek Po Subproject 49

24 Estimated Cost of OFWM, PPIS 56

25 Maximum and Minimum Water Levels of the Mekong in Kampong Cham 58

26 Baseline and Projected Average Maximum Temperatures and Rainfall in

Prek Po (Coordinates: 11.87 N/105.33E), 2050 59

27 Cost Estimates of Climate Proofing the Prek Po Subproject 62

28 Detailed Cost Estimates of Civil Works, Prek Po Subproject 63

29 Estimated Cost Of FWUC Establishment and Training, Prek Po Subproject 63

30 Estimated Cost of Proposed Agriculture Activities 65

31 Cost Summary, Upgrading Of Hydromet Network, Prek Po 65

32 Detailed Cost Estimates, Hydromet Upgrade, Prek Po 65

33 Prek Po Subproject Financial and Economic Costs, Option 2 69

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34 Prek Po Crop Areas and Production “With” and “Without” Project 70

35 Financial and Economic Gross Margins “With” and “Without” Project, Prek Po Subproject, 2028 71

36 Gross Margins of Upland Crops, Prek Po Subproject 71

37 Summary of Sensitivity Analysis Results, Prek Po Subproject 72

38 Average Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Rainfall (mm) 74

39 Cham Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Flows

(million cubic meters [mcm]), Mekong River at Kampong 76

40 Population in the PPIS 78

41 Landless and Land-Poor Households, PPIS Communes 80

42 Poverty Levels, CambodiA (% of Population) 80

43 Poverty Levels, PPIS Communes (% of Population) 81

44 Non-Khmer Ethnics in Kampong Cham Province 82

45 Ethnic Minority Population in PPIS Communes 82

46 MOWRAM Management Staff 86

47 MOWRAM GMAP, 2014-2018 87

48 Draft Gender Action Plan (GAP) 89

LIST OF FIGURES

Number Title Page

1 Location of the Two Core Subprojects 2

2 Location Map of the Prek Po Subproject 4

3 Remnants of the Old Pump House and Reservoir 5

4 Existing Layout of the Prek Po Subproject 7

5 PPIS Inundation Area 8

6 Existing Pump Stations 9

7 Present Condition of the Main Canal or Main Drain 10

8 Boeung Veam Reservoir and Dam 11

9 Proposed Design of the Pump Station 12

10 Proposed Layout of the PPIS 12

11 Irrigation Blocks in the Prek Po Subproject 13

12 Section of the Main Canal 14

13 Typical Section of a Secondary Canal 14

14 Flow Chart for the PPIS 17

15 Average, Minimum, and Maximum Flows, Mekong River at Kampong Cham 20

16 Monthly Water Level of Mekong River, 14 Years, Kampong Cham Station 20

17 Annual Flood Extent in Prek Po 22

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18 Rainfall and Potential Evapotranspiration Pattern 24

19 Current Cropping Pattern in the PPIS 28

20 Secondary Canals in Chi Bal Commune 44

21 PDWRAM Organizational Structure, Kg. Cham 47

22 Tube Wells Supporting Dry Season Non-Aerobic Paddy 52

23 Secondary and Tertiary Canals 53

24 Example of High-efficiency Basin Irrigation in Afghanistan 57

25 Baseline and Change in Rainfall during Wet Season, 2050, Kampong Cham 59

26 Baseline and Change in Rainfall during Dry Season, 2050, Kampong Cham 59

27 Baseline and Change in Temperature during Wet Season, 2050,

Kampong Cham 60

28 Baseline and Change in Temperature during Dry Season, 2050,

Kampong Cham 60

29 Flooding under Baseline Condition: 30-40% of Province Impacted by Flood 60

30 Flooding under Climate Change Scenario 60

31 Average, Minimum, and Maximum Flows in Mekong River at Kampong Cham 74

32 IBAT Identification of Areas Showing no Encroachment by the Subproject Area

on Protected Lands or Critical Habitats 75

33 Main Canal through the Built-Up Area of Prek Po 76

34 Sketches of Main Canal Sections and Existing Right of Way 83

35 Proposed Location of the New Pumping Station 83

36 Sketch of Secondary Canals and Drains and Existing Row of the Drains 84

37 Example of Bridge that will be Affected by PPIS Modernization 84

LIST OF APPENDIXES

Number Title Page

1 Photos of the Prek Po Irrigation System Taken during Field Visit of

TRTA Team 92

2 Subproject Economic Analysis 96

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACLEDA Association of Cambodian Local Economic Development Agencies ADB Asian Development Bank AWD alternate wetting and drying AWS automatic weather station CARDI Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute CC commune council CDB Commune Data Base CF commune fund CGIAR Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research CPP Cambodian People's Party CSP core subproject CISIS Cambodia Irrigation Schemes Information System DAP diammonium phosphate DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DED detailed engineering design DF district fund DFWUC Department of Farmer Water User Communities DHRW Department of Hydrology and River Work DOM Department of Meteorology DP development partner EA executing agency EIA environmental impact assessment EIRR economic internal rate of return EMP environment management plan ENPV economic net present value ETo Evapotranspiration reference EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FFS farmer field school FOB free-on-board FS feasibility study FSR feasibility study report FWUC farmer water-user community FWUCC farmer water-user community committee FWUG farmer water-user group FWUSG farmer water-user subgroup GAP gender action plan GFP gender focal point GLH green leafhoppers GMAG Gender Mainstreaming Action Group GMAP Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan GTWG gender technical working group ha hectare HH household IA implementing agency IAIP Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project IBAT international biodiversity assessment tool IEE initial environmental examination INM integrated nutrient management IPM integrated pest management IRRI International Rice Research Institute ISC irrigation service contribution ISF irrigation service fee

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IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM integrated water resource management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KBA key biodiversity area kg kilogram KR Khmer Riel km kilometer KPIS Kamping Pouy Irrigation System LCC leaf color chart m meter MASL meters above sea level mcm million cubic meters mm milimeter MOE Ministry of Environment MOWRAM Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology NER net enrolment rate NGO nongovernment organization NPV net present value NSDP National Socio-economic Development Plan ODA official development assistance OFWM On-Farm Water Management O&M operation and maintenance PDA Provincial Department of Agriculture PDWRAM Provincial Department of Water Resources and Meteorology PMIC Project Management and Implementation Consultant PMU Project Management Unit PPIS Prek Po Irrigation Scheme PSA poverty and social assessment R&D research and development RGC Royal Government of Cambodia Rice SDP Climate Resilient Rice Commercialization Sector Development Program ROW right of way SERF shadow exchange rate factor SP subproject SPS Safeguard Policy Statement SWRF shadow wage rate factor TA technical assistance TNA training needs assessment TOT training of trainers TRTA transaction technical assistance USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation WFP World Food Program WRM water resources management WRMSDP Water Resources Management Sector Development Project

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

Currency unit – Riel (KR) KR1.00 = $0.00024

$1.00 = KR4,004.00

NOTE

In this report, "$" refers to US dollars

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. The Prek Po Irrigation System (PPIS) in Kampong Cham Province was selected as one of two core subprojects of the Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (IAIP), proposed by the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) of the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) for loan funding by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2. Historical background. The PPIS was constructed and made operational from 1976-1978 during the Pol Pot regime. From 1989-1990, the government installed four floating pumping stations on the Mekong River to lift water for delivery to a 13-km long main canal. In 2000, after a catastrophic flood from the Mekong River hit Srey Santhor District, where the PPIS is located, the World Food Program (WFP) rehabilitated some sections of the main canal, which also functioned as a drainage canal. In 2007, a pumping station was constructed at a distance of 110 m from the riverbank, with funding provided by some individuals in the community, to create additional head for the easy flow of water in the main canal.

3. Existing situation. The PPIS has a well-developed command area of 8,000 ha. The irrigation network consists of an existing 13-km long main canal, 20 secondary canals with a total length of 53 km, and seven tertiary canals with a total length of 58 km. Quaternary canals start from the tertiary canals and are located in an east-west direction, and field channels are in the north-south direction. The command area is divided in 100-ha blocks with secondary canals in an east-west direction and tertiary canals in a north-south direction. At present, the pumps, although still functional, are not being used due to their reduced efficiency and the resulting high cost of their operation and maintenance (O&M). The system distribution facilities are in extremely poor condition as these are significantly eroded due to rainfall and their use in providing irrigation to paddy fields in unstable and unsuitable soil. The first 1.3 km of the main canal, which passes through a residential area, has also become a garbage dump and is not useful for irrigating the command area by gravity. Even during the wet season, it takes at least 10 days to fill it up, using floating pumps, before water starts to flow into the secondary canals. The secondary canals also function as drainage canals, with big, deep, and deformed sections; most of the existing control structures are damaged and overflanked. 4. In spite of the abundance of water in the Mekong River, farmers in the command area are not getting proper irrigation services because the PPIS has been dysfunctional for a long time and has not been in operation since 2015. Planting activities occur when rainfall starts during the wet season, and farmers start irrigating their fields through pumping when sufficient rain water has accumulated in the canal network. During the dry season, farmers rely mostly on natural ponds and individual, low-efficiency tubewells within the vicinity of their farms. During dry periods of the wet season, the PDWRAM operates floating pumps to supply irrigation water to protect the paddy crop from damage. However, these floating pumps have not been used since 2015 due to their high operating cost and the lack of budget for fuel.

5. Hydrology and water availability. The proposed Prek Po Subproject is situated between the Mekong and its branch, the Tonle Touch. As the Mekong is the only direct source of water supply for the PPIS, its hydrology is highly dependent on the Mekong regime. Data for several years, obtained from the closest hydromet station (Mekong at Kampong Cham), indicate that more than sufficient water is available to meet the irrigation in the Prek Po command area throughout the year. Besides, the water to be extracted from the river, through a pumping station, to irrigate farmers’ fields in Prek Po is considered very minimal vis-à-vis the Mekong River flow and will not affect the hydrological regime of the Mekong. However, as the height of the river will vary depending on the flow, the required pumping lift will also vary – from high in the months of January to May and lower in the remaining months of the year. Thus, an 80% dry probability (or 1 in 5 years dry) was adopted for the design of the Prek Po Subproject. With this probability, the Mekong at Kampong Cham reaches its lowest level of 2.24 m above mean sea level (AMSL) in April. As the Mekong

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River level in Prek Po is about 0.3 m lower than at the Kampong Cham hydromet station, the lowest level of 2 m was adopted for the design of the pumping station and associated irrigation infrastructure. 6. Proposed modernization of civil works. The proposed upgrading of the PPIS will include the following:

• Construction of new pumping station. One pumping station equipped with five units of electric submersible pumps will be constructed on the bank of the Mekong River to replace the existing non-functional pumping station and lift water to the main canal. The pump station will be designed to deliver a maximum discharge capacity of 5.5 m3/s and a maximum lift of 12.1 m to irrigate the entire Prek Po command area for at least two crops per year even when the Mekong reaches its lowest level.

• Canal upgrading. Under the selected modernization option (Option 2), the entire canal network will be upgraded. The full length of the main canal (12.75 km) will be lined with reinforced concrete and provided with necessary structures such as controls and offtakes for water regulation and distribution purposes. One side of the main canal embankment will be used as an access road with a laterite pavement, and bridge crossings will be provided, where necessary, to facilitate movement of people. In addition, 22 secondary canals with a rectangular concrete section for a total length of about 70 km will be constructed parallel to the existing secondary drains along the right embankment to supply irrigation water by gravity. They will be provided with laterite access roads for easy O&M, and a total of 305 structures, including 158 tertiary outlets to be provided at 1-km intervals, 66 siphons, 78 culverts, 3 aqueducts, and 1,710 m of concrete box barrels across the villages.

• Climate proofing. At present, the PPIS is subject to limited flooding only. A reservoir protection dam is under construction by the PDWRAM, further assuring increased water availability by capturing flood water from the east and the south. Pumps will be designed for the lowest level of the Mekong River during the dry season, thereby ensuring that farmers will get irrigation water throughout the year. The main and all secondary canals will be lined with concrete, thus reducing seepage losses, and irrigation scheduling will be done for better water management. Existing drainage canals, which have been serving both for irrigation and drainage, will function only for drainage, as separate irrigation canals will be constructed, and undersized and damaged structures will be removed from the drainage canals. These will reduce the impact of localized flooding due to extreme rainfall.

• Irrigation scheduling and pump operation. As the general practice of irrigating the command area in Prek Po is by rotation every seven days, the command area will be divided into seven blocks to be irrigated by different secondary canals. The command area of each block will be about 1,150 ha, but some blocks will vary from 963 ha to 1,351 ha. On average, 1,150 ha will be irrigated each day, and each plot will get irrigation water at seven-day intervals. Four pumps will be operated 20 hours a day at peak demand; the fifth pump will be used as a spare unit.

• On-farm water management (OFWM). In the PPIS, each plot of land has access to a tertiary canal. The density of canals down to the field inlets is 59.15 m/ha, higher than the FAO-recommended value of 50 m/ha for good water control at the farm level. However, despite the good density of canals, the system has remained dysfunctional for a long time. As there is practically no water management in the PPIS, OFWM needs to be re-initiated after system modernization. This will be done through the following: (i) capacity building of farmers and water managers; (ii) improving O&M of tertiary canals, including

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identification and development of additional essential infrastructure within the tertiary command; and (iii) demonstration of high-efficiency irrigation methods.

7. Agriculture interventions. The Prek Po Subproject will introduce profitable cropping patterns and production practices to increase rice yield through increased cropping intensity, diversification of the rice-based farming system, and livestock integration. At present, 20% of farmers produce one crop of a traditional rice variety with an average yield of 2.5 t/ha, and 80% of farmers produce two wet season crops of an unofficial variety from Viet Nam with an average yield of 3 t/ha. With the subproject, it is expected that farmers will shift to the more profitable intensive and diversified rice cropping pattern consisting of two or three wet season rice crops (from May or June to November) followed by one dry season crop of rice or non-rice from December to May. The recommended non-rice crops consist of soybean, mungbean, field corn, peanut, sesame, sweet potato, sunflower, and fruit and leafy vegetables. The production of dry season crops will also benefit the local livestock industry, which could utilize crop residues and biomass and shift from open grazing to a confined feeding system that is more desirable from the standpoint of animal health and sustainable crop-livestock integration.

8. Farmers or groups of farmers in the PPIS, who choose to implement new rice-based cropping patterns, will be given training on production and post-production technology using the farmer field school (FFS) approach combined with demonstration plots. They will be familiarized with the agro-inputs package, which will include high-quality seeds of officially recommended adapted varieties, quality land preparation, application of optimum amounts of nutrients at the proper time, proper control of pest and diseases, and harvesting when paddies are completely drained. They will also be provided with marketing support for large volumes of farm produce and semi-processed products by linking them with end-users including traders and wholesalers. With the adoption of the recommended agro-inputs package, crop yields are expected to approach their yield potential of 5 t/ha for the traditional varieties and 7 t/ha for modern varieties.

9. Farmer water user community (FWUC) establishment and operation. As Prek Po currently does not have an organized FWUC, one has to be established as soon as possible to manage the improved irrigation scheme. The establishment of the PPIS FWUC will be the main responsibility of the PDWRAM with support from MOWRAM’s FWUC Department (DFWUC) and the IAIP Project Management Unit (PMU). It is suggested that:

• Only one FWUC Committee (FWUCC) and a certain number of farmer water user groups (FWUGs) should be formed through an election process with technical support from PDWRAM/DFWUC/MOWRAM;

• The formation of FWUGs should be based on a certain number of secondary canals or a number of households per village, with each FWUG consisting of four members to effectively implement the tasks listed in the FWUC Sub-decree; and

• As the PPIS covers 24 villages in six communes, each village should have an average of 2-3 FWUGs.

12. Training will be provided to MOWRAM/DFWUC and PDWRAM staff, as well as to the newly organized FWUCC and members, on a variety of subjects, such as FWUC election process, legal documents, management and administration, and financial management, as well as irrigation O&M, water management, water distribution plan/cropping calendar plan, improved crop production practices and value chain, and on-farm water management, among many others.

13. Subproject cost. The Prek Po Subproject is estimated to cost about $31 million, as shown in the table below.

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Item Estimated Cost ($)

Civil works (including construction and O&M costs and 10% contingency)

28,150,193

FWUC establishment and capacity building 432,740

Agriculture activities 2,151,300

Upgrading of hydromet station and automatic weather stations (AWSs)

220,990

Total 30,955,223

14. Expected benefits. The improved availability of irrigation water and the improved drainage in the subproject area will allow cropping intensity to increase from an estimated 72% at present to at least 200% within five years of completion of construction. Higher cropping intensities are feasible and may be achieved with the increased inclusion of 90-day rice varieties in the program. The subproject is deemed economically viable with an economic internal rate of return (EIRR) of 21.6% and a net present value (NPV) of $25 million at a 12% discount rate. This high rate of return is due both to the envisaged production gains and to the high price generated by aromatic rice on the international market. In fact, the subproject would probably be uneconomic if only white (non-aromatic) rice is produced for local consumption. Sensitivity analysis undertaken in relation to capital cost gains and paddy price declines showed that a 10% increase in costs or a 10% decline in economic paddy price will reduce the EIRR to 18.9% and 18.2%, respectively. Capital cost would need to increase by 90% or paddy price to decline by 30% to reduce the EIRR to 12%.

15. Environmental safeguards. Environmental assessment findings for the subproject are divided into the pre-construction (design), construction, and operation phases. Design issues for this irrigation subproject focus on: (i) no encroachment on protected areas and no impact on critical habitats; and (ii) matching the total irrigation area for a new dry season crop with water availability. The location of the Prek Po Subproject was checked against maps of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) and data in the International Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT), and showed that the subproject does not encroach upon any nationally protected areas (International Union for Conservation of Nature [IUCN] management classes), international conservation agreement areas, or key biodiversity areas (KBAs). The water source for this irrigation subproject is directly from the Mekong River, and hydrological data indicate that the irrigation water demand per growing month will only total 0.006 of the lowest monthly flow in the driest year (80% exceedance) in the Mekong flow at the extraction point.

16. During construction of the subproject, the main issues will be air and water pollution and soil erosion, which can be managed by strict control of construction contractors and effective implementation of environmental management plan (EMP) mitigation and monitoring measures. Localized traffic congestion is also anticipated, which must be minimized by responsible transport planning and work scheduling. Where canal improvements are undertaken along the 300-400 m stretch of canal running through the built-up area of Prek Po, special measures to minimize impacts on residents, including agreed working hours and access, will be developed in consultation with the community. During operation of the subproject, the main concerns are local increases in agricultural fertilizer and pesticide residue levels and their effects on water quality and people. (Baseline water sampling did not show significant fertilizer and agricultural pesticide residues in surface and groundwater.) To safeguard against increases in these factors, post-construction mitigation will focus on capacity building and training on the efficient and responsible use of fertilizers and pesticides. 17. The environmental assessment confirmed that the subproject is environment Category B under the ADB Safeguard Policy Statement (SPS) (2009) and that the design, mitigation measures, and management identified in the initial environmental examination (IEE), when properly implemented, will result in an environmentally sound outcome.

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18. Social safeguards. The Prek Po Subproject will not require any land acquisition. However, a number of bridge crossings along the main canal will be affected. Reconstruction of the bridges will be within the scope of the canal improvement works of the subproject. There are no ethnic minority groups residing in the subproject area. Therefore, no activities or interventions related to ethnic minorities are proposed under this subproject. 19. Poverty and social assessment. Agriculture is the main source of income (67%) for the local people in the PPIS area. Statistical data show that the poverty rate of Kampong Cham Province, where the Prek Po Subproject is located, has decreased significantly from 33.1% in 2004 to 20.4% in 2012, which is below the rural poverty rate of 24% in Cambodia. The reduction in poverty is due, among other reasons, to increased rice productivity and higher prices for rice. 20. The poorest commune in the subproject area is Tong Tralach, with 24.4% of people living in poverty, while Preaek Pou Commune has the lowest poverty rate, with only 13.8% of the people living below the poverty line. Initial assessment and local stakeholder consultations indicate that the subproject will contribute significantly to poverty reduction in the area by providing opportunities to local farmers to improve crop production through increased productivity, more cropping seasons, and diversified cropping, among others. 21. Gender. The 24 villages within the 8,000-ha PPIS targeted for upgrading have a total population of 28,936 persons in 6,621 households, with 16% of the households headed by women. About 10% of households in PPIS communes are landless, and a further 46% are deemed land-poor, having less than one ha of agriculture land. There is increasing out-migration of men and women from PPIS communes to look for work and higher wages in Phnom Penh and other urban centers. Women, more than men, rely on rice cultivation as their primary and secondary occupations. However, they are not normally involved in the operation or management of the irrigation scheme. The reasons for this include the perception that irrigation is “men’s work”, the limited time and mobility of women due to reproductive responsibilities, and social norms that discourage women from participating actively in community affairs and that discount their contributions compared to those of men. A Gender Action Plan (GAP) was prepared for this subproject, with focus on explicit actions to: (i) encourage women’s participation in training for climate-resistant agriculture, water resource management, and the establishment and management of a FWUC, in particular; (ii) create opportunities for women to benefit from paid work in the upgrading of PPIS infrastructure; and (iii) strengthen the institutional capacity of MOWRAM and PDWRAM to address gender issues in irrigated agriculture.

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I. INTRODUCTION

1. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has approved a Transaction Technical Assistance (TRTA) Grant (TA 9349-CAM) to the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC), through the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM), for the preparation of the proposed Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (IAIP). The ensuing project will address agriculture sector constraints by modernizing and climate proofing irrigation infrastructure for dry season crops with agriculture support, establishing an organizational and financial system for sustainable O&M, build capacity for government staff and FWUCs, install hydromet stations to collect real-time river flow and climate data, and establish a national water resources data management center (data center) and a WRIS based on the water accounting framework.

2. To assist MOWRAM in preparing the design of the proposed project, ADB engaged the services of Pacific Rim Innovation and Management Exponents, Inc. (PRIMEX) (Philippines) in association with Sheladia Consultants (USA) and CamConsult (Cambodia) through a contract signed on 19 September 2017. The TRTA Team commenced services on 25 September 2017 with the mobilization of the Team Leader/Water Resources Management Specialist and four national consultants.

3. During the inception phase of the TRTA, five irrigation systems were selected for possible inclusion as subprojects (SPs) of the proposed IAIP. The selection of potential subprojects involved the following activities:

• Development of selection criteria; • Collection and review of irrigation-related data available in the Cambodia Irrigation

Schemes Information System (CISIS) in MOWRAM and other sources, including the Provincial Departments of Water Resources and Meteorology (PDWRAMs) in the target provinces;

• Conduct of field visits to the target provinces to: (i) gather primary data/information available at the site and at the PDWRAM office; (ii) familiarize the TRTA Team with the biophysical and environmental conditions in the system; (iii) undertake a rapid technical review of existing irrigation facilities, with focus on the technical quality, materials integrity, and structural stability of the infrastructure as well as the status of the operation and maintenance (O&M) arrangements; and (iv) meet with PDWRAM and local officials, farmer/water user beneficiaries, and other community representatives to ascertain their willingness to participate in the proposed project; and

• Longlisting, shortlisting, and final selection of candidate subprojects.

4. The criteria that were used for the selection of subprojects were those that were adopted during the preparation of the now ongoing Upland Irrigation and Water Resources Management Sector Project (Loan 3289-CAM). These selection criteria are the following:

• The SP has low irrigation efficiency and water productivity but has scope for substantial enhancement of both irrigation efficiency and water productivity.

• The SP requires only a rehabilitation of existing irrigation infrastructure and systems or related schemes, NOT the construction of new infrastructure and systems.

• The SP should involve rehabilitation of both main and secondary canals to ensure that farmers and sharecroppers who work on faraway lands will be reached.

• The command area of the SP should be sufficient to generate substantial economic returns.

• The SP should be economically viable and technically, socially, and environmentally feasible.

• Majority of beneficiaries should be sharecroppers, poor farmers, women, and other vulnerable and excluded groups.

• The SP should be located away from the Tonle Sap.




• The SP should not be covered by other existing or proposed development projects financed by ADB, such as the Water Resources Management Sector Project (WRMSDP) (Loan 2672-CAM [SF]) and the Climate-Resilient Rice Commercialization Sector Development Program (Rice SDP) (Loan 3007-CAM), or by any other development partner (DP).

• The SP will, to the extent possible, not require significant land acquisition or involuntary resettlement (including the displacement of squatters or encroachers from the rights of way, applying both permanent and temporary physical and economic displacements). Proposed subprojects assessed as Category A under the ADB Safeguard Policy Statement (SPS) (2009) (i.e., considered to entail significant land acquisition impacts) during initial screening will not be eligible under the proposed project.

• The SP must be maximum Category B for Environment and Category C for Indigenous Peoples under the ADB SPS (2009).

5. After a screening of candidate SPs, the Kamping Pouy Irrigation System (KPIS) in Battambang Province and the Prek Po Irrigation System (PPIS) in Kampong Cham Province were selected as core subprojects (CSPs) of the proposed IAIP (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Location of the Two Core Subprojects

Source: TRTA Consultant




6. This Feasibility Study Report (FSR) on the Prek Po Subproject presents the findings and recommendations of the TRTA Team1 on the proposed modernization of the PPIS. The report includes the results of the technical, financial, and economic due diligence, as well as the poverty and social (including gender) and environmental assessment of the proposed subproject. The FS was undertaken from November 2017 to April 2018 and involved the conduct of desk research, site inspections and system walkthroughs,2 local stakeholder consultations, and technical and socioeconomic surveys.3

7. This report is organized in 10 chapters, as shown below. I Introduction II Subproject Assessment III Hydrology and Water Availability IV Agriculture V Management of Improved System Performance VI Subproject Cost Estimates VII Economic Analysis VIII Environmental Safeguards IX Social Safeguards X Gender Analysis

1 This Feasibility Study was conducted by the following specialists: Dr. Jan L.M.H. Gerards, Water Resources Specialist/

Team Leader; Mr. Hugh Milner, Hydrologist; Dr. Genaro San Valentin, Agronomist; Mr. Surendra Prasad Joshi, Hydraulic Design Engineer; Mr. Enrique Tajanlangit, Structural Design Engineer; Mr. Umesh Nath Parajuli, On-farm Water Management Specialist; Dr. Rosa Perez, Climate Change Specialist; Mr. Chhim Sophea, Irrigation Management Specialist/Deputy Team Leader; Mr. Im So Monichoth, Hydrologist; Mr. Chin Koeun, Agronomist; Mr. Hap Chanthea, Economist; Mr. Chem Phalla, Institutional Specialist; Mr. Phai Sok Heng, Hydraulic Design Engineer; and Mr. Cheam Sar, Hydraulic Design Engineer. Individual international specialists hired directly by ADB handled the poverty and social (including gender) and environmental assessment of the KPIS subproject. These specialists are: Mr. Neil Urwin, Environment Specialist; Ms. Susan Novak, Gender and Social Development Specialist; and Mr. Tran Quy Suu, Social Safeguards Specialist. The maps contained in this report were drawn by national CAD operators.

2 The photodocumentation of the field visits and system walkthroughs is presented in Appendix 1. 3 The conduct of technical and socioeconomic surveys in the PPIS was subcontracted by PRIMEX to national consulting

firms. The topographic survey of the PPIS was subcontracted to TANCONS (Cambodia) Co., Ltd., the geotechnical survey to Mekong Advantech Group (MAG) Co. Ltd., and the socioeconomic survey to TANCONS. The technical surveys were conducted from 8 February 2018 to 9 April 2018, and the socioeconomic survey was carried out from 5 March to 18 April 2018.




II. SUBPROJECT ASSESSMENT

A. Introduction

8. Most of the Prek Po Subproject is located in the Srey Santhor Central District of Kampong Cham Province, and some parts in the south are located in the Khsach Kandal District of Kandal Province (Fig. 2). Srey Santhor District shares borders with Kang Meas and Koh Soutin districts of Kampong Cham Province at the north and east, respectively, and at its southeast lie Sithor Kandal and Pea Reang districts of Prey Veng Province. The western border of the district is shared with Khsach Kandal District of Kandal Province.

Figure 2: Location Map of the Prek Po Subproject


9. The Prek Po Subproject is situated between two rivers, the Mekong and its branch, the Tonle Touch. The hydrology of the subproject area is highly dependent on the Mekong River. Some parts of the subproject are influenced by the Mekong season flood, while most of the area is only affected by a 1-in-10-year flooding event. However, about 40% of the area has never experienced flooding.

10. The Prek Po irrigation system was constructed and made operational from 1976–1978 during the Pol Pot regime. Water for the system was originally sourced from the Mekong seasonal floods during the wet season and stored in an existing natural lake called Boeung Veam Reservoir. The water is diverted to the main canal and its network for irrigation purposes after the Mekong floods recede. Irrigation is done by gravity for the lands located around the reservoir, while areas farther away from the reservoir are irrigated by pumping through a link canal and a secondary canal.




11. Original pump station. A pumping station was once installed at 1.60 km from the reservoir to deliver water to the higher level areas of Prek Po through a 900-m long link canal. However, the pumping station had a very limited capacity, which could not supply irrigation water to the whole command area of the system. The damaged infrastructure facilities are still in the area, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Remnants of the Old Pump House and Reservoir

(a) Ruins of the Old Pump House (b) Remnants of the Reservoir


12. Previous interventions. Various agencies/institutions supported the development of the PPIS. From 1989-1990, RGC installed four diesel-driven floating pumping stations on the Mekong River to lift water for delivery to a 13-km long main canal. In 2000, after a catastrophic flood from the Mekong River hit Srey Santhor District, the World Food Program (WFP) rehabilitated some sections of the main canal, which also functioned as a drainage canal. In 2007, a pumping station was constructed at a distance of 110 m from the riverbank, with funding from generous individuals and organizations in the community, to create an additional head for easy flow of water in the main canal. The existing infrastructure facilities of the PPIS are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Existing Infrastructure Facilities in the PPIS

No. Description Unit No. Remarks

1. Floating pumping station 1 Floating station (set up by MOWRAM)

2. Stationary pumping station 1 Stationary/fixed station (funded by generous individuals and institutions)

3. Main canal km 12.75 Used for irrigation and drainage (I&D)

4. Secondary canal km 53.00 Used for I&D

5. Tertiary canals km 58.00 Used for I&D


13. The Prek Po Subproject covers six of a total of 14 communes in Srey Santhor District. The villages in the different command areas covered by the subproject and the areas cultivated during the wet and dry seasons are shown in Table 2.




Table 2: Communes and Villages Covered by the PPIS, Srey Santhor District

No.

Communes

Villages

Wet Season Cultivated Area

(ha)

Dry Season Cultivated Area

(ha)

1. Tong Tralach 1. Tong Tralach 2. Khting 3. Chonloat Dai

1,430 180

2. Chi Bal

1. Khnor Doung 2. Slaeng 3. Chi Bal 4. Tang Krang 5. Khyaong

2,420 63

3. Khnar Sa

1. Angk 2. Kngaok 3. Treas 4. Khnar Sa 5. Ampil

1,424 102

4. Pram Yam 1. Cheung Doek 674 825

5. Svay Pou

1. Pou 2. Svay 3. Chi Pao 4. Teahean 5. Trea 6. Khvet

951 410

6. Prek Pou

1. Preaek Pou Kraom 2. Chras 3. Kouk Char 4. Prey Tbeh

1,424 94

Total 23 8,323 1,674


B. Existing Irrigation System and Canal Layout

14. Existing canal layout. The irrigation network in the command area consists of an existing 13-km long main canal, 20 secondary canals with a total length of 53 km, and seven tertiary canals with a total length of 58 km. The list of existing canals and other facilities are in Table 3, and the layout of the existing canal network is shown in Figure 4.

Table 3: List of Existing Facilities, PPIS

No. Facilities No. Unit Features Condition

1. Floating pumps and stations

4 set

Floating station on the Mekong River; 65-hp diesel-driven pumps with a capacity of 9,000 m³/hr/set.

Pumps are already 30 yrs old with reduced efficiency and costly operation and maintenance (O&M)

2. Access canal 110 m Concrete lined with berm In good condition

3. Stationary/fixed pumps and station

3 set 3 sets of huge diesel-driven, 22-hp pumps with a capacity of 3,000 m³/hr Functional but not in use

due to high operating cost 6 set

6 sets of small diesel-driven 15-hp pumps with a capacity of 2,000 m³/hr

4. Main canal (MC) 13 km Earthen canal

The first 1.3-km passes through a residential area; full of rubbish, trees, and bushes; also functions as a drainage channel.




No. Facilities No. Unit Features Condition

5. Secondary canals (SCs)

53.34 km Earthen canal Functional; big and deep, functioning as drainage channel

6. Tertiary canals (TCs)

58.42 km Earthen canal Functioning as drainage channel with some deformed sections

7. Canal structures

MC Earthen canal Most of bridges in the MC functional

SC Earthen canal Most structures not functional

TC Earthen canal Most structures not functional

8. Boeung Veam Reservoir

1 Natural depression Functional with dependable storage

9. Pol Pot pump and station

1 set

Original purpose was to pump water for storage in Boeung Veam Reservoir then convey to MC

Totally dilapidated


Figure 4: Existing Layout of Prek Po Subproject





15. Command area blocks. The command area is divided in 100-ha blocks with secondary canals in an east-west direction and tertiary canals in a north-south direction. Quaternary canals start from the tertiary canals and are located in an east-west direction, and field channels are in the north-south direction. The biggest single plot is 1 ha in area.

16. Irrigation practices. Interviews with the commune council (CC) chiefs of all six communes covered by the Prek Po Subproject said that farmers pump water from individual tubewells in the field and measure the pump discharge. For 1 ha of land, the farmers operate the pump continuously for two days to fill the paddy field with water to a depth of 3.5 cm. After that, they operate the pump every week for another 1.5 days. With this pumping schedule or frequency of irrigation, farmers get 4-6 t/ha of rice using the 504 variety or other modern short-term rice varieties. 17. Flood area and drainage pattern. When the Mekong River water level rises, flood enters the command area through the secondary canals on both sides of the of the main canal. The main flood area is about 2,400 ha located in the northern part of the command area, as shown in Figure 5. Flood comes from the Mekong into the subpreoject area from the north and south directions through an existing canal network of main, secondary, and tertiary canals. When the Mekong recedes, these canals convey flood water toward the downstream part of the command area, where it is released towards t eastern direction into Prey Veng Province. However, in the last few years, the Mekong River flood has not entered the canal system.

Figure 5: PPIS Inundation Area





18. Floating and stationary pumping stations. There are two types of pumping stations in the PPIS. Floating pumps installed on the Mekong River bank lift water up to an access canal. At the end of the 110-m long access canal, a stationary pump is mounted to create additional head for easy supply of water to the main canal. The pumps are diesel-driven. The stations are under the direct management of the Kampong Cham PDWRAM and MOWRAM. However, in the last two years, these two pumping stations have not been operated, as reported by the Kampong Cham PDWRAM, due to the lack of financial resources for the purchase of diesel for the pumps.

C. Condition of the Existing System

19. Floating pumping station. A floating station with four diesel pumps was set up in 1990. Despite the long years that they have been in existence, the pumps are still functional. Each pump delivers a discharge of 9,000 m3/hr and consumes 10 liters of diesel per hour. When the pumps were new, all four pumps were operated for 12 hrs/day to fill the main canal. It took at least 10 days to fill the main canal and for the water to flow into the secondary canals. Once the main canal was filled, only two floating pumps were used to supply irrigation water at 18,000 m3/hr. The pumps had not been used since 2015 due to the reduced efficiency of the pumps and the high O&M cost (Figs. 6a and 6b).

Figure 6: Existing Pump Stations

(a) Floating Pump Station (b) Stationary Pump Station and Access Canal


20. There are usually three stages of pumping: (i) from the Mekong River to the main canal; (ii) from the main canal to the secondary canals; and (iii) from the secondary to the tertiary canals.

21. Access canal. This may be described as the head pond, where the floating pumps lift the water from Mekong River. Its condition is still satisfactory (Fig. 6b), but the earthen bund at the beginning of the access canal is very weak. When water level in the access canal increases, this earthen bund is breached, and the water inside the canal flows back to the Mekong River. The earthen material of the canal allows it to collapse or to open to allow the entry of Mekong River flood water into the access canal. During the recession of flood waters, the bund is closed to retain the water for irrigation (see photos in Appendix 1). 22. Stationary pumping station. The mounted stationary pumps push water from the access canal to a higher level so that irrigation water can easily flow into the main canal (Fig. 6b). The stationary pumping station has three diesel-driven, 22-hp pumps with a capacity of 3,000 m³/hr. These are augmented by six 15-hp diesel-driven centrifugal pumps with a capacity of 2,000 m³/hr. The pumps are still functional, but have not been used because the farmers cannot afford the high operating cost.




23. Main canal. The first 1.3 km of the main canal passes through a residential area, where rubbish is dumped by residents into the canal bed. Trees and bushes also grow inside the conveyance section over a 4.5-km stretch. All of these obstacles impede the flow of water in the canal. Moreover, as the main canal also functions as a drainage channel, a section of the canal is very big, deep, and deformed (Fig. 7). This canal is, therefore, not useful for irrigating the command area by gravity. Even during the wet season, it takes at least 10 days to fill it up, using floating pumps, before water starts to flow into the secondary canals. The main road of the village lies on the top of the left embankment, and the level of the road is difficult to alter due to the existence of houses and other permanent structures.

Figure 7: Present Condition of the Main Canal or Main Drain

(a) Garbage Dumped in the Main Canal (b) A Section of the Main Canal


24. Secondary canals. Like the main canal, the secondary canals also function as irrigation and drainage canals with big, deep, and deformed sections. Most of the existing control structures are damaged and overflanked. All the inverts of the main canal offtakes are much higher than the main canal bed level, and there are no regulating gates. Thus, these structures function more as drain inlets, rather than irrigation offtakes (see Appendix 1). There are no outlet structures on the secondary canals, and the few that remain are damaged and overflanked. 25. Tertiary canals. These canals also function for both irrigation and drainage and are big in size (see Appendix 1). There are very few existing outlet structures on the tertiary canals. However, there are quaternary canals at 500-m intervals, and pipe culverts had been constructed near the quaternary canals.

26. Boeung Veam Reservoir. This reservoir is situated at the northeastern side of the system and covers about 560 ha. In 2011, MOWRAM, intending to increase the reservoir storage capacity, constructed an 8-km long dike, as shown in Figure 8. In 2017, four headworks, 10 drain inlets, a 200-m long spillway, and one check structure were constructed on the dam. When water level in the Mekong River rises, water or flood is allowed to flow inside the reservoir through the spillway and other headworks. During the recession of the water level in the Mekong River, the gates are closed so that water is kept inside the reservoir. Aside from the Mekong River, the reservoir also stores water from its own catchment area. The reservoir used to be the main source of irrigation water for some areas in the PPIS. The PDWRAM Director affirmed that the reservoir has never dried up even during an extremely dry season and can be used as a potential source of irrigation water in the wet and dry seasons. Diversified crops are also grown in the dry season. After the rehabilitation of the dam structures by MOWRAM in 2017, farmers in the vicinity of the reservoir have been getting supplementary irrigation for 134 ha in the wet season and 680 ha in the dry season.




Figure 8: Boeung Veam Reservoir and Dam


27. Present irrigation status. In spite of the abundance of water in the Mekong River, farmers in the command area are not getting proper irrigation services. Planting activities occur when rainfall starts during the wet season, and farmers start irrigating their fields through pumping when sufficient rain water has accumulated in the canal network. During the dry season, farmers have to rely mostly on natural ponds and individual tubewells within the vicinity of their farms. During dry periods of the wet season, the PDWRAM operates floating pumps and supply irrigation water to protect the paddy crop from damage. However, these floating pumps have not used since 2015 due to their high operating cost and the lack of budget for fuel.

D. Proposed System Modernization

28. Water source. The source of water is the Mekong river, which has an abundant amount of discharge. Mekong River water level fluctuates from a minimum of 2 m to a maximum of 12.56 m at the vicinity of the pumping station. It is proposed to install one pumping station on the bank of the Mekong River to replace the existing non-functional pumping station. The station will be equipped with five units of submersible pumps that will be driven by electricity since a high-voltage power grid is available in the area. Based on information provided by local people and confirmed in records provided by the Kampong Cham PDWRAM that water level in the Mekong River at the intake point drops to a level of 2 m above mean sea level (AMSL), this minimum level was considered by the TRTA team in the design of the pumping station. This will ensure that there will be adequate inflow from the Mekong into the pumping station, which will then deliver water to the system through the main canal. Further details are presented in Chapter III.

29. Pumps and pump station. A new pump station (Fig. 9) will be constructed on the bank of the Mekong River, between the two existing stations, to lift water to the main canal. The pump station will be designed to deliver a maximum discharge capacity of 5.5 m3/s and a maximum lift of 12.10 m to irrigate the 8,000-ha command area of the Prek Po Subproject for at least two crops per year, even when the Mekong River reaches its lowest level. The station will be designed for single lifting, with water delivered to farmers’ lands by gravity. Five units of electric submersible pumps will

Boeung Veam

Reservoir




be installed in the pumping station. However, only four pumps will be operated to provide the maximum required discharge; the fifth unit will be used as a spare/standby pump to be operated when something goes wrong with one of the four units.

Figure 9: Proposed Design of the Pump Station


30. Since the pumping station will be run by electricity, high-voltage transformers will be required for the transfer of high-voltage power from the National Power Grid in the subproject area to the pumping station. The station will be equipped with a security system that will protect it against electric current leakages and lightning and ensure the safety of its operation. A fence and trashing screen will also be installed to prevent free access of unauthorized persons into the station.

31. Proposed canal layout. As shown in Figure 10, the canal network will consist of a main canal with a total length of 12.75 km and 22 secondary canals with a total length of 70 km. The secondary canals are proposed to be constructed near the existing secondary drains to avoid land acquisition. The existing canal system will also serve as drainage canals.

Figure 10: Proposed Layout of the PPIS


Maximum Water Level

Minimum Water Level




32. Irrigation blocks. At present, farmers irrigate their land at seven-day intervals; that is the same irrigation schedule to be adopted in the Prek Po Subproject. The command area will be divided in seven blocks (Fig. 11) of similar area for irrigation by secondary canals. Irrigation will be done on a rotational basis, from one block to another with different hours of irrigation depending on the actual command area. The possibility of adjusting the area of the blocks will be considered during the detailed design stage.

Figure 11: Irrigation Blocks in the Prek Po Subproject


33. Main canal. The existing main canal also functions as a drainage canal, as it is currently large and deep. As there are houses and other permanent structures along the first 2 km of the main canal head, it is not possible to build an embankment along the main canal in that particular section. To avoid any land loss or resettlement issue, an underground culvert or barrel is proposed for the first 2 km of the main canal to receive water from the pumping station for delivery to the command area as pressurized flow. Burying or covering the main canal will also prevent the disposal of garbage into main canal. After that 2-km section, the main canal will be an open channel. It is proposed that the alignment of the main canal be shifted from the original alignment to that of an existing tertiary canal.

34. The section of the main canal will be designed to be smaller than that of the original canal, which is mostly eroded. Moving the main canal alignment to a smaller canal (Fig. 12) will lead to a considerable reduction in the overall subproject investment cost. The section of the canal will be as small as possible to reduce both the construction and pumping costs.4

4 In a big canal section, a large amount of water supplied by the pumping station is required to first fill up the canal before

water can be distributed into the canal system.




Figure 12: Section of the Main Canal


35. The main canal will be lined with reinforced concrete to reduce water losses and increase water flow efficiency along the canal. Besides better durability, concrete lining of the canal will allow water to flow with a higher velocity than in an earthen canal, without any erosion issue. Necessary structures, such as controls and offtake structures, will be installed on the canal for water regulation and distribution purposes. In addition, one side of the canal embankment is proposed to be used as an access road and provided with a laterite pavement. Bridge crossings will also be provided, where necessary, to facilitate and maintain local movements.

36. Secondary canals. It is proposed that 22 new secondary irrigation canals with a total length of about 70 km be constructed parallel to the existing secondary drains along the right embankment to supply irrigation water by gravity. The command area of a secondary canal will vary from 120–570 ha. Hence, three types of concrete-lined secondary canals laid out in a U shape are proposed for different discharges. (A typical secondary canal section is shown in Figure 13.) The main structures in the secondary canals will consist of outlets, siphons, and culverts. Altogether, 305 structures are proposed in these secondary canals, including 158 tertiary outlets (see Table 4 for details). Laterite access roads will be provided along the secondary canals for easy O&M.

Figure 13: Typical Section of a Secondary Canal





Table 4: Details of Secondary Canals and Number of Structures

Canals Command Area (ha)

Irrigation Blocks

Canal Length

(km) Pump

Pump Outlet Tank

Total No. of

Structures

Main canal (MC) 8,000

12.75 1 1

45

Secondary canals (SCs)

SC1L1 198

Block A 1,150 ha

2.54 4

SC1L2 133 2.54 3

SD1 4

SC2R1 215 0.76 8

SC2R2 120 0.75 8

SC2L 334 1.51 8

SC3R 150 1.06 9

SC3L 674 Block B 1,077 ha

3.16 22

SC4L 403 4.19 14

SC4R 183

Block C 1213 ha

2.47 12

Tertiary canal (TC4R) 50

1.43

1

SC5R 410 2.89 17

SC6R 570 5.59 21

SC5L 536 Block D 1,055 ha

4.74 18

SC6L 519 5.08 19

SC7R 461 Block E 1,213 ha

5.49 19

SC8R 333 3.16 11

SC9R 419 3.59 20

SC7L 502 Block F

963 ha

5.08 19

SC8L 461 3.15 18

SC9L 430

Block G 1,351 ha

4.22 12

SC10R 398 2.42 16

SC10L 344 2.11 13

SC11L 157 2.10 9

Total 8,000 82.78 305


37. Tertiary canals. The existing tertiary canals are big and deep and, therefore, cannot be used as irrigation canals. Thus, new tertiary canals are proposed to be constructed in parallel to the existing tertiary drains to irrigate the rice fields by gravity. Tertiary canal outlets will be provided at 1-km intervals on the secondary canals. The existing tertiary canals will function as tertiary drains. These canals will be built by the FWUC and farmers. 38. Cost estimates. The total construction cost for the modernization of the PPIS (Option 2) is $24.53 million, including a physical contingency of 10%, as presented in Table 5 below.




Table 5: Cost Estimate of Civil and Electromechanical works, PPIS Option 2

No. Description Length Canals Structures Total Cost

km $ $ $

1.

Construction of new pump station with installation of electrical/solar submersible/ screw pumping station in the Mekong River

2,000,000 2,000,000

2.

Construction of a pump outlet tank and stilling basin for pump station No. 1,

including demolition of an existing stationary pumping station

49,472 49,472

3. Modernization of main canal by concrete lining of 12.75 km

12.75 4,811,390 654,200 5,465,590

4.

Modernizing all secondary canals with a rectangular concrete section for a total length of 70 km, including 158 outlets, 66 siphons, 78 culverts, 3 aqueducts, and 1,710 m of concrete box barrel across the villages

70 12,708,645 2,066,119 14,774,765

5. Construction of FWUC Building 35,000 35,000

Total 82.75 17,520,035 4,779,792 22,299,827

6. Physical Contingency, 10% of total 2,229,981

Grand Total 24,529,810


E. Irrigation Scheduling and Pump Operation

39. As the general practice of irrigating the command area in Prek Po is by rotation every seven days, the command area will be divided into seven blocks to be irrigated by different secondary canals. These canals will be located at 1-km intervals as they will be built adjacent to the existing drains. The command area of each block will be about 1,150 ha, but some blocks will vary from 963 ha to 1,351 ha. Likewise, the command area of each secondary canal will vary depending on the length of the canal (Fig. 14). On average, 1,150 ha will be irrigated each day, and each plot will get irrigation water at seven-day intervals. Four pumps will be operated 20 hours a day at peak demand; the fifth pump will be used as a spare unit. The operation plan will be prepared and implemented by the FWUC, which will be established during the IAIP implementation phase.




Figure 14: Flow Chart for the PPIS


F. System Maintenance

1. Pump Station

40. Electrical pump maintenance. Pump maintenance will consist of a multi-point inspection of the pump equipment, including the starter panel, electric motor, and pump unit. Diagnosing potential problems before a full breakdown will prevent unwanted downtime and additional costly repairs. The pump system has components that will require routine maintenance to provide dependable operation. The maintenance of the pump station will be outsourced to a local technician with the technical skills on pump-associated systems. However, basic knowledge and skills will be provided to the FWUC management committee, especially the pump operation staff, who will be selected during the FWUC establishment process. 41. Pump station inspection. Evaluation will include a visual inspection of the starter panel, electric motor, pump, and related pump system components. Running tests include amp/voltage readings and system pressure checks. This basic inspection is the first line of defense in preventing major problems before they occur. 42. Pump test. This will include pump station inspection and measurement of flow and/or pressure at different rates to determine the overall performance of the pump. Water level and pumping water measurements will also be taken. This information is important when making changes to the water system and can aid in system design.




43. Pump efficiency testing. A pump efficiency test is performed by installing a flow meter on the discharge of the pump and measuring the volume of flow, amp load of the motor, and system pressure. This information is documented to calculate overall pumping plant efficiency. This test will determine how efficiently water is being produced by the power input to the pump.

2. Maintenance of Canals and Structures

44. Types of maintenance work. Maintenance activities for a canal and structures fall into two categories: routine maintenance and emergency maintenance.

45. Routine maintenance. These activities have to be repeated throughout the lifetime of the canals to keep them functioning. Some of these activities are daily routines, which do not require special skills, like greasing of gates, removing vegetation from embankments of canals and drains, and removing silt from canals, drains, and structures, etc. Other routine maintenance activities require skilled manpower, such as a mechanic, mason, carpenter, or painter. They may be needed to do routine maintenance work, such as repairs of gates and measuring structures, repainting of steel structures, installation of water level gauges, and maintenance and small repairs of pumps and engines, etc. Larger routine maintenance jobs are usually done between irrigation seasons when the canals are drained. These include major repair or replacement of gates, pumps, and engines; large-scale silt clearance from canals and drains; and large-scale maintenance of roads and embankments.

46. Emergency works. These require immediate action by irrigation staff to prevent or reduce the effects of unexpected events such as breach or overtopping of canal embankment or river dike/ afflux bunds/guide bunds causing flooding, severe slope failure, deterioration of outlet culvert, critical failure of pumps causing interruption of irrigation water supply, increasing uncontrolled seepage through the embankment, a blocked escape or outlet channel, etc. Ox carts can create seepage paths in embankments and weaken the integrity of the structure. Often, oxcarts dig deep into the embankment, thereby causing water to travel freely to the downstream face and resulting in piping and ultimate failure.

G. Options Considered for Secondary Canals

47. The concrete lining of secondary canals was considered as an option for more efficient irrigation water delivery, reduced pumping cost, better durability, and lower O&M cost. Alternative studies were carried out by the TRTA Team on different options for the secondary canals (see Chapter VII for details). The three options are:

• Option 1: 22 secondary canals of earthen trapezoidal section with a total length of 70 km, costing $17,387,000;

• Option 2: 22 secondary canals of rectangular concrete with a total 70 km, costing $24,530,000; and

• Option 3: 12 concrete lined secondary canals with a rectangular section and a total length of 46.3 km, costing $19,364,000.

48. Option 2 is considered the most suitable option for the proper distribution of pumped water and high efficiency of the canal network. It also has the least O&M cost. Although the construction cost of the other two options is lower, Option 2 will come out cheaper in the long run in view of the ease of maintenance.




III. HYDROLOGY AND WATER AVAILABILITY

49. The hydrology studies undertaken for the Prek Po Subproject focused on what is required to serve as the basis for engineering design of this selected system, defining the water available, the flood conditions to be managed, and the recommended improvements to hydrometeorological data collection equipment necessary for the O&M of the improved irrigation system in the Prek Po Subproject after it is upgraded under the IAIP. The hydrology of the Prek Po Subproject is highly dependent on the Mekong regime, as the Mekong is the only direct source of water supply for the system. It must be noted, however, that the study does not cover the hydrological regime of the entire Mekong River system, but only the hydrological characteristics that are directly related to the design and operation of the Prek Po Subproject. 50. The water level of the Mekong is the key factor for both engineering design and operation of the Prek Po pumping system, but the water that will be extracted from the river through a pumping station to supply irrigation demand is considered very minimal vis-à-vis the Mekong River flow. However, rainfall, evaporation, and other climatic parameters in the target subproject area were also included in the studies.

A. Mekong River Flow in Kampong Cham

51. The flow records for the station, Mekong River at Kampong Cham, were selected as bases for estimating water availability to the PPIS. Kampong Cham is considered the hydromet station that is closest to the PPIS and, therefore, data collected at that station are most relevant to the PPIS. 52. The monthly flows at this station for different years and flow exceedance probabilities are given in Table 6, while the hydrograph of flow (in m3/s) for this station is shown in Figure 15. The data show that more than sufficient water is available to meet the irrigation demand at the Prek Po command area in all months of the year. However, as the height of the river will vary depending on the flow, the required pumping lift will also vary from high in the months of January to May and lower in the remaining months.

Table 6: Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Flows (1,000 mcm), Mekong River at Kampong Cham

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual

Average 9.8 6.7 6.6 6.5 10.0 25.3 55.2 90.0 89.8 61.0 29.1 16.1 406.0

Dry 80% 8.0 5.7 5.9 5.9 7.1 13.5 39.5 79.1 77.4 48.7 20.9 12.3 324.1

Dry 50% 9.8 6.9 6.5 6.5 8.4 19.9 51.5 91.0 91.0 61.1 28.3 16.0 396.8

Wet 20% 11.3 7.6 7.2 7.0 12.3 38.8 65.9 101.9 101.9 69.7 38.8 20.1 482.4

Max year 13.8 8.4 8.0 7.3 20.5 49.0 99.2 115.0 113.5 83.2 45.4 23.2 586.4

Min year 7.0 5.4 5.6 5.5 6.4 11.8 37.1 47.6 61.9 36.1 18.6 10.8 253.8





Figure 15: Average, Minimum, and Maximum Flows, Mekong River at Kampong Cham


B. Water Level in Kampong Cham

53. The water level in the Mekong at Kampong Cham for the period, January 1986– December 2011, is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16: Monthly Water Level of Mekong River, 14 years, Kampong Cham Station

Source: Kampong Cham PDWRAM

54. A continuous 30-day observation of the water level at the hydromet station in Kampong Cham Station and that at the intake point of the PPIS was done by the topographical survey team subcontracted by PRIMEX under the supervision of the TRTA team. The objective was to




determine the relationship between the level of the Mekong between the two points and to understand the correlation of the water level at the two locations.

55. Data collected over the one-month period, February to March 2018, showed a strong correlation between the level of the Mekong in Prek Po and that at the Kampong Cham Hydromet Station. During the observation period, water level at the Kampong Cham Station was around 3.5 m AMSL, while that at the intake point in Prek Po was about 3.2 m AMSL. However, elderly people in the Mekong area have observed that Mekong water in the Prek Po area drops to its lowest level of about 2.8 m once in five years. The level of the Mekong River in Prek Po is the key factor determining water availability for the Prek Po Subproject.

56. Water level at the Kampong Cham Hydromet Station varies between the wet and dry seasons, with the difference between minimum and maximum river levels at about 1 m. However, the difference is about 6 m in the wet season and between 2 and 4 m from January to May (Fig. 16).

57. An 80% dry probability (or 1 in 5 years dry) was adopted for the design of the Prek Po Subproject. With this probability, the Mekong at Kampong Cham reaches its lowest level of 2.24 m AMSL in April. As the Mekong River level in Prek Po is about 0.3 m lower than that at the Kampong Cham hydromet station, the lowest level of 2 m was adopted for the design of the Prek Po pumping station and associated irrigation infrastructure. The minimum water depth of the Mekong at the intake point of the Prek Po pumping station is about 6 m when the lowest level reaches 2 m. On average, the difference in water level between wet and dry seasons is about 11 m (3 m in the dry season and slightly below 14 m in wet season), as shown in Figure 16.

C. Rainfall

58. The monthly rainfall for the Prek Po Subproject is presented in Table 7. The data show that through the wet season (May to October), the crop water requirement could be largely met from rainfall in an average year. However, during dry years (80% exceedance is shown as a dry year in Table 7), irrigation is necessary, particularly in view of the uncertainty of the commencement of the wet season. Cropping patterns will be adjusted with the temporal rainfall distribution to maximize the use of rainfall and reduce irrigation demand. Nevertheless, crop planning will be prepared to avoid floods caused by both local runoff and seasonal flooding from the Mekong. Effective rainfall will play a key role in reducing the irrigation requirement to be supplied by the pumping station.

Table 7: Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Rainfall (mm), Kampong Cham

1985– 2011 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Annual

Average 99 185 189 181 198 270 204 61 13 11 17 55 1,485

Dry 80% 36 122 124 111 125 169 104 6 0 0 0 1 1,219

Dry 50% 75 179 165 163 207 259 212 48 2 1 0 38 1,466

Wet 20% 155 249 278 279 264 350 263 103 25 21 7 104 1,617

Max year 335 375 424 376 319 532 484 225 64 63 247 200 2,164

Min year 11 44 66 51 54 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,024


D. Flood Regime in the Prek Po Subproject Area

59. The Prek Po Subproject area is subject to flooding, but only in a wet year of high floods, such as in 2011. The variation in area inundated by floodwaters between a wet year (2011) and a dry year (2015) is shown in Figure 17. As can be seen in this figure, none of the Prek Po command




area was flooded in the dry year of 2015, while about 30% of the command area was flooded in the wet year of 2011. Flooding from the Mekong is uncontrollable at the system level. However, no waterlogging or drainage issue was reported from the potential command area of the Prek Po Subproject.

Figure 17: Annual Flood Extent in Prek Po


E. Hydrometeorology Data and Equipment

60. The current hydromet network is insufficient for water resource planning and will not provide a basis for assessing the performance of the subproject irrigation schemes once they are rehabilitated. Investigations done under major projects and river basin planning studies by ADB and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) have made adverse comments on the status and adequacy of this hydromet network. The present study confirms those comments.

61. Upgrading and expansion of the hydromet network in the subproject area will, therefore, be necessary for effective monitoring of the performance of the subproject. New stations will be equipped with automatic recorders and manual read staff gauge. The location and selection of equipment will be decided through discussions with MOWRAM’s Department of Hydrology and River Works (DHRW) and Department of Meteorology (DOM). Draft recommendations for location and equipment are given below.

F. Requirements for Upgrading and Extending the Hydromet Network

62. The location of the stations needs to be accessible through good roads. New weather and rainfall stations should be located equidistant from existing stations, if possible.




1. Rainfall and Climate Station Requirements

63. The following recommendations are made for rainfall and climate station upgrades:

• A weather station is to be located within the total catchment area of the subproject. • One automatic recording rainfall station is to be located in the upper catchment of the

tributary of the subproject. • Existing manual read rainfall stations, which have been used to estimate catchment

rainfall distribution for the subproject, will be upgraded to automatic recorders.

2. Stream Water Level and Flow

64. The following recommendations are made for stream water level and flow stations:

• Existing stream gauge stations will be upgraded to rated automatic recording, and ratings will be checked.

• New stream gauge stations will be installed and rated for the subproject to give a record of flow upstream and downstream of any headworks.

3. Water Quality Monitoring

65. The following advice is given concerning ambient water quality monitoring:

• There is no water quality monitoring within the subproject area. • It is expected that increased intensification of irrigation will have potential water quality

impacts on the water resources in the area. • The Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) will consider and advise on water quality

impacts and make appropriate recommendations.

G. Specifications and Cost Basis of Hydrometeorology Upgrade

66. The current hydromet monitoring for the subproject was reviewed considering both equipment and spatial distribution in relation to the monitoring need. The upgrade policy, cost components, and recommended process were based on what was adopted for the Uplands Irrigation and Water Resources Management Sector Project (Loan 3289-CAM), which is now under implementation. This decision was made for compatibility reasons and to minimize any issues that may arise in operating and maintaining the equipment, once installed. The data transmission process will be determined during purchase and installation.

67. Together, the recommendations for the upgrade of hydro, weather, and rainfall stations represent a significant strengthening of hydromet data collection, which will include real-time transfer of data from the stations to the MOWRAM Hydromet Center. In total, the upgrade will cover three hydro stations (upgrade from manual and/or unrated stations), installation of 11 new automatic hydro stations, installation of six new automatic weather stations (AWSs), upgrade to automatic recording of two daily read rainfall stations, and installation of 21 new automatic recording rainfall stations. The total cost of the upgrade is estimated at $2,127,550.




IV. AGRICULTURE

A. Introduction

1. Rationale

68. The expected increase in rice production in Cambodia must come primarily from irrigated rice lands. Irrigation reduces the risk of crop failure due to unpredictable rainfall, and it gives farmers more confidence in their investment in yield-increasing technologies, such as use of high quality seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides. However, the alluvial lands of Cambodia are prone to flooding, and adequate provision of drainage is important. Excessive water in the paddies contributes to some yield-reducing effects of poor management of inputs, including the following: (i) uneven distribution of seeds; (ii) uneven and poor emergence and survival of seedlings; (iii) poor nutrition due to ineffective application of fertilizers; (iv) reduced plant population due to ineffective management of pests; and (v) increased susceptibility to lodging. Low recovery of yield from the field is also attributable to uncontrolled flooding during the maturity stage and at harvest when the combined harvester-thresher fails to collect and thresh all mature grains from wet fields and wet panicles.

69. With available irrigation, the high yield potential of modern rice varieties could provide great opportunities for farmers to increase and stabilize production and increase cropping intensity, especially if rice or non-rice crops are planted during the dry season. During the wet season, supplementary irrigation is important in case of poor rainfall. The higher yield advantage of rice and the better price of non-rice crops during the dry season, compared with the wet season, could be exploited if irrigation is available.

2. Characteristics of the Rice-Growing Environment in the PPIS Area

70. Climatic environment. Srey Santhor District in Kampong Cham, where the PPIS is located, is classified as tropical climate with wet and dry seasons (Koeppen Climate Class Aw). The rainfall distribution shown in Figure 18 indicates that the wet season starts in April and ends in late November (based on the Kampong Cham meteorological station at longitude 105.45, latitude 12.00, 20 masl). The moist period represents the narrow growing window or period when small precipitations usually occur at the beginning and tail-end of the wet season.

Figure 18: Rainfall and Potential Evapotranspiration Pattern


71. Rainfall distribution is bimodal, with a broad but low crest appearing in May and a higher crest appearing in September. The broad peak between late August and October shows that rainfall is more widely distributed during the three-month period from August to October. There is a dip in




the rainfall pattern around July. This is the period of high frequency of short drought based on the accounts of farmers in Srey Santhor. This condition sometimes extends until August and September. Since this climatic condition is risky for cultivated crops, the provision of supplementary irrigation is necessary. On the other hand, the more frequent and higher precipitation in October is something to watch since it may lead to flooding of paddies in addition to the possible flooding that may occur when the Mekong River overflows. Heavy and continuous rain also leads to problems, contributing to low yields.

72. The wet season begins to recede in October, and as November gets closer, there are fewer and lower amounts of rainfall, marking the beginning of the dry season. At that time, standing rice crops are almost ready for harvesting, especially the traditional photoperiod- sensitive varieties. However, there is at least a one-month spread of the harvesting period so that some crops are still harvested in December, when paddies are still very wet and sometimes still flooded. After harvest, there would be a turnaround time of at least 15 days if a dry season crop will be established.

73. Soil constraints. The extensive arable land of Srey Santhor District is poorly drained both internally and externally. Under the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) system of classification, this type of land belongs to Class 4R (FAO, 1985), which has limited use for paddy rice. The risk of flooding is high from May to October. External drainage is adequate in slightly elevated areas where there is some degree of slope and where irrigation canals are nearby. At a lower topographic position, water accumulates and keeps paddies flooded during the wet season.

74. The two major soil types found in Srey Santhor are Kien Svay and Prateah Lang, and their distinct characteristics are described below. The delineation of areas occupied by the two soils cannot be ascertained because of lack of detailed soil information, but the reported properties of the soils correlate with the position in the landscape where they are likely found.

• Kien Svay occupies about 70% of the total subproject area and is found in higher topographic position in the landscape (including Prek Po and Svay Pou communes).

• Prateah Lang occupies about 30% of the subproject area, covering the lower topographic position farther from the Mekong River (Chi Bal and Torn Tralach communes).

• Kien Svay and Prateah Lang differ in their profile characteristics, particularly in the soil structure associated with dominant soil constituents transported during the occasional overflowing of Mekong River and regular flooding of the area during the wet season.

• Kien Svay soil properties allow for faster penetration and longer storage of water favorable for deep-rooted upland dry season crops.

• Prateah Lang, with a sandy surface soil texture overlying a loamy to clayey subsoil with poor soil structure, is excellent for crops requiring aeration during the dry season. Over-irrigation could limit root activity near the surface.

• Planting of Prateah Lang with upland crops sensitive to anaerobic condition would require proper tillage that forms taller ridges and deeper furrows.

• Potential yield of rice in Kien Svay could reach 5 t/ha, while Prateah Lang, which has lower fertility, could produce only 4 t/ha.

• Soil management practices for both Kien Svay and Prateah Lang will need special attention to building the organic matter content through crop residue incorporation and application of organic manure.

B. Overview of the Agricultural Production System

75. The extensive alluvial lands of Srey Santhor District occupied by the Prek Po Subproject are suitable only for flooded rice culture, although small-scale upland crops (including fruit crops, cassava, and corn) are grown on slightly elevated lands. The rice-based farming system in Prek Po is basically rainfed lowland rice cultivation in 2,680 ha in 2017 (District




Agriculture data, 2017). At present, the wide and deep primary and secondary irrigation canals serve as temporary storages of water draining from the higher ground during the wet season. This water is used by farmers by pumping using individually operated surface-to-surface water pumps. For early wet season crop establishment (March-April), farmers pump water from groundwater when needed for supplementary irrigation during cropping. During the wet season, farmers pump water from the canals or from underground sources until the second wet season crop is harvested.

76. The average landholding of households is small, ranging from 0.85-1.53 ha and averaging only 0.92 ha/household. The Prek Po subproject area is typically a lowland rice-growing area with large and regularly shaped paddies. Small patches of upland areas are planted to a mixture of fruit crops, including mango, bananas, coconut, avocado, and oranges, particularly on the banks of the Mekong, which are elevated above the main floodplain. Mango production is apparently becoming attractive as an agribusiness industry in Srey Santhor. Establishment of mango orchards is already beginning to appeal to rice farmers as they are seen being planted along the dikes and sometimes in abandoned paddies.

77. Cattle production is a component of the rice-based farming system in Srey Santhor. Cattles graze freely in newly harvested paddies. However, cattle farming needs some intervention if the fallow period will be utilized or reduced when the improvement of rice-based cropping systems is implemented. Open grazing systems now practiced by cattle growers in Srey Santhor will be detrimental to non-rice crops after the wet season cropping.

1. Water Availability

78. The climate of Kampong Cham provides growing condition for 207 humid days with additional moist days before and after the rainy season, for a total of 236 days (total vegetation period) when the average loss of water by evapotranspiration is at least one-half of the average water from rainfall. The humid period provides enough moisture for growing cultivated crops starting in early April until November. By growing early maturing rice varieties with a 90-day maturity, this length of growing season is more than enough for two crops; supplemental irrigation in April will allow at least one early maturing rice crop followed by another medium maturing traditional variety.

79. The regularity of rainfall and the availability of underground and open sources of water (including canals, ponds, and small lakes, such as the Boueng Vean on the northeast) determine the time and period of water available for rice production. At present, water from the pumping station is not available. Villages of Knar Sa commune are closer to the source, followed by villages of Tong Tralach, then Chi Bal. When the pumps become operational, two communes–Pram Yam on the east and Svay Pou on the west–will receive water by way of lateral canals.

2. Agricultural Areas

80. The Prek Po Subproject has 8,023 ha of irrigable rice lands distributed among six communes (Table 8). Recent data show that 5,452 ha of rice lands are planted during the wet season, while only 2,109 ha are farmed during the dry season. Irrigable rice lands in each commune range from 674 ha in Svay Pou to 2,420 in Chi Bal. Average landholdings per household varies from 0.68 ha in Svay Pou to 1.53 ha in Pram Yam. Non-rice areas include permanent crops (orchards of mango and mixed fruit crops including bananas and coconut), sugarcane, pumpkin, grasslands, lotus production ponds, and settlements.




Table 8: Agricultural Area of Communes in the Prek Po Service Area

Communes Average

Landholding (ha) Total Irrigable

Area (ha)

Prek Po 0.91 1,124

Knar Sa 0.95 1,424

Svay Pou 0.68 674

Pram Yam 1.53 951

Torng Tralach 1.16 1,430

Chi Bal 0.85 2,420

Total Average = 0.92 8,023


3. Rice-based Farming System in Prek Po

81. Rice production in Prek Po is basically rainfed with a limited application of supplemental irrigation individually pumped from groundwater or open sources. Non-functional irrigation canals serve as temporary storages of runoff water from higher ground. Pumping of water from open and ground sources has permitted some farmers to produce two to three rice crops per year by the timely establishment of wet season rice in April before the onset of the wet season. The general rice cropping pattern illustrated in Figure 19 shows the time of establishment and harvest of each crop for the various sequences, including the preferred traditional and early maturing 90-day variety.

82. Rice production is semi-mechanized, from land preparation to harvesting. Land preparation costs from KR250,000/ha to KR350,000/ha, either by hired services of large four-wheeled tractor operators or by individually owned or hired hand tractors. The cost of land preparation includes rotavation, harrowing, and ordinary levelling of the paddy. If only rotavation is required, the cost ranges from KR150,000/ha to KR 250,000/ha.

83. All rice crops are established by direct seeding using 250-300 kg of seeds/ha. At least 70% of the wet season rice is planted to early maturing varieties, and 30% to medium to late maturing traditional varieties. The early maturing varieties are harvested in 90 days and farmers use unofficially recommended seeds from Viet Nam, which are referred to by farmers as IR 504, 85, and OM simply because the harvests are purchased by Vietnamese traders who also deliver commercial seeds of these varieties from Vietnam sources. About 30% of wet season rice is made up of traditional varieties, such as Phka Rumduol, Phk Khnhei, Kngok Pong, and a special black sticky rice variety.




Figure 19: Current Cropping Pattern in the PPIS


84. The scarcity of farm labor has resulted in the steep price of labor and led farmers to abandon the practice of transplanting and to switch to direct seeding. Broadcasting of the seeds takes at least 5 days/ha because of the need to drain the paddies well by partial drainage. Drainage of some paddies is facilitated by the presence of deep tertiary or secondary canals adjacent to the paddies. Other low-lying paddies farther from canals are difficult to drain, making tillage, puddling, levelling, and seed broadcasting fall below the ideal requirement, and crop yield could suffer from excessively deep and long flooding regime.

85. Farmers use three to four different fertilizers: urea, diammonium phosphate (DAP), complete NPK (nitrogen [N], phosphorus [P], and potassium [K]), and muriate of potash. Urea is generally applied as top dressing together with complete fertilizer (either 16-16-8 or 20-20-15) 12-15 days after sowing and 40-45 days after sowing, respectively. Fertilizers are applied manually and pesticides with the use of a DC-powered backpack sprayer. Table 9 shows the rates of application of fertilizers used by farmers in the different communes.




Table 9: Existing Cropping Pattern and Rice Production Practices in Prek Po

Commune Dominant Cropping

Pattern Popular Varieties Planted

Usual Yields (t/ha)

Prek Po 1 WS rice Mixed early (20%) and traditional variety 70%) 2.0-3.0

Khna Sar 2 WS rice Early maturing (IR504, 85, OM)1 2.0-2.5

Pram Yam 2 WS rice Early maturing (IR504, 85, OM) 2.0-3.0

Svay Pou 2 WS rice Early maturing (IR504, 85, OM) 2.0-3.0

Tong Tralach 1 WS rice Medium to long maturing varieties, March-April, no more water in canals and ground sources

2.0-3.0

Chi Bal 2 WS (80%) +

1 DS rice (20%) Early maturing (IR504, 85, OM) 2.0-3.0

Common Practices

Urea 50 kg/ha + 50 kg DAP at PI Urea 50 kg/ha + 50 kg DAP at PI

Varieties Traditional: Phka Rumdoul, Phka Khnhei, Kngok Pong, and black sticky rice (planted in May, harvested in November)

Early maturing: all from Viet Nam, referred to as IR504, 85, OM

Crop establishment

Direct seeding using 250-300 kg/ha; 90% own seeds, 10% bought from other farmers or commercial sources

WS crop planted late April and harvested July

Fertilization DAP 50 kg/ha as basal or 10-15 DAS, 100 kg Urea+50 kg DAP at MT 20 days after sowing or at panicle initiation, 100 kg 20-20-15 at 40 DAS

Harvesting Mechanical using hired combined harvester-thresher 1 IR504, 85, and OM refer to varieties or cultivars sold to farmers by traders from Viet Nam. WS = wet season; DS = dry season Source: TRTA Consultant

86. While a few small-sized paddies are still harvested manually, mechanical harvesting is generally done by service providers with combined harvester-thresher. Machine harvesting costs KR300,000/ha in the wet season and KR230,000–250,000/ha in the dry season. Farmers are aware that some grains are lost during mechanical harvesting, estimated to range from 600–1,000 kg/ha. Despite the high cost and high field losses of yield, machine harvesting is necessary because of the scarcity of skilled harvesters.

87. Wet season yields range from 2-3 t/ha, with an estimated 80% yielding 3 t/ha. Dry season yields range from 4-6 t/ha with an estimated 30% of farmers yielding 4 t/ha, 40% with 5 t/ha, and 30% with 6 t/ha. Farmers sell their newly harvested, rough (unmilled) rice or sometimes partially dried rice (during the dry season) directly to trader-integrators who take care of collecting the bags and transporting them to the intended destination prior to delivery to Viet Nam. Some farmers reserve small quantities for family consumption or for seeds if the seed quality is still good for the next planting season. In general, rice farmers do not derive added value from rice production because newly harvested rice is immediately sold to traders for lack of post-harvest and storage facilities within the village.

88. Following are the major constraints that have to be addressed by the project to increase yield and cropping intensity:

• The seed system is lacking in terms of local production of quality, commercially certified seeds of locally adapted varieties. The seed system requires training of local seed inspectors and farmers who will become certified seed growers. Seed inspectors will




provide technical assistance and on-farm supervision of the production of high- quality seeds. Processing and storage facilities are also necessary.

• Early maturing varieties are essential to increase crop intensification from two to three rice crops per year. While triple cropping is feasible, the base case economic analysis assumes double cropping, with 225% cropping assessed as an option.

• The 90-day varieties are popular, but the Prek Po subproject, together with other IAIP subprojects, should coordinate with the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), for continuous development of adapted varieties.

• Where water for supplemental irrigation is available, farmers in some communes have succeeded in producing dry season rice using 90-day varieties, which yield 3-4 t/ha.

• There is apparent poor application of modern rice production technology in the area of tillage, nutrient management, pest management, use of quality seeds, and plant population density.

• Local technical research and development (R&D) support for rice production leaves much to be desired, particularly in the area of diagnosis of soil-related limitations, development of location-specific nutrient management recommendations, and appropriate control of pests.

• Farmers in the Prek Po subproject are aware of the need for them to acquire knowledge and skills to identify and apply appropriate solutions to field problems.

• Rice cropping does not appear very profitable because of the high cost of inputs and the low price of product in the local market.

• There is a lack of post-harvest processing and marketing system that could provide farmers higher share of the value-addition enjoyed by traders and processors.

89. Livestock production. Large consumption of meat, particularly beef, makes livestock production a lucrative business in Srey Santhor. An average farm family owns a least two heads of cattle, but ownership can be as high as 20 heads. Pigs and chickens are popularly raised in the backyard since they are sources of cash, when needed, and of food for the family as well. However, the open grazing system of cattle production is of concern to many farmers, particularly if dry season crops will be grown in the area. Farmers owning cattle should be compelled to adopt alternative methods of raising cattle and not allow the animals to roam freely. Nutrition of cattle is also a concern. Cattle feeding is limited to what are available in the grazing area. The cut-and-carry system is limited to a few heads of cattle. There appears to be no deliberate effort to improve the sources of food. During the March visits of the TRTA Team to the project area, many cattle were observed to be under-nourished and in poor condition.

C. Recommended Cropping Patterns for Prek Po Subproject

90. The improvement of the irrigation system could influence the economic future of rice farming households in Srey Santhor with adoption of suitable cropping pattern and appropriate production practices essential for sustainable crop production. Recommended cropping patterns will be rice-based and maintaining rice production during the wet season months from May to November. Alternative rice-based cropping patterns include suitable and profitable dry season rice and non-rice crop production from December to April preceding two wet season rice crops, as illustrated in Figure 19.

91. Rice production is semi-mechanized, from land preparation to harvesting. Land preparation costs from KR250,000-350,000/ha, either by hired services of large four-wheeled tractor operators or by individually owned or hired hand tractors. If only rotavation is required, the cost ranges from KR150,000-250,000/ha.

92. All rice crops are established by direct seeding using 250-300 kg of seeds/ha. At least 70% of the wet season rice is planted to early maturing varieties, and 30% to medium to late maturing traditional varieties. The early maturing varieties are harvested in 90 days, and farmers




use unofficially recommended seeds from Viet Nam, which are referred to by farmers as IR 504, 85, and OM simply because the harvests are purchased by Vietnamese traders who also deliver commercial seeds of these varieties from Viet Nam sources. About 30% of wet season rice is made up of traditional varieties, such as Phka Rumduol, Phka Khnei, Kngok Pong, and a special black sticky rice variety.

93. Traditional varieties command a high price in the local market, have excellent eating quality, and known to farmers for their adaptability to soil and climatic conditions and resistance to drought. For these reasons, farmers in Prek Po subproject area prefer to plant the traditional photoperiod sensitive varieties which is most suitable for the second wet season rice crop following the 90-day maturing variety as first wet season crop.

94. Recommended non-rice crops were identified on the basis of adaptability to tropical climate and soil condition such as found in Prek Po subproject area. Some farmers occasionally grow a dry season crop supported by irrigation using individually operated shallow tubewell pumps in areas with sufficient groundwater. Industrial crops grown extensively in neighboring countries, such as Thailand, Myanmar, and Viet Nam and reported to be locally processed or internationally traded, were given due consideration for the marketability of bulk or big volumes of the product.

95. Farmers should be assured of training on production and post-production technology through on-farm training with demonstration. Supply of production inputs, particularly seeds of highly adapted varieties and Rhizobium inoculants for legume crops, are easily available from Thailand through the international research agencies belonging to the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

96. Farmers or groups of farmers who choose to implement new rice-based cropping patterns will be familiarized with the package of technology and basic requirements and should have access to financing at reasonable interest rates for the procurement of equipment, crop production loans, and technical support for quality assurance of some non-rice products. Farmer groups should also be provided with marketing support for large volumes of farm produce and semi-processed products by linking with various end-users, including traders and wholesalers. They should also have access to services for achieving the desired quality of products, packaging, and storage according to market standards.

D. Crop Water Requirement

97. Water requirements for rice production in the Prek Po Subproject are influenced by a number of factors including rainfall, evapotranspiration, percolation, field levelling, and the maturity of the variety used. Broadcasting of dry seeds is generally practiced, but wet seeding is also practiced sometimes. Both methods of direct-seeded rice have the same water requirement since there is very little difference in duration as a result of pre-wetting of the seeds prior to broadcasting.

98. The water requirement for 10 dry season crops was determined considering the average rainfall. Despite the high yield and high value of the product, the relatively high water requirement of rice gives a lower water productivity value compared with other dry season crops. Because of their lower water requirements, sesame, soybean, and mungbean are the best non-rice crops to grow after rice when supply of water is not guaranteed to support a bigger area of crop land. These three crops (sesame, soybean, and mungbean) are, in fact, recommended as drought-tolerant crops for planting in areas with limited rainfall during the wet season. The three crops are grown for their seeds, which are used in industry. Mungbean is popular as vegetable dish of the unsprouted or sprouted product and could be processed into translucent Chinese noodles. Soybean has many industrial uses in addition to serving as ingredient for livestock feeds (after extracting the oil) and for the production of soy sauce. Sesame is also processed for oil, but the seeds are used directly in bakery and snack food products. It appears that the three will top the others for their marketability in large volumes of organized village-wide or commune-wide




production. After identifying the local market of all the products, each non-rice crop will be subjected to cost-benefit analysis.

99. If managed adequately and with irrigation water applied intermittently, the non-rice crops grown during the dry season should provide additional income to rice farmers. Climatic condition gives favorable GDD for crop growth and development and quicker sun drying of grains. In small plots near homelots, vegetables could be grown according to the manpower available, including the women members of the household. Vegetables include the leafy and fruit vegetables that could supply the food and nutrition needs of the family. Water productivity for each of the recommended dry season crops was calculated based on the cost of the product in the domestic market.

100. Climate change projections also influence crop water requirements since evapotranspiration (Eto) (mm/day) changes as temperature increases. If the base year ETo (2015) is 4.5 mm/day, the future ETo in 2050 will be 6.1 mm/day or a change of 35%. Hence, the wet season irrigation water requirement of 8,000 m3/ha in 2015 will become 10,000 m3/ha in 2050, or an increase of 25%. Dry season water requirements will increase by an estimated 30%.

1. Water Requirement of Recommended Dry Season Crops

101. Flooded rice culture uses more water than most other dry season crops, starting from land preparation until 10-20 days before harvesting. Based on several observations on the water requirement of rice (www.knowledgebank.irri.org), it takes an average of 1,432 liters of water to produce 1 kg of rice in an irrigated lowland production system. Total seasonal water input varies from 400 mm in heavy clay soils with shallow groundwater tables to more than 2,000 mm in coarse-textured (sandy or loamy) soils with the groundwater table located deep below the surface. Technologies are now available for the production of aerobic rice requiring less water but using appropriate varieties and alternate wetting and drying of paddies.

102. Crop water requirement for the recommended cropping patterns was determined using the FAO CropWat software for potential ETo based on Penman-Monteith method (FAO, 1995), agro-climatic data from CLIMWAT-climate rainfall files represented by Kampong Cham, and estimated soil moisture retention properties of the soil. The software generates monthly total (three decades) water requirement in mm/decad for the dry and wet season rice crops as well as cash crops. An example of the data generated by CropWat is given in mm/decad for rice followed by rice, rice followed by rice followed by rice, and rice followed by cash crop followed by rice cropping pattern using data from the Kampong Cham meteorological station (Table 10).

Table 10: Crop Water Requirement (mm/decad/ha) of Different Cropping Patterns

Water Requirement (mm/decad/ha)

Cropping Pattern1 J F M A M J J A S O N D

1. Rice (DS)-WSR1-WSR2 46 45 47 32 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2. Maize (125)-WSR1-WSR2 32 43 43 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 6

3. Sweet melon (120)-WSR1-WSR2

27 37 39 8 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11

4. Mungbean (90)-WSR1-WSR2 30 39 17 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11

5. Peanut (105)-WSR1-SR2 34 43 32 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9

6. Soybean (85)-WSR1-WSR2 41 42 7 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 9

7. Sesame (90)- WSR1-WSR2 32 43 18 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11

8. Sweet potato (130)-WSR1-WSR2

27 42 44 16 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11

9. Vegetables (95)-WSR1-WSR2 34 39 24 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 15

10. Sunflower (130)-WSR1-WSR2 26 42 46 13 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 1 Dry season crop followed by first wet season (WS1) and second wet season (WS2) rice crops of 90-day and 120-day

variety, respectively. Number in parenthesis is the duration of the dry season crop. Each month has 3 decads. Source: TRTA Consultant




103. The contribution of rainfall beginning in April reduces the water requirement of dry season crops, as shown in Table 10. Hardly any supplemental water is needed from June to November. The values shown for December represent the amount of water needed to support the newly established dry season crop. Table 11 shows the total requirement for individual crops of early maturing, traditional, and dry season non-rice crop. Expressed in m3/ha, the total crop water requirement is given for the first wet season crop of early maturing variety, second wet season of early maturing variety, and second wet season crop of traditional variety in Table 11. It is expected that the dry season rice crop will require more water than the dry season corn.

Table 11: Crop Water Requirement (m3/ha/crop) of Rice and Grain Corn Crops

Crop1 Planting

Month

Harvesting

Month

No. of

Decads Total Water

Requirement (m3/crop)

WSR1 (dry season) January March 9 4,171

WSR2 (wet season) April June 9 1,080

WS traditional variety

(medium maturity) July May 12 99

Grain Corn (Dec to Apr) December April 13 3,141 1 WSR1 and WSR2 refer to 1st wet season and 2nd wet season rice crops, respectively. The rice pattern

consists of a 90-day variety for dry season and 1st wet season production and the 120-day variety for the 2nd wet season production.

2 An example of a non-rice crop, grain corn, is established in December when soil moisture is still high. Source: TRTA Consultant

2. Production of Dry Season Crop

104. Diversifying the rice cropping system in the Prek Po Subproject area is essential for the improvement of the economic future of people in the area. Household income from the present one or two wet season crops of rice needs to be augmented, and cropping intensity could be increased with the provision of irrigation water. The production of non-rice crops will also provide security to rice-farming households against the risk of wet season crop failure due to environmental and biological stresses caused by climate change. With supplementary irrigation available, growing non-rice crops during the dry season will provide a better income opportunity. It is expected that the choice of the non-rice product/s will have to be based primarily on marketability.

105. Dry season rice is expected to give the highest yield compared with other dry season crops that could be grown in the paddies. However, on the basis of profitability and water consumption rate, the non-rice crops appear to be better than rice. The non-rice crops require lesser water and are more tolerant to water stress. Drought-tolerant crops, such as sesame and mungbean, will have better chances of paying off as dry season crops.

106. The reported average yield for soybean in Cambodia is 1.5 t/ha, which is comparable with average yields from other tropical countries including its Asian neighbors. With good management, particularly related to the correction of nutrient limitations and the use of high- quality seeds of adapted varieties, soybean yields in Cambodia can exceed 3 t/ha. Sesame, on the other hand, is extensively cultivated in Myanmar and Thailand. On the basis of the following, sesame appears to be the best among the three non-rice crops for dry season cultivation in almost all of the communes in Srey Santhor District:

• Sesame is drought resistant with a growth duration that fits well in the dry season period after harvest of the wet season rice crop.

• Black sesame is cultivated by some farmers, who say that sesame grows well in any soil condition and that its yield could be improved if the existing soil fertility limitation is corrected.




• Sesame can be planted by direct seeding and can be harvested with the same combined thresher-harvester used for harvesting rice, with some modification.

• It is heat-tolerant and grows well when soil is saturated with water, which is the condition after the harvest of rice in November or December in Kampong Cham.

• Its production cost is low (seeds cost only $6 for 3 kg/ha). • It uses less water and nutrients. • It is used in ecological manipulation of the rice environment and in the improvement of the

population of natural enemies of rice insect pests. • It commands a high price in the local market with the current price ranging from $1–2/kg. • It is easy to grow and adapts to a wide range of conditions as it is both drought- and

submergence-tolerant; both conditions occur in the PPIS area. • Coordinated production, processing, storage, and marketing could be organized. • It is used in various higher value products such as oil, snacks, and bakery products. • It could create more jobs and generate a village-level processing industry. • Sesame has great export potential (Myanmar is the biggest producer and exporter among

Southeast Asian countries).

107. Water productivity of dry season crops. Potentially suitable dry season crops are given in Table 12 together with the usual duration in the field, estimates of production under tropical condition, and estimated water productivity based on reported water consumption. The water requirement of each cropping pattern provides the basis for determining the better dry season crops for irrigation.

Table 12: Comparison of Water Productivity of Non-Rice Dry Season Crops with the High-Yielding Rice Variety, Sen Kro Ob

Crop

Average Crop Duration

(days)

Production (t/ha)

Water Requirement

(m3/ha)

Market Price ($/kg)

Water Productivity1

($/m3) Rice (Sen Kro Ob) 90 5.0 5140 0.22 0.21 Maize (grain) 125 2.5 3696 0.15 0.10 Sweet melon 120 5.0 3365 1.00 1.48 Mungbean 90 1.50 2583 0.50 0.29 Peanut 105 1.0 3282 1.25 0.38 Soybean 85 2.0 2678 0.25 0.09 Sesame 90 0.9 2777 1.75 0.18 Sweet potato 130 10 3900 0.50 1.28 Sunflower 130 1.0 3836 1.00 0.26 Small vegetables 95 2.0 2934 2.00 1.36

1 Water productivity, as used in the table, is defined as crop yield or value of yield in dollars per unit of water consumed. Water requirement was determined using CropWat and rainfall data from Kampong Cham using ClimWat for CropWat.


108. The water productivity of the proposed dry season non-rice crops was determined using the dollar value of estimated production. Leafy vegetables (e.g., cabbage) and fruit vegetables (e.g., cucumber) are short-term crops. Vegetable crops give the highest water productivity values because of their high price in the market. However, production and marketing must be well organized. There is fear that the market may be flooded with the same products if everybody plants the same crop.

109. Among the non-rice crops listed, sesame has the advantage over all others despite the reported low yield in Cambodia. The present high farmgate price, drought tolerance, and ease of production and processing give sesame the advantage.




110. Industrial crops, including sesame, could be produced and marketed in large quantities for local processing or exported to neighboring countries, where processing industries for these products already exist. Yields of the industrial crops may still be improved with the application of good management practices.

E. Recommended Practices for Rice Production

1. Recommended Rice Varieties

111. The varieties recommended for the regular wet season planting are listed in Table 13. There are other varieties mentioned by farmers, but they are not officially recommended and if they are, they may be the same varieties given local names by farmers. The three traditional varieties that are popular in Prek Po are Phka Rumduol, Phka Rumchak, and Phka Rumchang. The rice variety referred to by farmers as IR 504 came from Viet Nam and was originally an accession from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (IR 50404) with maturity of 85-90 days and presumably evaluated and selected by plant breeders from Can Tho University.

Table 13: Officially Recommended Rice Varieties (CARDI, 2001)

Variety Name

Year Officially Released

Maturity Range days

Expected Yield (t/ha)

Rainfed upland Rimke 1991 90-95 2.5-4.0

Sita 1991 90-100 2.5-4.0

Rainfed lowland (early maturing)

IR 66 1990 105-110 4.0-6.5

IR 72 1990 110-120 3.5-6.0

Kru 1990 110-115 3.5-6.0

IR Kesar 1993 105-120 4.0-6.0

Baray 1999 100-115 4.0-6.0

Chul’sa 1999 95-110 4.0-6.0

Rohat 1999 105-120 4.0-6.0

Rumpe 1999 100-115 4.0-6.0

Aromatic medium maturing varieties sensitive to photoperiod

Phka Rumchek 1999 Oct-Nov 3.0-5.0

Phka Rumchang 1999 Oct-Nov 3.0-5.0

Phka Rumduol 1999 Oct-Nov 3.5-5.5

112. The most popular among the traditional varieties is Phka Rumduol, a medium maturing (116-130 days), photoperiod-sensitive variety. It is planted during the wet season under the rainfed system. The processed rice is highly priced because of it exceptional eating quality and fragrance. Other traditional varieties planted under rainfed lowland condition are also fragrant, including Phka Rumduol, Phka Rumchek, and Phka Rumchang. All these varieties are long-grained and soft-textured when cooked. The traditional varieties have long been planted in Cambodia and have been evaluated by scientists of CARDI under a wide range of conditions – favorable rainfed and unfavorable rainfed, where at times the test areas experience short periods with limited water. These varieties have been officially released by the Variety Recommendation Committee of Cambodia (CARDI, 2001).

113. For the inbred varieties, at least two conditions should be addressed in choosing rice varieties for the recommended cropping pattern. The regular rainfed condition requires that varieties are resistant to drought since there will be some weeks when rainfall will not be enough to replenish evapotranspiration losses. For this condition, traditional varieties are advantageous because they




are deep-rooted. The other condition is adaptability to soil nutrient limitations. Phosphorus is considered a limiting nutrient in almost all soils in the Tonle Sap alluvial plains. Traditional varieties are deep-rooted and have longer residence in the field. It is important that varieties pass field evaluation and tests for tolerance or resistance to specific stresses, such as water stress and pests and diseases of rice.

114. The early maturing rice variety, Sen Kro Ob, should be planted during the dry season. It matures in less than 110 days and produces a reasonably good yield, especially the dry season crop. The latest press release of CARDI indicates that, because of their continuous process of selection, they have now selected from the population of Sen Kro Ob some breeding materials that yield 8 t/ha in farmers’ fields.

115. Changing rainfall patterns affect the population and natural enemies of insect pests. Among the most destructive rice pests is the brown plant hopper (BPH). For BPH, CARDI recommends IR-Kesar, if green leafhopper (GLH) pressure exists. IR Kesar (originally IR48525-100-1-2) is recommended as an early maturing variety for rainfed lowland condition and for dry season irrigated and dry season flood receding conditions.

116. The current fertilizer management practices of farmers do not follow the government recommendation for rice production. The rates vary, but the sources of nutrients are similar. Fertilizers used are urea with 45% N, diammonium phosphate with 16% N, and 20% P2O5, and muriate of potash with 60% K20. Some complete fertilizer materials are also available in the market, but formulated materials are more expensive per unit of the nutrient element they contain. It is, therefore, better to use single element fertilizer materials.

2. Recommended Practices for Rice Production in Prek Po

117. Fertilizer management. The recommended fertilizer management for traditional, direct-seeded, early maturing and transplanted varieties are shown in Tables 14, 15, and 16, respectively. The recommendations were based on experimental data from joint IRRI and CARDI trials conducted in several testing sites throughout Cambodia. For the phosphorus-deficient soils in Prek Po, it is recommended that basal diammonium phosphate is applied, and urea applied at a later stage of crop development together with muriate of potash as top dressing.

Table 14: Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Direct-Seeded Traditional Varieties

Fertilizer Material First Top Dressing

Second Top Dressing

Third Top Dressing

Fourth Application (PI)

Diammonium phosphate 50 kg

Urea 40 kg 40 kg 40 kg

Muriate of potash 30 kg 20 kg

Period of application Number of days after sowing

If sown from 1-30 June 10 DAS 30 DAS 50 DAS 1-15 Sep

If sown from 1-15 July 10 DAS 30 DAS 50 DAS 10-15 Sep


Table 15: Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Direct-Seeded 90-Day Variety

Fertilizer First Top Dressing Second Top

Dressing Third Top Dressing

Fourth Application (PI)

Diammonium phosphate

50 kg



Number of days after sowing

Application time 10 days after 20 days after 30 days after 40 ays after





Table 16: Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Transplanted Early Maturing Varieties1

Fertilizer Basal First Top

Dressing Second Top





Seedling age at transplanting

Time of application (number of days after transplanting)

20-25 days Before

transplanting 10 days after

transplanting

17 days after

transplanting

45 days after

transplanting 1Transplanting is an option when water shortage is anticipated and a quicker turnaround time is required.


118. Over-application of nitrogen should be avoided in order to minimize yield losses from lodging, particularly for traditional varieties. The leaf color chart (LCC) should be used to assess plant nitrogen status before making a decision to apply nitrogen. This recommendation considers the possibility of abnormal weather conditions, which may influence soil moisture resulting in drought or excessive flood. Both cases, however, may lead to failure of the crop to respond to fertilizer and pesticide applications. The modification of fertilizer recommendation takes care of the frequent occurrence of extreme weather conditions due to climate change.

119. Transplanting is recommended during abnormal years when water supply is limited. Transplanting over-aged seedlings, 24-30 days old, will shorten residence time for the crop before it is harvested. Fertilizer recommendation for transplanted rice is also included (see Table 17) because when there is delayed or limited rainfall, the shortening of the available growing period may be compensated by transplanting over-aged seedlings (>24 days).

Table 17: Official Fertilizer Recommendation for Transplanted Early Maturing Varieties1

Fertilizer Basal First Top

Dressing Second Top





Seedling age at transplanting Time of application (number of days after transplanting)

20-25 days Before transplanting

10 days after

transplanting

17 days after

transplanting

45 days after

transplanting 1 Transplanting is an option when water shortage is anticipated and a quicker turnaround time is required. Source: TRTA Consultant

120. There are soil-specific limitations in Prek Po. As both soils found in the area are low in phosphorus content, a special phosphorus rate is recommended in the beginning and continued until the level of plant available phosphorus becomes adequate (through soil analysis). Adequate phosphorus nutrition promotes root growth, and the development of deeper root system influences resilience to drought in the event that an unexpected shortage of water occurs due to climate change. The nutrient management recommendation shown in Table 18 is specific for phosphorus-deficient soils. Acidic soils are inherently low in phosphorus and require the addition of phosphorus fertilizers higher than that normally recommended for rice. It is possible that plant-available phosphorus will reach sufficiency level within two to three years of rice cropping and, in that case, the fertilizer rate indicated in Table 18 should be revised to reduce or forego the application of diammonium phosphate until necessary.




Table 18: Recommended Nutrient Management for Phosphorus-Deficient Soils

Crop N P2O5 K20 Commercial Sources of Nutrientsc

Wet season

45a 45b 30 Urea (45% N), diammonium phosphate (16-20-0), muriate of potash (0-0-60)

Dry season 60 45 30 Urea (45% N), diammonium phosphate (16-20-0), muriate of potash (0-0-60)

a 36 kg N/ha from diammonium phosphate will have a balance of 9 kg N that needs to be supplied by 20 kg/ha urea applied only when leaf color iindicates the need for additional N

b To be applied as diammonium phosphate at 225 kg (Note: This rate of P from diammonium phosphate will also supply N at 36 kg N/ha)

c Blanket application of ZnSO4 at15 kg/ha Source: TRTA Consultant

121. Recommended pest management. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices have been developed for rice farming without the need for the usual calendared spraying. IPM practices are not only limited to rice, but should also be practiced in the production of non-rice crops, particularly vegetables. For rice, the varieties should have built-in resistance to pest and disease, and control measures are recommended only if necessary. The concept of IPM includes the control of plant populations and water management as well as synchronization of planting within the village to avoid the build-up of pests.

122. A training program combining demonstration and learning-by-doing methodology should be pursued. Although the farmer field school (FFS) method has long been implemented in Cambodia, it may be necessary to undertake a retooling of old farmers and training of new farmers. Farmers should be reminded of the practices that will not only reduce the cost of chemical control, but will also keep them away from possible health hazards, not only for the farmers themselves but also of the people consuming the products. The training program will also introduce farmers to the latest developments in IPM, including the use of ecological manipulation or ecological engineering to influence the behavior of insect pests. The training program will also focus on the control of recurrent pests, such as rats, golden snails, and birds.

3. Management of Yield-reducing Factors

123. Improvement of practices to minimize or remove the effects of yield-reducing factors will be necessary in order for yield and cropping intensity to improve. Major yield-reducing environmental factors include excessive and unevenly distributed plant population, limited root development due to hardness of the plow layer, uneven surface of paddy affecting germination of seedling, lodging, inadequate nutrient supply, pests and diseases, and excessive water during harvesting with a combined harvester-thresher.

124. The effects of factors related to the above-ground environment (e.g., high temperature) could be reduced through varietal development. IRRI, in collaboration with national rice R&D institutions (e.g., CARDI), is continuing its efforts to improve farmers’ access to varieties tolerant to drought, short period of submergence, and high temperature, and are resistant to pests or diseases.

125. Improvement of plowing, puddling, and levelling operation could be carried out through demonstration and training of farmers. Field levelling using a wooden block pulled by a hand tractor could be carried out by farmers simultaneously during land preparation prior to broadcasting of seeds. Farmers should also. be made aware of the need for a leveled field to achieve a surface soil condition that is conducive to a uniform stand of seedlings -- seeds which germinate and grow on protruded spots or even in depressions may die or fail to grow normally.

126. Broadcasting the right amount of seeds to produce the ideal plant population is essential for the attainment of potential yield. Promoting the use of right amount of seeds would




be carried out through on-farm demonstration together with conduct of participatory selection and production of adapted varieties for multiplication by community seed producers. Farmers will participate in the conduct of on-farm variety demonstration, where they will acquire knowledge and skills in the selection of superior varieties at different optimum seeding rates, as varieties differ in leaf structure, leaf area index, and tiller production, all of which affect the growth and yield of rice.

127. High-yielding varieties are also selected for their high yield response to nutrient application. In addition to improved practices to remove the limitations to the effective use of applied nutrients by the crop, it is recommended that agronomic studies be conducted to formulate location-specific nutrient management through on-farm demonstration and participatory research. Gradual reclamation of degraded soils will be emphasized in the training programs. Effective control of common pests (insect pests, rats, and snails) will be included in the FFS on IPM.

4. Recommended Practices for Climate Resilience of Proposed Cropping Pattern

128. Climate resilience practices will address the possible occurrence of drought during the dry season and wet season rice cropping and excessive water during normal wet season cropping. For dry season crops, the following are recommended:

• Establish the dry season crop as early as possible after harvest of the wet season rice crop.

• Use only early maturing varieties (<110 days). • For direct-seeded dry season rice, broadcast only 100 kg/ha of seeds. • Transplanting method is an option if water is available for early raising of seedlings in

wetbed up to 30 days old. • Plant seeds of non-rice crops in furrows covered by soil. • Store as much water in the soil by deep plowing and allowing the subsoil to reach

moisture content at field capacity. • If the El Nino phenomenon is expected to occur in the coming planting season, adopt soil

water conservation practices by direct seeding in rows together and covering the seeds with rice straw from the previous crop.

• If shortage of water is anticipated and pumping is inevitable, adopt alternate wetting and drying (AWD) technology (www.knowledgebank.irri.org) to save irrigation water and cost. From the original pond water depth, water level will decrease but AWD technology allows the crop to grow normally until the water below the surface reaches a level of ±15 cm and only then is the addition of water resumed.

• Apply basal fertilizer in the form of diammonium phosphate to accelerate seedling growth and faster crop development.

F. Support Services

129. The proposed cropping patterns for the Prek Po subproject are intended to increase cropping intensity from two to three, either with rice or a variety of non-rice crops. This will provide the means to take full advantage of water when the irrigation system becomes operational. The proposed cropping pattern will change the cropping calendar for rice and non-rice crops. For a successful production of dry season rice crop and non-rice crops, farmers will require new knowledge, skills, and techniques, among other production information, for crop establishment, cultural management, and planting methods, for which farmers will require training.

130. For the improvement of rice production, farmers must be provided with adequate technical support in variety development and with standard quality seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides at government regulated prices. There is an existing government policy to allow only registered products to be marketed in the country; information about these products must reach farmers. Imported agricultural chemicals, including fertilizers and pesticides, pass through a government




registration and certification process to guarantee user-farmers of quality, safe, and reasonably priced products in the commercial market.

131. For fertilizers, cheaper sources of the essential nutrient elements should be made available to farmers. Single element sources are cheaper than formulated compound elements such as complete NPK fertilizer. For phosphorus, for instance, monocalcium phosphate should be given preference since it is sold with the guaranteed content of plant-available phosphorus instead of the total content of phosphorus.

1. Participatory On-Farm Variety Evaluation and R&D Collaboration

132. Continuous farmers’ access to high-quality seeds of adapted varieties with built-in resistance to common pests and diseases of rice is essential for the sustained development of rice production in the Prek Po Subproject. Accredited seed growers will be the best sources of high-quality seeds, but considering the limited capacity to produce certified seeds preferred by farmers, long-term planning and scheduling of production is required.

133. Local capacity to select and produce seeds is essential for the sustainability of production in PPIS. Seeds of the popular early maturing variety procured from unaccredited traders must be stopped. Continuing farmers’ use of unregistered seeds and continuing dependence on supply from traders from Viet Nam will not be favorable to long-term sustainability of rice production in Prek Po. At any time, the quality of seeds of uncertified variety may change and worse if the variety suddenly exhibit susceptibility to certain pests or diseases. Worst case scenario is when the unregistered trader/supplier will simply stop delivering seeds for some reasons outside the control of farmers in PPIS.

134. CARDI is undertaking rice R&D in Cambodia, and the rice varieties that are recommended and now used by farmers have gone through multi-location testing and evaluation before they were official released. CARDI has long been working together with IRRI in conducting variety evaluation. Long term collaboration with CARDI for the needed R&D support will be essential for the sustainable rice production in PPIS.

135. Participatory on-farm variety evaluation of new and promising rice cultivars or varieties will facilitate identification of preferred location-specific varieties. Through CARDI, new promising varieties addressing priority problems on pests and diseases will be requested for on- site evaluation. Farmers’ preference for certain agronomic traits, particularly with regard to maturity, seedling vigor, and responsiveness to inputs, will determine the acceptability of the variety for local use.

136. Farmers may be organized and trained to conduct on-farm evaluation cum demonstration to improve fertilizer and pest management for new varieties and new cropping pattern involving non-rice crops.

137. Participatory demonstration will also be conducted on irrigation methods for efficient use of water during the dry season production of rice and non-rice crops. For rice, water management through alternate wetting and drying will be demonstrated.

2. Livestock Integration and Improvement of Resilience to Climate Extremes

138. Household income could be augmented by raising cattle, goats, ducks, or chicken. Livestock production blends well with the socioeconomic setting in Prek Po, considering the available space for growing nutritious plants for livestock feed, collection of feeds, crop residue, and the high demand for local supply of livestock products.




139. So that the open grazing system of cattle production will not cause problems regarding dry season crop production, alternative livestock production methods will be introduced. Raising a few heads of cattle using the cut-and-carry system for confined animals will require only a small space for shelter within the homestead and the development of a grass-legume system for feeding the cattle.

140. Not all farmers in Prek Po are engaged in commercial production of cattle. Farmers say that they need training to acquire knowledge and skills. They also expressed the need for technical guidance to plan and start with the initial animal stock that may be procured through microfinance. At present, some farmers are grazing a few heads of cattle or water buffalo. Aside from farm waste, planting grasses and tree legumes along the dikes and spaces within the homestead will enable them to support a few heads of cattle under the cut-and-carry system.

141. The cut-and-carry system includes forced feeding of high-energy food everyday until the cattle reaches a body weight ready for marketing. Forage crops, including new high-protein hybrids of napier grass or king grass and leguminous trees (e.g., Sesbania grandiflora Linn.) and pasture legumes, could be grown on open spaces around the homestead, and cattle will be raised in confinement instead of letting them roam in somebody else’s paddies. Nutritious grasses and legume trees could be planted along several meters of paddy dikes, provided they will not interfere with machine movement during field operation.

142. There is a high demand for native chicken and eggs in the nearby urban centers and a few kilometers away, including in Phnom Penh. The method of raising native chicken in confinement should follow procedures that ensure protection against common diseases.

3. Other Activities to Enhance Adoption of Recommended Practices

143. Together with rice variety evaluation, a strong seed support system must be established for the Prek Po Subproject, including production of registered and certified seeds of varieties selected through participatory on-farm variety evaluation. Local authorities of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF) will be requested to organize training programs for seed inspectors (one for Srey Santhor District and for certified seed growers (at least two per village of at least 500-ha rice area). Facilities for processing, storage, and testing seed quality could be accessible through credit since certified seed production is a commercial activity.

144. A training needs assessment (TNA) will be conducted to determine the priority training needs of farmers related to the agricultural input package (Table 19) and for the implementation of recommended rice cropping patterns.

Table 19: Summary of Recommended Agricultural Inputs

Agriculture Input Expected Results

Proper land preparation for adequate tillage depth, puddling (to soft mud), and levelled surface.

An adequately plowed and harrowed field is favorable for deeper root development and utilization of nutrients and water stress tolerance, while a levelled field minimizes loss of plant population due to dehydration of seedlings on protruding surfaces or prolonged submergence in low spots, which, if not alleviated, will contribute to aggregate yield losses from 500-1,000 kg/ha.

Certified high-quality seeds of newly recommended high-yielding and adapted varieties

Modern varieties are selected for high yield, responsiveness to nitrogen, and adaptability to the local environment. Yield potential of older, officially released varieties range from 5-6 t/ha. CARDI’s newly developed Sen Kro Ob yields up to 8 t/ha. Use of higher-yielding varieties would easily raise the average yield to 6-7 t/ha in the wet and dry season, respectively. The use of certified seeds will enable the full expression of yield potential and an aggregate yield recovery by at least 500-1,000 kg/ha from field losses due to reduced




Agriculture Input Expected Results

resistance to pests and environmental stresses.

Proper seeding rate (100-150 kg depending on variety traits)

Excessive plant population due to excessive seeding rate reduces plant vigor and increases lodging, competition for nutrients and sunlight, risk of infestation, and susceptibility to diseases. Yield increase of up to 1 t/ha is expected from the reduction of seeding rate from the present 250-300 kg/ha to the recommended seeding rate of 100-150 kg/ha.

Use of location- and season-specific fertilizer management

Modern rice varieties are bred to respond to fertilization determined based on yield target and season and in consideration of indigenous nutrient supply. Three split applications of 90 kg N/ha for a wet season yield target of 6 t/ha and 120 kg N/ha for a dry season yield target of 7 t/ha will expectedly give a spread of yields averaging 5 t/ha in the wet season and 6 t/ha in the dry season.

Adequate crop protection (insect pests, rats, snails, bacterial and fungal diseases)

Effective control of pests is constrained by the lack of training and extension service. Proper field condition and timely application of government-registered pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and molluscicides) will reduce field losses of yield by 0.5- 1 t/ha.

Proper water management during cropping and drainage at harvest

Prolonged flooding during the early stage (>5 days completely submerged during seedling stage) is detrimental to rice and to the effectiveness of fertilizers and pesticides. Longer than 10 days of >20 cm submergence during cropping and maturity stage contribute to the reduction in yield and poor recovery of field yield ranging from 600-1,000 kg/ha during harvesting with a combined harvester-thresher.


145. For the production of new and unfamiliar crops, farmers will need to be trained to acquire new skills from planting to harvesting and processing. From the usual activities related to rice production, farmers who will plant dry season rice and non-rice crops will encounter the following difficulties:

• Adjustment of field operation relative to the schedule of irrigation in the command area (in coordination with the FWUC);

• Crop establishment with improved land preparation according to the desired condition (depth, softness of mud, levelled field);

• On-farm water management, including adoption of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) with monitoring of sub-surface water saturation depth (www.knowledgebank. irri.org);

• Change in seeding rate from the usual high (up to 300 kg/ha) to the optimum seeding rate of 100-150 kg/ha, use of drum seeder for straight row planting, and testing seed germination;

• Integrated nutrient management (INM), including use of decision tools (e.g., leaf color chart), organic manuring, recycling of crop and animal residues and fallow biomass;

• IPM practices for insect pests, diseases, weeds, rats, and golden apple snails; • Harvest and post-harvest operations focusing on minimizing losses during harvesting

with the combined thresher-harvester, even if farmers choose to sell their harvest directly to millers or traders; and

• On-farm seed multiplication in order to continue utilizing certified seeds for up to 2-3 years without significant reduction in yield due to deterioration of genetic traits (including proper seed storage) and testing for germination and correcting seeding rate based on germination.

146. Capacity building on specific topics will be better carried out following the participatory approach and use of the FFS concept, particularly in INM and IPM.




147. Farmers who will produce non-rice crops will need to be provided assistance in the marketing of their products. Various schemes are practiced for production/marketing of various agricultural commodities. The marketing contract or contract growing scheme may be most common for a large number of farmers within the district.

148. Training or retooling of district extension officers or extension specialists is certainly important for sustainability of rice production in PPIS. At least one district extension officer should be covering one commune for the entire duration of the capacity building program. Higher level technical training will include the following topics:

• Integration of non-rice crops in the rice-based cropping pattern, covering topics from crop establishment to post-harvest processing and marketing;

• Development of location-specific technology packages using the participatory approach (together with a village-level training program);

• Participatory on-farm variety selection and demonstration, which will be part of the participatory training of farmers and development of location-specific technology;s

• Omission plot technique for formulating location-specific fertilizer recommendation, which will be part of the participatory training of farmers and development of location- specific technology;

• Use of decision tools including IRRI’s so called RCM or rice crop manager (www.knowledgebank.irri.org) for site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) and other on-farm training activities will be part of participatory training and development of location-specific technology; and

• Organizing farmer groups for the production of high-quality rice for traders and millers, bringing the experience of existing farmers’ cooperatives in other provinces.

G. Expected Impact of the Proposed Rice-based Cropping System

149. The proposed cropping patterns, together with the recommended agriculture input package for rice production, will provide rice farming households with increased income opportunities from the improved production of rice, non-rice crops, and livestock. They will also reduce the risk of crop failure and household food insecurity due to weather extremes associated with climate change. The recommended agricultural input package focuses on mitigation of yield-reducing effects of poor soil condition, uncontrolled submergence, and pests and diseases. 150. With irrigation, the proposed cropping patterns using high-yielding and early maturing rice varieties will reduce crop residence time in the field to escape risks due to pests and diseases and weather extremes, such as drought or flooding, and increase cropping intensity to three crops with one rice or one non-rice dry season crop, which will provide high economic returns. The cropping patterns will also improve integration of livestock production with the rice-based farming system through utilization of rice and non-rice biomass and a variety of nutritious fodder crops for livestock feed. Dryland farming with a reduced fallow period will be favorable to the improvement of the livestock industry within PPIS by compelling cattle and other livestock raisers to adopt improved practices in cattle and pig husbandry by keeping the animals within the confines of uncropped open spaces together with the production of fodder crops.




V. MANAGEMENT OF IMPROVED SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

A. Assessment of FWUC in the PPIS

1. Background

151. The PPIS was originally constructed during the Pol Pot regime in the 1970s and was later rehabilitated by the government (MOWRAM/PDWRAM, district and commune funds), the Communist People’s Party (CPP), and some charitable organizations and private individuals. The gate structures were rehabilitated with funding from the District Fund (DF), Commune Fund (CF), the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), and some charitable organizations and individuals. The two photos below show a secondary canal in poor condition (Fig. 20a) and a canal that was improved with DF support (Fig. 20b).

Figure 20: Secondary Canals in Chi Bal Commune

(a) Secondary Structure in Poor Condition (b) Improved 2.7-km long Secondary Canal


152. Like other irrigation systems developed during the Pol Pot era, the PPIS was built mainly for wet season supplementary irrigation. It has a command area of 8,000 ha (if all the existing structures are improved and rehabilitated for dry season cropping). However, based on the TRTA team’s field visit to the two communes of Khnar Sar and Chi Bal, it is estimated that only about 10% of the total 1,982 households practice dry season cropping using groundwater. This is probably because the economic benefit is marginal due to the high cost of pumping. Interviews conducted with commune council (CC) members and villagers of the two communes revealed that if the PPIS scheme is modernized more farmers and households will be able to engage in dry season farming as there will be adequate water supply in the canals which will be available to irrigate their paddy fields at a reasonable/affordable cost. Thus, the number of households engaging in dry season cropping is expected to increase from 10% to more than 80%, and the 1,044 ha that are currently planted during the dry season will increase by three to four times after the PPIS is improved/rehabilitated,

153. The PPIS has a three-tier hierarchy of irrigation canals: main, secondary, and tertiary. Most of the structures in the PPIS have been constructed, but they have not been functioning well, especially in the dry season. A CC member said that most of the tertiary canals in Chi Bal commune still exist, and only about 3% of all the tertiary canals are not working. He added that the same condition is true of the secondary and tertiary canals in the other communes in the command area.

154. The FWUC in the PPIS has not been officially established; however, gate controllers had been assigned to temporarily manage water flow during the short dry period in the wet season when pumping water from the Mekong River.




2. Stakeholder Analysis

155. The stakeholders involved in the management of the improved PPIS are shown in Table 20 below. This analysis was based on desk review and meetings with the Kampong Cham PDWRAM officials and the CCs of Khna Sar and Chi Bal in February 2018.

Table 20: Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder Group Interest Mandate

Government

MOWRAM Executing Agency (EA) Leads the overall management of the water resources and meteorology in the country.

Kampong Cham PDWRAM

Implementing Agency (IA)

Supervises and monitors project implementation including technical support to the FWUC.

MAFF / Provincial Department of Agriculture (PDA) / District Agriculture Office (DAO)

Provides guidance and support to farmers in the project area on agriculture production and in developing the cropping calendar in line with the water distribution plan.

Responsible for agriculture development, product safety, use of chemicals in agriculture, fisheries policy and industry development, fishing policy, forestry development and regulation.

Ministry of Interior (MOI) / District, Commune, Village

Supports irrigation and agriculture development in the districts, communes, and villages within the command area. Provides support in community mobilization meetings and on conflict resolution to ensure law enforcement.

Responsible for public administration throughout Cambodia’s 24 provinces and 186 districts and governs the national police and administration of law enforcement. Delivers community- level infrastructure and public services within their jurisdiction.

Beneficiaries and Project-affected Persons or Groups

Farmers Main project beneficiaries interested to increase the productivity of their land through irrigation, improvement in water management, and crop production.

Represents their own interest to improve their condition.

Water users groups (FWUC not yet established)

Functional and efficient irrigation system that will benefit its farmer members. Represents the interest and welfare of its members. Interested in maximum benefit from their farms that use water from the irrigation scheme. Better service delivery from PDWRAM with the improved irrigation scheme. Interested in operating as a business enterprise for profit.

Legal autonomous entity serving the common interest of people through the use of an irrigation system in an effective and sustainable manner aimed at enhancing economic and social development and poverty reduction. (Art. 7, FWUC Sub-decree).

Civil Society Organizations and NGOs

FTB, ACLEDA, PRASAC, Vision Fund, AMK, CREDIT, Hatha Kaksikor

Private banks and microfinance institutions

Provides loans and credit to farmers’ groups.

CARITAS Forms agriculture cooperatives and women’s loan and savings groups.

Community development, human resource development, and agriculture assistance to its program beneficiaries.

Private Sector

Construction companies

Renders contractual work in the construction of irrigation scheme infrastructure.

Contractual arrangements for construction services for irrigation scheme improvement.

Equipment suppliers Provides equipment for project construction either on sale or rental basis.

Provides equipment through sale or rental





156. MOWRAM. Created in 1999 through Proclamation NS/RKM/0699108 dated 23 June 1999, MOWRAM’s overall mandate is to lead the management of water resources and meteorology in the country. Its main objectives are the following:5

• To carry out scientific research on the potential of underground and surface water resources to establish scientific knowledge;

• To set directions and roadmap for short-, medium-, and long-term plans with respect to water consumption in order to fulfill the needs of the country’s development and preserve those of the urban and rural population;

• To control and monitor all activities related to water consumption to mitigate the risks; • Prepare and draft laws and regulations linked to the use of water and control procedures; • To gather documents and build technical data on climate, hydrology, and water use within

the country and abroad and derive scientific return on investment for scientific research; • To raise awareness of industries, NGOs, civilian communities, and the population about

development and exploitation of water resources and provide technical advice; and • To collaborate in the management of the Mekong Basin considering both the

management of water resources and meteorology.

157. MOWRAM is responsible for monitoring and managing all activities related to water resources and meteorology. It is headed by a Minister assisted by seven Secretaries of State and seven Undersecretaries of State. There are 12 departments at the central level and 24 provincial departments and district water resources offices. The ministry has a total of 1,258 personnel, of whom 633 are based at the central level and 625 (54 female + 571 male) are based in Phnom Penh municipality and in the 24 provinces.

158. PDWRAM. There are 24 provincial offices consisting of 625 personnel, including 54 females. The duties and responsibilities of the PDWRAM are as follows:

• Planning and organizing development programs of the ministry at the subnational level; • Operating and maintaining major irrigation works; • Managing FWUCs and other farmer mechanisms with responsibility for supporting the

O&M of irrigation schemes; • Managing the collection of irrigation service contribution (ISC) by the FWUCs and control

of expenditures from the responsible irrigation service fee (ISF) focal point/ person; • Overseeing construction works of irrigation and flood protection at the provincial level;

and • Conduct of small procurements and disbursements related to construction projects.

159. Each PDWRAM is headed by a Director supported by two or three Deputy Directors. In general, each PDWRAM has five offices for: (i) Administration and Staffing; (ii) Water Resource Management and Conservation; (iii) Irrigated Agriculture; (iv) Water Supply and Sanitation; (v) Hydrology and Meteorology (Fig. 21). Overall, there are 625 PDWRAM staff, of whom women comprise only 9%. However, the Kampong Cham PDWRAM has 19 staff of whom three (16%) are women. The Kampong Cham PDWRAM has recently hired an additional 25 contractual staff, including three females, to help implement its various activities (Table 21).

5 MOWRAM website: www.cambodiameteo.com.




Figure 21: PDWRAM Organizational Structure, Kg. Cham


Table 21: PDWRAM Staff Involved in Project Implementation

Number of Staff

Female Male Total

Cambodia (24 provinces) 54 (9%) 571 625

Kampong Cham Province 3 (16%) 16 19


160. Under the Law on Water Resources Management of the Kingdom of Cambodia (2007), MOWRAM is responsible for: (i) water resources planning, development, and regulation of use; and (ii) establishing FWUCs to facilitate the sustainability of schemes and share the cost of irrigation system management and O&M with government to ensure efficient and sustainable utilization and management of irrigation. The same law provides that farmers using water from an irrigation system, or part of a system, have a right to establish a FWUC. The statute of a FWUC shall be registered with PDWRAM and, after registration, the FWUC shall be officially recognized and will be in charge of its statute. Irrigation systems, or part of a system (e.g., reservoir, headworks) not under the management of a registered FWUC, remain under the responsibility of MOWRAM. Therefore, MOWRAM, PDWRAM, and FWUCs must work in a unified manner under the law to achieve the desired results. 161. FWUCs. Sub-decree No. 31 on the Procedures for the Establishment, Dissolution, Roles and Duties of the FWUC, issued on 12 March 2015, defines the FWUC as a legal autonomous entity aimed at using the irrigation system for its agriculture production, as well as for the sustainable use, maintenance, and development. Article 5 of the Sub-decree tasks MOWRAM with the overall management of FWUCs was given to MOWRAM. Its specific tasks are to:

• administer the FWUC and all irrigation schemes; • endorse the application for registration of a FWUC;




• refuse or dissolve a FWUC; • provide guidance on the FWUC’s statute and its internal regulations; • facilitate the implementation and development of FWUC management with concerned

institutions and stakeholders; • coordinate and facilitate the election of the FWUC committees; • settle disputes within the FWUC context; • seek other funding sources to support the FWUCs; and • provide training to enhance the capacity of FWUCs.

162. Based on Article 7 of the FWUC Sub-decree, the guidelines for FWUC establishment are as follows:

• The farmers that use water within the same irrigation scheme or part thereof will compose the FWUC members.

• The FWUC must comply with the technical standards of MOWRAM. • The members must participate in the election of those who use the irrigation system

under the FWUC with support of two-thirds (2/3) of voters. • FWUC establishment must be based on relevant laws, regulations, and legal documents.

163. Article 16 of the FWUC Sub-decree stipulates that the FWUC shall be led by a FWUC Committee (FWUCC) to be elected by vote of the FWUC members. The FWUCC shall be divided into two levels: management committee members and farmer water user groups (FWUGs).

164. In the PPIS, no FWUC has been organized and created. A FWUC will have to be established to manage the improved PPIS with a command area of 8,000 ha.

165. Institutional risk assessment. The institutional risks and corresponding mitigation measures for the Prek Po Subproject are shown in Table 22.

Table 22: Institutional Risks and Mitigation Measures for the Prek Po Subproject

Particulars Risks Mitigation Measures

Institutions

MOWRAM/

PDWRAM

• MOWRAM/PDWRAM has limited personnel to implement the project.

• DFWUC has personnel at the central level but no office and personnel at province and district.

• Recruit additional personnel with the right qualifications and experience for DFWUC Department at the central, provincial, and district levels.

• Existing personnel at DFWUC Department have limited capacity to fully implement FWUC establishment and strengthening.

• Provide necessary capacity building to DFWUC and recruit additional personnel.

• The process of organizing the FWUC is explained in Prakas 306 issued on July 2000, Chapter 5: 10 Steps for Creation of FWUCs and Circular 151. However, it does not clearly state how this will be conducted. The organizing framework and process from establishment to strengthening should explain how FWUCs will be able to efficiently manage the O&M of the irrigation system with accountability.

• Develop a FWUC organizing framework for the project identifying the activities to be implemented within the project cycle.

FWUC • FWUC will remain as “paper organizations” that are weak, inefficient, and not active. Farmers

• Prepare a well-defined FWUC organizing framework within MOWRAM/PDWRAM.

• Provide training to FWUC personnel who can then be designated as FWUC




Particulars Risks Mitigation Measures

are not interested to join the FWUC because they do not see the immediate benefits of the project.

• Farmers’ farm lands have not been previously irrigated and will need a build-up period before they become productive by following the recommended advice on improved agriculture production, cropping calendar, and water distribution plan.

organizers. • Farmers should be given advice and

guidance on appropriate agriculture production techniques.

• The cropping calendar should be synchronized with the water distribution schedule and should be agreed upon within the FWUC and disseminated to all farmer-water users within the irrigation scheme.

Coordination with other Agencies

• Lack of coordination between PDWRAM and Provincial Department of Agriculture (PDA) to develop synchronized water distribution and cropping calendars that will be planned together with the FWUC, PDWRAM, and PDA.

• Synchronize the activities of MOWRAM/PDWRAM and FWUC in developing and planning a water distribution and crop production plan. The plan should be reviewed at the end of the year and updated, then disseminated to all farmers and FWUGs and FWUSGs at the tertiary and secondary levels of the command area (Refer to Strategy for Agriculture and Water 2010-2013, Output B on Institutional Capacity Building and Human Resource Development and the Implementing Pillars of the Strategy on Food Security, Water Resource Management, Agricultural Land Management, and Agriculture Business and Marketing.)

Irrigation infrastructure

• A number of secondary and tertiary canals will be improved, but there is no FWUCC to mobilize resources for the development of tertiary and quaternary canals.

• The subproject will rehabilitate and modernize the secondary and tertiary canals until the tertiary gates and will assist the FWUC in planning the quaternary canals.

• The FWUC will mobilize resources and continue the construction until the farmers’ farms.

Private landlords

• Farmers will continue to sell their lands because of the difficulty to support their families when crops are damaged by floods, droughts, or pestilence.

• MOWRAM will review the impact of the private companies and propose regulations to protect small farmers and ensure that these companies will not control of the major irrigation facilities.


166. TNA among MOWRAM/PDWRAM, PMU, and FWUC Personnel. Based on a TNA conducted under the ADB loan-funded Water Resources Management Sector Development Project (WRMSDP), it is proposed that training for MOWRAM and PDWRAM should include all personnel at the central and provincial levels. It is further proposed that the training modules developed and delivered under WRMSDP be adopted for the Prek Po Subproject (Table 23).

Table 23: Training Plan Proposed for the Prek Po Subproject

No. Training Modules Participants

A. For MOWRAM, PDWRAM, and Other Institutions 1. Project orientation on project plan PMU (13); PDWRAM (1); District WRAM (1); MAFF and

Local Governments in districts, communes, and villages = 20 participants

2. FWUC formation and strengthening PMU (13); PDWRAM (1); District WRAM (1); Local Governments in districts, communes, and villages = 20 participants

3. Training on gender awareness and PMU (13); PDWRAM (1); District WRAM (1); Local




action plan Government in districts, communes, and villages = 20 participants

4. Training on management of hydro and meteo data and O&M for meteo equipment

PMU (1); Dept. of Meteorology (1); Dept. of Hydrology and River Works (1); PDWRAM (3); Meteorology (1x 4=4); Hydrology (1x4=4) = 14 participants

5. Financial management and accounting system training

MOWRAM: PMU Finance (2), Finance Department (4); PDWRAM (4) = 10 participants

6. Procurement procedures training MOWRAM (2); PMU (2) = 4 participants 7. Environmental awareness training PMU (13); PDWRAM (1); District WRAM (2); Local

Governments in districts, communes, and villages = 20 participants

8. Training on construction management and supervision

MOWRAM (2); PMU (2); PDWRAM (2); District WRAM (2) = 8 participants

9. On-farm water management training MOWRAM (2); PMU (2);PDWRAM (2); District WRAM 2) = 8 participants

10. O&M training PMU (2); PDWRAM (1); District WRAM (2); Local Governments in districts, communes, and villages = 20 participants

B. For PPIS FWUC 11. Project orientation and information

campaign (24 villages) Irrigation Scheme: PPIS (1); district (1); communes (6); 24 villages (6); 221 households (28,896 persons) (Source of district, commune, and village data: MOP 2014 Database)

12. Training on legal documents 1 FWUC = 20 participants 13. Training on FWUC general management

and administration 1 FWUC = 20 participants

14. Training on O&M 1 FWUC = 20 participants 15. Training on water management 1 FWUC = 20 participants 16. Training on ISF 1 FWUC = 20 participants 17. Training on financial management 1 FWUC = 20 participants 18. Training on FWUC election (procedures,

preparations, requirements) 1 FWUC = 20 participants

19. Training on gender and environment 1 FWUC = 50 participants; 100 farmers/village x 24 villages = 2,400 farmers

20. Gender and environment (climate change) campaign and awareness raising in 24 villages

1 FWUC = 20 participants

21. Training on construction management 1 FWUC = 20 participants 22. Training on water distribution plan and

cropping calendar plan 10,000 farmers = 330 courses Budget details for 5 years refer to Agricultural Specialists, about $500,000. 23. Training on improved crop production

practices and value chain


167. Conclusion. Various meetings held by the TRTA Team with farmer-villagers and leaders, CCs of Khnar Sar and Chi Bal, and PDWRAM officers revealed the following issues that need to be addressed in the design and implementation of the Prek Po Subproject:

• Personnel to be involved in the implementation of the Subproject 5 have not yet been identified at the PDWRAM, PMU, and district levels;

• Power and decision making are mostly concentrated at the central level; • Limited staff numbers, capacity, and resources will affect the implementation of tasks at

the field level; • The frequency of field monitoring visits from PMU staff, concerned MOWRAM

departments, and PDWRAM will have to be increased; and • More women should be included in various institutions from the national down to

subnational levels, especially in FWUCCs and FWUGs.




168. Irrigation scheme management is wide and complex. It requires a unified systematic approach through the establishment of a policy for sustainable irrigation scheme management, legal powers to implement the policy, a strategy to ensure that the law is carried out, as well as detailed O&M, funding, and expenditure control procedures to ensure that efficient and effective irrigation services are delivered to the intended beneficiaries.

3. Proposed Interventions for O&M in the PPIS

169. The following practical recommendations are made for the Prek Po Subproject:

• Assign a certain number of staff from PMU and PDWRAM, including at the district level, with the right qualifications and experience to support the proposed PPIS FWUC;

• Provide capacity building to concerned PMU and PDWRAM staff based on the proposed budget;

• Allocate more resources, including funds and transport, to the PDWRAM for them to be able to carry out their tasks effectively and efficiently at the scheme level;

• MOWRAM should delegate more powers (functions and responsibilities) to PDWRAM to carry out the following irrigation scheme management activities: Establishing the FWUC and ensuring its sustainability; Establishing and chairing the PPIS steering committee; Implementing scheme-based repair and O&M according to the technical procedures

approved by MOWRAM; Preparing three-year rolling budget plans and annual budgets for repair and O&M of

the scheme. Preparing five-year scheme-based work plans;

• PDWRAM should be responsible for establishing and developing the capacity of the FWUC to be financially independent and development partners should assist the PDWRAM and support the FWUC.

• For the PPIS, it is strongly suggested to establish a sound FWUC as follows: Establishing only one FWUCC and a certain number of FWUGs through an election

process with technical support from PDWRAM/DFWUC/MOWRAM; Establishing FWUGs based on a certain number of secondary canals or a number of

households per village, and each FWUG should consist of four members to effectively implement the tasks listed in the FWUC Sub-decree;

As the PPIS covers 24 villages in six communes, each village should have an average of 2-3 FWUGs per village.

• PDWRAM and the PPIS FWUC should enter into an agreement to jointly manage the scheme. PDWRAM will take the lead role to unify scheme management and ensure that the sustainable irrigated production potential is achieved. PDWRAM will establish a scheme steering committee composed of relevant stakeholders to facilitate the unified involvement of other stakeholders, including the following: Private sector service providers to FWUC (e.g., private pumping contractors); Private development partners with PDWRAM (e.g., private sector constructs a

secondary canal and pump station to provide water from a government-owned main canal and supply to FWUC);

CCs for road maintenance of local commune-controlled roads or for awarding contracts to CCs for maintenance of reservoir, canal, or dike roads under the control of PDWRAM or FWUC; and

Agricultural extension service of MAFF/PDA to facilitate introduction of higher value crops and new higher yielding varieties; and

• Gender mainstreaming should be considered during the selection of representatives from the villages in order to ensure that women are involved in the whole process of establishment of FWUC and FWUGs including the election of the FWUCC.




B. On Farm Water Management (OFWM)

170. OFWM refers to management of water within a tertiary command with the objective of enhancing irrigation efficiency. Depending on the existing landscape, a tertiary canal in PPIS commands an area of about 20 ha. At the level of the tertiary canal, water management is performed through collective action by water users. While management of water and crop production at the farmer’s field is shaped by individual interest. Thus, OFWM is shaped by both collective and individual actions and includes multiple activities. Before describing proposed options for improving OFWM in the PPIS, paragraphs below first describe the existing water management scenario in the subproject area.

1. Assessment of OFWM in PPIS

171. The PPIS has remained dysfunctional for a long time and has not been in operation since 2015. As a result, many farmers have developed private tubewells for their wet season paddy. These tubewells also support dry season non-aerobic paddy cultivation in about 10-15% of the command area (Fig. 22). It is estimated that the area has about 1,000-1,200 shallow tubewells.

Figure 22: Tube Wells Supporting Dry Season Non-Aerobic Paddy

(a) Tubewell pumping water directly to a field at

middle stretch of the command area (b) Tube well pumping water to a tertiary canal

for irrigating nearby plot at system tail-end


172. These tubewells are about 40-50 m deep, with an operating water table of less than 10 m. Their average discharge varies between 5-10 liters per second (lps). These tubewells run on diesel fuel. Farmers say that it is not profitable to cultivate dry season paddy with these tubewells. This is confirmed by the very low coverage of the command area (10-15%) for dry season paddy compared to the capacity of the existing tubewells. 173. Though the PPIS has remained dysfunctional for a long time, its canal network and structures are still intact. The paragraphs below outline the characteristics of the tertiary canals and command area for assessing the likely status of OFWM.

174. The PPIS has a well-developed command area. Almost all land plots are uniformly sized in a square of 100 x 100 m (Fig. 23) enclosed by a grid of secondary canals aligned at every 1 km, locally known as “kilo canal.” Each plot is 1 ha, which may have been allocated to one household. Presently, some deviations are seen in some of the plot sizes, although this may have been caused by the fragmentation of land property in the recent past.




Figure 23: Secondary and Tertiary Canals

(a) Square-shaped land plots in a grid enclosed by a

grid of secondary canals. Red lines with arrows represent the tertiary canals.

(b) Tertiary canal enclosed by a grid of secondary canals.


175. Tertiary canals bifurcate either from the main or from the north-south spanning secondary canals (kilo canals). They are spaced at 200-m intervals and are capable of irrigating lands on both their banks. Their average width is 3.5 m, and their length extends from one secondary canal to the other, meaning that each tertiary canal is 1 km long. However, the direction of water flow in the tertiary canal is not known. Water supply levels in the corresponding secondary canals and the existing ground gradients shape flow direction in the tertiary canal. 176. The network of tertiary and secondary canals (including main canal) suggests that the density of canals down to field inlets in the PPIS is 59.15 m/ha, which is more than the FAO recommended value of 50 m/ha for good water control at farm level. This means that no additional canals (such as field channels) are required to enhance OFWM, provided that the main system is capable of delivering adequate amounts of water to the farm level in a timely manner. However, there is ample scope for improving water management aspects at the farm level.

177. Farmers are practicing basin irrigation for irrigating dry season paddy, especially in its early stages, but land preparation, mainly land leveling, is very poor. As a result, water losses are excessive due to infiltration and surface runoff, making irrigation highly inefficient.

178. Farmers practice basin irrigation (under flooding condition) for cultivating paddy. However, the existing plot size of 100 x 100 m is quite large for pumped stream sizes that are likely to exist in the system area. As a result, delivery and duration of irrigation application of tubewell water is quite large (four days for first irrigation and two days for successive irrigation), resulting in extremely low water application efficiency.

179. As the system is not in operation, the status of land leveling is not well known. However, the PDWRAM Deputy Director and other farmers mentioned that the status of land leveling in the command area is poor and thus needs to be improved.

180. Aspects of water management in the PPIS command area vary with the climatic season. Accordingly, tertiary canals operate with varying functions. An understanding of these different functions of tertiary canals is essential for improved OFWM. These different functions are outlined below.




• During rainy days in the early wet season, tertiary canals intercept surface runoff, which is then stored in the main and secondary canals for later use. In this scenario, tertiary canals act as intercepting canals for enabling water storage in the main and secondary canals.

• During dry days in the early wet season, crops need water; thus, irrigation needs to be applied. In this situation, farmers pump water from the main/secondary canals, which is then transported through tertiary canals for irrigating the command area. In this scenario, tertiary canals function as conveying canals for irrigation.

• During the latter part of the wet season, infiltration into the soil is reduced drastically due to poor internal drainage, and paddy fields get flooded even with little rain. In such scenario, tertiary canals start functioning as drainage canals and help release surface waters impounded in the paddy fields.

2. Proposed Options for Improving OFWM in PPIS

181. As the proposed Prek Po Subproject aims to modernize the PPIS to provide water during the dry season, making it possible to grow two additional crops, the following two broad options are proposed for improving OFWM with a focus on dry season irrigation:

• Capacity building of farmers and water managers; and • Improving O&M of tertiary canals commanding 100 ha (within a grid of secondary canals)

in order to increase farm-level irrigation efficiency twofold. This objective is to be achieved by also adopting equitable distribution of irrigation water to farmers within the tertiary command.

182. Capacity building of farmers and water managers. It has been well recognized that the management of irrigation at farm level is a complex socio-technical phenomenon. It involves

collective action by people and includes multiple activities like maintenance of irrigation, organizing the local community, and delivering water to users to meet their needs. Varying demand and supply of water over time and space has further increased the complexity of managing irrigation at the farm level. Despite recognizing the need for a socio-technical

approach to irrigation management, regular interdisciplinary training for water professionals, local water managers, and water users is non-existent in Cambodia. Further, existing

academic institutions in Cambodia also focus only on hardcore engineering.

183. Given this deficiency, a capacity building component is proposed as one of the options for improving OFWM in the long run. It will include the development of training

manuals and delivery of trainings with a view to addressing field-based problems. Part of these trainings will be supported by field-level demonstrations. The suggested areas/topics of training are: (i) socio-technical aspects of irrigation; (ii) flow measurement; (iii) irrigation methods; (iv) soil-water-plant relationship and crop water requirements; and (v) irrigation

performance and benchmarking.

184. Improving O&M of tertiary canals. The operation of a tertiary canal involves a complex process of actual delivery of water to end-users, which is shaped by human, institutional,

and ecological aspects that vary from place to place. This means that a single prescription for O&M of a tertiary canal may not work in different segments of the command area. Hence,

the need for a site-specific O&M plan for each tertiary canal.

185. Considering the need for site-specific O&M plans and recognizing that O&M of tertiary canals is the responsibility of the FWUC, the project will support the respective block

committees/ FWUC in the preparation and implementation of the O&M plan. The plan will be prepared to cover all cropping cycles of a complete calendar year.




186. This activity will be implemented in two phases: pre-implementation and full implementation. During the preparatory phase, a series of meetings will be conducted with

the different communes located at different hierarchies of the tertiary canal to arrive at a FWUC-agreed O&M plan. The actual implementation of the O&M plan will be closely

monitored to enable its further improvement in the succeeding year/s.

187. The implementation of the O&M Plan will include the following activities:

• Calibration of tertiary inlet structure for time series measurement of incoming flows; • Preparation of parcellary map of the tertiary command area for demarcation of actual

irrigation areas and identification of water users. Images drawn by a drone camera will be processed in preparing a participatory parcellary map. These maps will then be used in aligning the field channel and related structures;

• Design of rotational water distribution schedule and implementing it within the tertiary command. This will be shaped by the main system irrigation scheduling and proposed/existing cropping patterns;

• Monitoring of actual operation of water distribution within the tertiary command; • Evaluation and provision of feedback for further improvement of tertiary operation; and • Preparation of a maintenance plan and monitoring its implementation.

3. Implementation Approach to Improving O&M of Tertiary Canals

188. The O&M program will be implemented at the block level consisting of five tertiary canals enclosed by a grid of secondary canals (kilo canals) covering an area of 100 ha.

189. The PPIS area will be roughly divided into 80 blocks, each consisting of five tertiary canals extended over six communes. About 24 representative blocks (30% of the area) will be selected from all the six communes for improving O&M of the tertiary canals therein. This means that each commune will have about four blocks extended over the commune area. As the PPIS does not have a FWUC, an ad hoc water users’ committee (Ad-hoc WUC) will be established for each block from among the active commune members of the area. The Ad-hoc WUC will be supervised by the elected representative of the concerned communes, and they will continue working until the FWUC is established.

190. The Ad-hoc WUC will be involved throughout plan preparation and implementation to improve the O&M of tertiary canals. It is believed that after the improvement of tertiary-level O&M within each block, concerned farmers’ representatives and Ad-hoc WUC will be capable of improving the O&M of the remaining tertiary canals on their own in other blocks.

191. A local NGO will be mobilized for the preparation and implementation of O&M improvement activities in the tertiary canals within each block. The NGO will also be made responsible for the design and implementation of essential farm-level structural improvement works, including social mobilization, information dissemination, and demonstration of high-efficiency irrigation methods. The NGO will be supervised by the project management and implementation consultant (PMIC) of the ensuing project.

192. OFWM activities in the PPIS are classified into two: farm-level infrastructure improvement and NGO-assisted O&M Plan implementation. These are estimated to cost about $3.36 million, as shown in Table 24.




Table 24: Estimated Cost of OFWM, PPIS

No. Cost Items and Description Estimated Cost ($’000)

1. Farm-level infrastructure

Division boxes or on-off pipe outlets in tertiary canals, canal culverts for road access to farms, and drainage facilities

(The number and type of structures will be decided during participatory planning process.)

1.961

2. NGO costs for preparation and implementation of tertiary canal O&M plan at block level

Tasks include: (i) preparation of tertiary canal O&M plan for each block; (ii) plan implementation; (iii) design and construction of farm-level infrastructure; (iv) design and implementation of demonstration plots for high-efficiency irrigation methods; and (v) training of farmers.

1.402

Total Cost 3.36 1 Tertiary and on-farm facilities in the CAVAC-funded Taing Krasaing core subproject amounted to $490/ha. As

tertiary canals are already in place in PPIS, and the system does not require extensive field channels, it is estimated that farm-level structures can be built at half the price or $164/ha. At the PPIS command area of 8,000 ha, the total estimated cost for on-farm infrastructure is $1.96 million.

2 Based on the estimate of NGO costs for the Kamping Pouy Irrigation System ($0.175 million for 1,000 ha), the tentative cost for NGO services for the PPIS is estimated to be about $1.4 million


4. High-efficiency Irrigation Methods 193. In the PPIS, besides rice cultivation, the proposed cropping pattern also includes high-value crops in the dry season. Basin and furrow irrigation are appropriate high-efficiency irrigation methods for these crops. Although farmers in the PPIS are already practicing basin irrigation for paddy, the existing basin sizes are quite large compared to the likely stream size, making irrigation highly inefficient. Thus, farmers need to be made aware, through demonstrations, of the efficient sizes of basin irrigation for the available stream sizes. 194. In each tertiary canal command area under the 24 representative blocks, the Prek Po Subproject will demonstrate high-efficiency irrigation methods in farmers’ fields. For this, the existing leveled land will be divided into smaller units (sub-basins) with the help of temporary ridges or bunds, and irrigation will be applied in each sub-basin, as shown in the example in Figure 24. This action will not only match the basin area with the stream size, but will also help in maintaining an almost uniform level within it. This demonstration will be linked to the capacity building component described above.

Figure 24: Example of High-efficiency Basin Irrigation in Afghanistan




195. The demonstration of high-efficiency irrigation methods will involve the following activities: (i) identification of suitable representative land plot within the tertiary command for demonstration; (ii) design and construction of suitable basin and furrow for demonstration of irrigation and other cultural activities like weeding, mechanized harvesting, and so on; (iii) monitoring the performance of basin and furrow irrigation; and (iv) informing the FWUC, the farmers, and irrigation professionals of the benefits of high- efficiency basin and furrow irrigation. The NGO to be recruited for OFWM will be responsible for performing the tasks related to the demonstration of high-efficiency irrigation methods.

5. Conclusion

196. The PPIS has a well-developed command area, with each plot of land having access to a tertiary canal. Canal density down to field inlets is about 59.15 m/ha, more than the FAO- recommended value of 50 m/ha for good water control. However, despite the good density of canals, the system has remained dysfunctional for a long time. As a result, many farmers have developed private tubewells for the cultivation of wet season paddy. The water use efficiency of tubewell irrigation is very low. 197. As there is practically no water management in the PPIS, OFWM needs to be re-initiated after the modernization of the system. The following measures are recommended to enhance OFWM in the PPIS: (i) capacity building of farmers and water managers; (ii) improving O&M of tertiary canals, including identification and development of additional essential infrastructure within the tertiary command; and (iii) demonstration of high-efficiency irrigation methods. The PMIC of IAIP will be responsible for the capacity building component of OFWM, while a local NGO will be mobilized for improving the O&M of tertiary canals and for demonstrating efficient irrigation methods. The NGO will be supervised by the PMIC.

C. Climate Proofing of PPIS

1. Introduction

198. Climate change is a big concern in Southeast Asia, and its impacts are projected to intensify, threatening the development and security of the region, particularly developing countries like Cambodia, whose economy is largely agricultural and, therefore, highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Most studies suggest that both agricultural productivity (crop production per unit area) and the area of arable land will be most affected by changes in climate variables.6 199. Climate, with its space and time variability, is a major determinant of agricultural production. All agricultural production is related to the performance of cultivated species, which are bound to particular environmental conditions. As climatic conditions change, production conditions are also likely to change, with possible positive or negative implications on agricultural production.7 If climate change impacts on agriculture are known, measures can be planned to adapt agricultural management in order to prevent the negative impacts of climate change and to exploit new, emerging potentials.8

200. In Cambodia, climate change manifests itself in either more rain due to enhanced monsoon activity and to intense storms or to prolonged periods of less or no rainfall at all. The physical impacts of these events are either floods that could destroy crops and facilities or droughts causing premature drying out of crops, resulting in losses in production and productivity.

6 ADB, 2012. Guidelines for Climate Proofing Investments in Agriculture, Rural Development, and Food Security. Manila. 7 Lobell, D.B. M.B. Burke, C. Tebaldi, C. Mastrandrea, W.P. Falcon, R.L. Naylor. 2008. Prioritizing climate change

adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science 2008 (319): 607–610. 8 Schiermeier, Q. 2015. Quest for climate-proof farms. Nature. 523:396–397




201. During the wet season (May to October) in the current climate/weather regime, the crop water requirement could be largely met from rainfall in an average year.9 In dry years (80% exceedance), irrigation is necessary, particularly in view of the erratic onset of the wet season.

2. Current Climate Conditions in the Prek Po Subproject

202. The PPIS is located in the floodplain of the Mekong River upstream of Phnom Penh. It is subject to flooding but only in a wet year of high flood, such as in 2011. Flooding at Prek Po is much slower but prolonged, caused by the overflow of the Mekong River.10 Annual maximum and minimum water levels of the Mekong River in Kampong Cham, which is located 54 km upstream of Prek Po, are shown in Table 25. The table shows that a similar case of flooding also occurred in 2013 and 2014.

Table 25: Maximum and Minimum Water Levels of the Mekong in Kampong Cham

Year Max WL

Days of HFL

Min WL H hmax

2008-2009 14.38 11

2009-2010 15.16 5

2010-2011 13.43 5

2011-2012 16.02 11 13.72

2012-2013 11.17 11

2013-2014 15.97 8 3.28 12.69

2014-2015 15.93 8 2.62 13.31

2015-2016 12.16 8 2.3 9.86

2016-2017 13.31 9 2.85 10.46

2017-2018 14.62 6


203. Rainfall data for Prek Po show that through the wet season (May to October), the crop water requirement11 could be largely met from rainfall in an average (or normal) year. However, in dry years (80% exceedance), irrigation is necessary, particularly in view of the uncertainty of the onset of the wet season. However, there are some periods in July and August when crops do not get sufficient rainfall. Only 10% of the subproject area is cultivated during the dry season. The subproject area faced a severe drought in 2002; a more recent drought influenced by the 2015-2016 El Nino also impacted the province,12 although the extent of damage has not yet been officially published.

204. Flood control measures. Floodwater enters the subproject area from the Boeung Veam reservoir, which is situated at the northeast side of the system. In 2011, MOWRAM constructed an 8-km long dike to increase the storage capacity of the reservoir, and in 2017, it constructed four headworks, 10 drain inlets, a 200-m long spillway, and one check structure in the dam. These structural measures not only increased the storage capacity of the reservoir, but also controlled flood entry into the Prek Po Subproject area. Now, flood can enter the command area only through the canal system, which can be controlled. Therefore, it is no longer a big problem in the Prek Po area.

205. TRTA reports (2018) indicate that since the source of water for the Prek Po Subproject is the Mekong River, a shortage in water supply is not foreseen. The low water flow observed in the main

9 Milner H. and S.I. Monichot. 2018: Hydrology Report. TA 9349-CAM: Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project. 10 Ibid. 11 Milner, H. and Monichot, S.I., 2018. Hydrology Report. TA 9349-CAM: Preparing the Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (IAIP), Cambodia.

12 NCDM and WFP. 2003. Mapping Vulnerability to Natural Disasters in Cambodia.




canal during the site visit of the TRTA Team could be attributed to the large amounts of garbage (e.g., plastic wrappers, bottles, etc.) and water lilies, which are clogging the canal and obstructing water flow.

206. Table 26 shows the baseline and projected climate (mean temperature and rainfall) in Prek Po. By 2050, rainfall is projected to decrease by 0.9% in the normal dry period (from 202.5 mm to 201 mm) and to increase by 11.1% during the wet period (from 1,089.7 to 1,210.6 mm). Projected temperature increases are 2.5oC and 2.9oC in the wet season (from 29.1oC to 32oC) and dry season (from 30.7oC to 33.1oC), respectively. Baseline and projected changes in rainfall values for 2050 (i.e., average for the period 2036-2065) are mapped in Figures 25 and 26 below for the wet and dry seasons.

Table 26: Baseline and Projected Average Maximum Temperatures and Rainfall in Prek Po (Coordinates: 11.87 N/105.33E), 2050

Variable Unit Season Period

Baseline 2050 Change

Maximum temperature, 0C

Dry 30.7 33.1 2.5 Wet 29.1 32 2.9

Rainfall, mm Dry 202.5 201 -0.9 % Wet 1089.7 1210.6 11.1%


Figure 25: Baseline and Change in Rainfall during Wet Season, 2050, Kampong Cham

Figure 26: Baseline and Change in Rainfall during Dry Season, 2050, Kampong Cham

207. Figures 27 and 28 depict the baseline temperature and projected changes in 2050 for the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Comparing the baseline and projected values for the province and the subproject site, the amounts of rainfall (for both wet and dry seasons) do not differ very much. Hence, the flood scenario for Kampong Cham can also be used for the Prek Po Subproject. Based on the 2011 flood event in Cambodia, which has significant impacts on Kampong Cham, flooding without and with climate change are almost the same for the command area and the province (Figs. 29 and 30).




Figure 27: Baseline and Change in Temperature during Wet Season, 2050,

Kampong Cham

Figure 28: Baseline and Change in Temperature during Dry Season, 2050,

Kampong Cham

Figure 29: Flooding under Baseline Condition: 30-40% of Province

Impacted by Flood

Figure 30: Flooding under Climate Change Scenario

208. The projected change in flow in the Mekong River with climate change is an increase in the dry season flow and increased variability in the wet season flow.13 Given that the current irrigation practices rely on regular flooding, the anticipated increase in wet season flows may present a threat to livelihoods, particularly from higher floods.

13 Milner, H. and Monichot, S.I., 2018: Hydrology Report, TA 9349-CAM: Preparing the Irrigated Agriculture Improvement

Project (IAIP), Cambodia.




3. Climate Proofing the Irrigation System in Prek Po

209. Although the hazard and exposure of the subproject areas to extreme rainfall events and increased warming leading to both floods and droughts are high, the sensitivities could greatly be reduced through climate proofing and adaptive management, thereby decreasing the risks. There is also a potential for collaboration between the government and the FWUC on the sustainability of the irrigation scheme. Other measures that can be put into operation in the ensuing subproject are described below. With respect to drainage, the command area level varies from 13.5 m to 9.5 m, and there are about 59 m/ha of land drainage channels. However, during the wet season, farmers close the existing check structures in the main canal so they can use the water for irrigation. 210. Climate proofing of the Prek Po Subproject will be done by: (i) providing sufficient flood protection measures in the command area; (ii) providing sufficient drainage canals; (iii) managing water supply in the system; and (iv) managing the crops. 211. Flood protection measures. The PDWRAM has constructed an 8-km long earthen dam, headworks, and spillway for the Boeung Veam Reservoir. These structures not only increase the storage capacity of the reservoir, they also protect the command area from flooding from the Mekong. Now, the entry of flood into the command area can be controlled, so flooding is not a major problem in Prek Po. 212. Drainage canal design. The purpose of drainage in paddy rice cultivation is to remove rainwater from farms at the most critical times in the cropping cycle, viz., just after transplanting and prior to harvesting. Typically, the drainage coefficient is based on the criterion that the average excess depth during the three-day design rainfall should not be greater than 20 cm, and depths in excess of 10 cm should not last longer than three days. In most situations, the duration of rainfall is taken as 2-3 days and frequency at 5 years. 213. At present, drainage canals in the PPIS also function as irrigation canals, and farmers close the gates of the check structure and make earthen bunds divert water to the lower level irrigation canals. Sometimes, a drainage problem occurs during heavy rains when drainage canals are blocked. After the modernization of the subproject, drainage canals will function only for drainage as separate irrigation canals will be constructed, and undersized and damaged structures will be removed from the drainage canals. 214. Drought management. Pumps will be designed for the lowest level of the Mekong River during the dry season, thereby ensuring that farmers will get irrigation water throughout the year. The main and all secondary canals will be concrete-lined, thus reducing seepage losses, and irrigation scheduling will be done for better water management. 215. Alternate wetting and drying (AWD). This is a water-saving technology that farmers can apply to reduce their irrigation water consumption in rice fields without decreasing yield. A practical way to implement AWD safely is by using a ‘field water tube’ (‘pani pipe’) to monitor water depth in the field. After irrigation, water depth will gradually decrease. When the water level has dropped to about 15 cm below the soil surface, irrigation will be applied to re-flood the field to a depth of about 5 cm. From one week before to one week after flowering, the field should be kept flooded, topping up to a depth of 5 cm, as needed. After flowering, during grain filling and ripening, the water level can be allowed to drop again to 15 cm below the soil surface before re-irrigation.




4. Estimates of Climate Proofing Costs

216. Unlike in mitigation actions, the cost of adaptation is still in its infancy. Globally, the range of estimates is wide, symptomatic for the poor state of knowledge (Frankhauser, 2009).14 Estimates of cost of adapting to “median” climate change over the next 20 years remain indicative and incomplete. There are still remaining important gaps in estimating adaptation cost, such as: (i) whether the scope of analysis covered all the impacts; (ii) whether the depth of analysis considered all relevant adaptation options and needs; and (iii) how uncertainty about future change affects cost.

217. In the same paper, Frankhauser (2009) stated that the World Bank assumes that 2-10% of gross domestic investment, 10% of foreign direct investment (FDI), and 40% of official development assistance (ODA) would be sensitive to climate change. The mark-up to climate-proof these investments was assumed to be 10-20%. For purposes of this feasibility study, a uniform cost estimate of 10% was added to the cost without climate proofing. In Table 27, the least cost estimate for climate proofing activities to improve the management of system performance (civil works and O&M costs) and hydromet upgrading is $2,837,118. Although the subproject has considered most climate proofing works, an additional 10% of the subproject cost is included for other works that may be needed during the implementation phase.

Table 27: Cost Estimates of Climate Proofing the Prek Po Subproject

Measures

Cost without Climate Proofing

($)

Climate Proofing Cost

(10%)

($)

Cost with Climate Proofing

($)

Construction of new pumping station and auxiliaries; modernization of secondary canals; construction of associated structures; and contingencies

24,529,809 2,452,981 26,982,790

Subproject O&M cost 3,620,383 362,038 3,982,421

Hydromet upgrade for Prek Po (equipment, infrastructure, installation, operating costs for 10 years)

220,990 22,099 243,089

Total 28,371,182 2,837,118 31,208,300


VI. SUBPROJECT COST ESTIMATES

218. This chapter presents all the costs involved in the modernization of the PPIS, including the following: (i) civil works (construction and O&M); (ii) FWUC establishment and capacity building; (iii) agriculture activities; and (iv) upgrading of hydromet network and automatic weather stations (AWSs).

A. Civil Works

219. The civil works will comprise two main cost items, construction and O&M, estimated at

about $28.15 million (see Table 28).

14 Frankhauser S. 2009: “The costs of adaptation.“ Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper No.

8. Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment Working Paper No. 7.




Table 28: Detailed Cost Estimates of Civil Works, Prek Po Subproject

No. Description Length

(km)

Main Canal, Secondary Canals,

and Drains ($)

Structures

($)

Total Cost

($)

A. Construction Cost

1. Construction of new pumping station with electrical/solar submersible/ screw pumps in the Mekong River

2,000,000 2,000,000

2.

Construction of pump outlet tank and stilling basin at Pump Station 1 No, including demolition of an existing stationary pump station

49,472 49,472

3. Modernization of main canal from station 0+007 m to station 2+000 m

2.00 1,222,200 83,000 1,305,200

4. Modernization of main canal from station 2+000 m to station 12+750 m

10.75 3,589,190 546,200 4,135,390

5. Modernization of secondary canals, U shape, total length of 13.66 km

13.66 1,676,768 1,676,768

6. Modernization of secondary canals, medium size, U shape, 19.89 km

19.89 3,484,291 3,484,291

7. Modernization of secondary canals, large size (design discharge of 1.39 m3/s, with total length of 36.48 km

36.48 7,547,585 7,547,585

8. Constructioin of associated structures on secondary canals and drains

2,066,199

9. Construction of FWUC Building 1 35,000 35,000

Sub-total , A 82.78 17,520,035 4,779,791 22,299,827

10. Physical Contingency (10%) 2,229,982

Total Construction Cost 24,529,809

B. O&M Cost

11. Annual O&M cost for pump station ($80/ha in dry season)

640,000

12. Annual O&M cost for pump station ($50/ha in wet season)

400,000

13. Major repairs (every 10th year) (12% of canal cost)

2,102,404

14. Major repairs (every 10th year) (10% of cost of structures)

477,979

Sub-total, B 3,620,383

Total Cost, A+B 28,150,193

Source: Consultant’s estimates

B. FWUC Establishment and Capacity Building

220. The cost of FWUC establishment and capacity building in system O&M is estimated at about $432,700 (Table 29). Training will be conducted for the FWUC as well as for PDWRAM and MOWRAM key staff who will support the Prek Po FWUC in the O&M of the system.

Table 29: Estimated Cost of FWUC Establishment and Training, Prek Po Subproject

No. Item Unit Cost

($) No. of Units

Amount

($)

A. For MOWRAM, PDWRAM, and Other Institutions 130,500

1. Project orientation on project plan 2,500 2 5,000.00

2. FWUC formation and strengthening 20,000 1 20,000




No. Item Unit Cost

($) No. of Units

Amount

($)

3. Training on gender awareness and GAP 2,500 2 5,000

4. Financial management and accounting training 2,000 2 4,000

5. Procurement procedures training 2,000 2 4,000

6. Environmental awareness training 2,500 3 7,500

7. Training on construction management and supervision

2,000 5 10,000

8. On-farm water management training 2,000 5 10,000

9. O&M taining 2,500 5 12,500

10. Field monitoring visit 4,000 5 20,000

11. Office stationery/equipment, phone, computer and printer, digital camera

20,000 1 20,000

12. Motorbike for field work to support FWUC 2,500 5 12,500

B. For the PPIS FWUC 262,900

13. Project orientation and information campaign

(24 villages) 300 24 7,200

14. Training on legal documents 2,500 2 5,000

15. Training on FWUC general management & admin 2,500 2 5,000

16. Training on O&M 2,500 2 5,000

17. Training on water management 2,500 2 5,000

18. Training on ISF 2,500 2 5,000

19. Training on financial management 2,500 2 5,000

20. Training on FWUC election (procedures, preparations, requirements)

2,500 2 5,000

21. Training on gender and environment 3,500 2 7,000

22. Gender and environmental (climate change) campaign & awareness raising in 24 villages

300 24 7,200

23. Training on construction management (work arrangements)

2,500 2 5,000

24. O&M managed by FWUC 40,000 5 200,000

25. Computer and printer for FWUC Committee 1,500 1 1,500

Total, A+B 393,400

C. Contingency

26. Contingency for A & B (10%) 39,340

Grand Total, A+B+C 432,740


C. System O&M

221. The O&M cost for the subproject is estimated at $80/ha/crop based on the experience in a number of systems, which are equipped with the same type of infrastructure, such as a pump station running on electricity, concrete-lined irrigation distribution network, and irrigating the same crop (rice). However, the actual cost will be reassessed during subproject implementation, may have to be adjusted and agreed to by the FWUC and water users.

D. Agriculture Activities

222. The agricultural input package consists of a set of recommendations to correct the limitations to yield of rice in Prek Po. These limitations include: (i) poor quality and excessive use of seeds, poor management of paddy water during seed sowing, fertilizer application, and harvesting; and (ii) inappropriate combination of fertilizer materials and timing of application of fertilizers to meet the




nutritional requirement of the crop for specific locations, and excessive use of pesticides. Methods to reduce water use in the rice paddies in anticipation of abnormal rainfall due to climate change will also be included in the demonstration. The proposed agricultural input package will be demonstrated with farmers planning and conducting the demonstration themselves through the farmer field school approach.

223. The proposed budget will support the conduct of 100 field demonstrations at farmers’ fields. The cost of materials, facilitators, resource persons, and other expenditures to be incurred in the establishment of the on-farm demonstrations will be shouldered by the project for two years (Table 30).

Table 30: Estimated Cost of Proposed Agriculture Activities

No. Description No. of Sites Unit Rate ($) Amount ($)

1. Rice agro-input package demonstration 970 500 485,000

2. Farmer field school 970 1,650 1,600,000

3. Vegetable production demonstration 102 650 66,300

Total 2,151,300


E. Upgrading of Hydro-met Station and AWS

224. The estimated cost of upgrading of the hydromet network and AWS is about $220,990, including equipment, civil works (installation of the system), trainings, and operating cost for 10 years, as summarized in Table 31 and presented in detail in Table 32.

Table 31: Cost Summary, Upgrading of Hydromet Network, Prek Po

Item Amount ($) Equipment 110,000 Infrastructure and installation 6,500 Vehicles 10,000 Computers 7,000 Training 10,000 Operating costs (10 years) 57,400 Total 220,990

Table 32: Detailed Cost Estimates, Hydromet Upgrade, Prek Po

No. Item No. Unit Price ($) Amount ($)

A. Hydrology Network and Data Collection

1. Upgrading and installation of hydrological station and telemetry system including equipment

1 25,000 25,000

2. Concrete tower for 3 hydrological stations 1 4,000 4,000

3. Flow measurement per hydrological year (Apr-March, Cambodia, e.g., April 2000- March 2001),1 measurement/ station/yr

10 500 5,000

4. O&M ($2,500 per station per year) 10 3,240 32,400

5. Hydrometric equipment (one set) 1 12,000 12,000

6. Operating cost – training 1 5,000 5,000

7. Computer for field operation and office work (Touch Books) 1 3,500 3,500

8. Vehicles 0 30,000 30,000

9. Boat 1 3,000 3,000

10. Engine, Yamaha 2 hp 1 7,000 7,000




No. Item No. Unit Price ($) Amount ($)

Sub-total, A 96,900

Contingency (10%) 9,690

Total, A 106,590

B. Meteorological Station 1 70,000 70,000

1. Installation of AWS, including equipment, facilities, installation, training, communication, and database management

1 3,000 3,000

2. Automatic rain gauge (including modem for data transmission and box)

1 2,500 2,500

3. Installation cost including training 10 1,500 15,000

4. O&M for AWS ($1,500 per station per year) 10 500 5,000

2.5 O&M for automatic rain gauge ($500 per station per year x 3 years)

0 30,000 30,000

2.6 Vehicles 1 5,000 5,000

2.7 Operating cost – training 1 3,500 3,500

2.8 Computer for field operation and office work (Touch Books) 1 70,000 70,000

Sub-total, B 104,000

Contingency (10%) 10,400

Total, B 114,400

Grand Total, A+B 220,990


F. Cost Summary

225. The Prek Po Subproject is estimated to cost about $31 million, as shown in the table below.

Item Estimated Cost ($)

Civil works (construction and O&M costs) 28,150,193

FWUC establishment and capacity building 432,740

Agriculture activities 2,151,300

Upgrading of hydromet station and AWS 220,990

Total 30,955,223

VII. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

A. Introduction

226. Water is the key input to agricultural production, productivity increase, and economic growth. Rainfall distribution and river discharges have significant seasonal variability in Cambodia, thus adversely affecting sustained agricultural production and increasing vulnerability. Climate change is likely to further exacerbate the situation. Timely availability and efficient management of water are of prime importance for increasing agricultural productivity and for the successful implementation of agricultural diversification. These will, in turn, have significant positive impacts on the rural economy.

227. The Irrigated Agriculture Improvement Project (the project) will enhance agricultural productivity through increased efficiency of irrigation systems and improved management of water




resources in the Battambang and Kampong Cham provinces.15 These provinces were identified to have great potential to increase agriculture production by two to three times and crop diversification towards enhanced food security of the country.

228. Improving agricultural productivity and diversification, as well as managing irrigation systems and water resources, are among the major thrusts of the government's national strategy, the 2013 Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity, and Efficiency, Phase III. ADB's Country Partnership Strategy (2014-2018) (para. 20.1) also recommends interventions that will: (i) make agriculture more market-oriented and improve market links; (ii) make on-farm practices more efficient by making more efficient use of natural resources (land and water); and (iii) increase productivity growth through higher-value outputs, including through greater specialization within rice cultivation and high-value non-rice crops. Improved irrigation will be key to achieving these objectives.

229. Improving agricultural productivity, diversification, and managing irrigation systems and water resources are among the major thrusts of the government's national strategy, the 2013 Rectangular Strategy for Growth, Employment, Equity, and Efficiency, Phase III. The ADB' Country Partnership Strategy for Cambodia, 2014-2018 recommends interventions that will: (i) make agriculture more market-oriented and improve market links; (ii) make on-farm practices more efficient by making more efficient use of natural resources (land and water); and (iii) increase productivity growth through higher-value outputs, including through greater specialization within rice cultivation and high-value non-rice crops. Improved irrigation will be key to achieving these objectives.

B. Methodology

230. This section presents the economic analysis undertaken for the Prek Po Subproject. Benefits and costs are examined in order to assess the viability of the subproject and identify its expected impact on various sectors of local society, including the poor. For this analysis, the costs and benefits within the subproject irrigation command area are calculated “with” and “without” project. In the “without” project scenario, part of the command area is not irrigated. The intent is to identify the incremental value of production attributable to the project (over its expected useful life) and compare this value with the incremental cost of implementing the subproject and operating and maintaining the rehabilitated and new infrastructure over time.

231. For each subproject, the construction period is assumed to be three years, over which period “with” and “without” project crop production is assumed to be the same. Full “with project” crop areas and yields are assumed to be achieved over the subsequent six years. Although in practice, peak yield may take a bit longer to evolve, the impact on economic return would be negligible. It is assumed that whatever changes occur in the future (e.g., to the economy or climate) will affect the “with” and “without” project scenarios roughly equally, maintaining the incremental differences in benefits and costs associated with project implementation.

232. To develop a model for the analysis, assumptions were made regarding future practice and the valuation of inputs and outputs. These include:

• Project life is assumed to be 25 years. Assuming adequate maintenance, the irrigation system should be able to maintain its expected benefits for 25 years before another major renovation may be required. Substantial renovations every 10 years are also included in the project cash flow. No residual value is assumed, although in practice, the system will retain substantial value, particularly based on the major work planned for 2042, only two years before the assumed end-of-life.

15 One or two more provinces which will be selected out of an additional five provinces (i.e., Kampot, Kampong Thom,

Prey Veng Takeo, and Tbong Khmum).




• The “without project” situation assumes that present cultivation patterns and technology will continue for the life of the project.

• Under the “with project” situation, the full command area is expected to continue to be adequately irrigated throughout the life of the project, allowing farmers to adopt appropriate cropping patterns and technology.16

• Some agricultural outputs will be consumed by farm households but are valued as if sold. • Some agricultural inputs, such as farm labor, are provided by the farm household but are

valued at the market rate as if hired. • Values are expressed in constant 2018 prices and exclude inflation. • The US$ is the unit of account since the currency is in common usage in Cambodia, and

the Khmer Riel (KR) to $ exchange rate is stable at around KR4,010 per US$ at present.

233. Financial prices used in this analysis were determined through field visits and focus group discussions conducted by the TRTA team.

234. In order to assess each subproject’s contributions (and costs) to the economy of Cambodia, it is necessary to convert financial values into their economic equivalents. Economic valuations exclude transfers from one section of society to another (i.e., taxes and subsidies) and compare project benefits and real opportunity costs to the economy by translating all prices into a common, undistorted value. Additional basic assumptions used in the economic analysis include the following:

• The dollar is in common usage in Cambodia, and its relationship to the Riel is fixed. There are no significant import or export taxes that affect the project; thus, there is probably no need to apply a shadow exchange rate factor (SERF). However, an SERF has been included in the model and is tested under sensitivity analysis. Since around 80% of paddy produced under the project will be exported, the application of SERF increases economic paddy price and internal rate of return.

• For rural labor, a shadow wage rate factor (SWRF) of 0.9 is applied. The SWRF reflects the productivity of rural labor in the area.

• Transfer payments, such as taxes and subsidies, are excluded in the calculation of economic values.

• To calculate the economic net present value (ENPV) of the subproject, a discount rate of 12% is used, representing the opportunity cost of capital invested.

235. Paddy, corn, and fertilizer prices were calculated based on World Bank’s Pink Sheet projections.

C. Subproject Costs

236. “Without project” situation. The Prek Po system was constructed in the 1970s under the Khmer Rouge regime and is a reasonably well-designed system based on a pump station on the Mekong River. However, it has now deteriorated, and no pumping has occurred for the last 18 months. Farmers wishing to augment wet season water or undertake dry season irrigation use small diesel-powered tubewells with an estimated total coverage of around 1,100 ha used mainly for paddy but including a small area of upland crop.

237. “With project” situation. It is expected that a cropping intensity of around 200% will be achieved by project year 8, building up steadily from the construction completion year. It is, in fact, feasible to undertake triple cropping on part of the land with two dry season crops (one early and one late). However this has not been modelled in the base case, though during sensitivity testing, an increase in cropping intensity to 225% is evaluated.

16 It is assumed that changes that occur in the future (to the economy, climate) will affect the “with” and “without” project

scenarios roughly equally, thus maintaining the differences in benefits and costs associated with subproject implementation.




238. Prek Po Subproject costs. Subproject financial and economic costs are summarized in Table 33 and detailed in Table A2.1 of Appendix 2. Again, three subproject options have been defined, with Option 1 including no substantial canal lining (the cheapest) and Option 2 with concrete lining of primary and secondary canals (the most expensive). Option 2 is selected as the base case. Option 3 increases the distance between secondary canals from 1 km to 2 km and is intermediate in cost between Options 1 and 2.

Table 33: Prek Po Subproject Financial and Economic Costs, Option 2 ($’000)

Financial Cost Breakdown Economic

Option 2 Cost Foreign Local Costs Cost

Costs Materials

Skilled Labor

Unskilled Labor

1. Civil works embankments and canal upgrading 25,601 4,096 17,153 1,280 3,072 22,995

2. Capacity building 413 41 83 289 376 3. Agricultural demonstration and training

activities 178 18 89 71 163

4. On-farm facilities 3,360 336 672 2,352 3,085 Total, Subproject 3,951 395 844 2,713 3,624 Contingencies, non-civil works components 395 40 84 271 362 Total, including contingencies 29,948 4,531 18,081 4,264 3,072 26,981

239. Total irrigation subproject cost under Option 2 is estimated at $29.9 million with an economic cost of $27.0 million, of which irrigation system improvement costs $23 million. O&M cost for Option 2 is budgeted at 3% of capital expenditure. Major rehabilitation is budgeted every 10 years at a cost of 12% of canal and 10% of structures cost.

240. The main variations between financial and economic operational costs relate to harvesting, where the greater part of the cost relates to equipment and fuel, and fertilizer,17 the economic prices of which were calculated based on World Bank projections. Cultivation and seasonal levelling costs are assumed to be the same as the financial costs on the basis that they are a balance between labor (shadow priced at 0.9 times cost) and machinery (priced at 1.1).

D. Subproject Benefits

241. Improved availability of irrigation water and improved drainage will allow cropping intensity to increase with the project, from an estimated 72% at present to at least 200% within five years of completion of construction. Higher cropping intensities are feasible and may be achieved with the increased inclusion of 90-day rice varieties in the program. The baseline budget includes one traditional and one short-duration paddy crop.18 Upland crop budgets exhibit margins between $450/ha (peanuts) and $1,350/ha (watermelon). Although corn has a lower margin than watermelon, it is used to simulate upland crop production, both with and without the project.19 Estimates of the financial price of traditional paddy (jasmine, Sen Kra Ob, and white) are presented in Table A2.5.

242. The economic value of incremental crop production is estimated based on the increased crop production moving from the “without project” to the “with project” situation. With the project, the yields of traditional and short-duration varieties are expected to increase to from 4.5 t/ha to 5 t/ha by 2028. Expected crop areas, yields, and gross margins are summarized in Table 34.

17 See Table A2.2 for projections of fertilizer prices. 18 Paddy and corn price projections are presented in Table A2.3. 19 Upland crop budgets are presented in Table A2.4, suggesting margins between $450/ha (peanuts) and $1,350/ha

(watermelon). Although corn has a lower margin than watermelon, it is used to simulate upland crop production, both with and without the project.




Table 34: Prek Po Crop Areas and Production “With” and “Without” Project Without Project With Project

Areas

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry

Season

Early

(HYV)

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Planted May/June Nov Jan August Dec Jan

2020-22 Construction ha 4,622 1,044 58 4,622 1,044 58

2023 ha 4,622 1,044 58 6,500 3,000 200

2024 ha 4,622 1,044 58 6,800 3,920 240

2025 ha 4,622 1,044 58 7,100 4,840 280

2026 ha 4,622 1,044 58 7,400 5,760 320

2027 ha 4,622 1,044 58 7,700 6,680 360

2028 ha 4,622 1,044 58 8,000 7,600 400

Yields 2020-22 Construction kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 3,000 3,500 7,000

2023 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 3,000 3,500 7,000

2024 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 3,300 3,800 7,200

2025 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 3,600 4,100 7,400

2026 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 3,900 4,400 7,600

2027 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 4,200 4,700 7,800

2028 kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 4,500 5,000 8,000

Gross margins

2020-22 Construction $/ha 619 511 604 583 619 674

2023 $/ha 619 511 604 583 619 674

2024 $/ha 606 497 620 673 700 741

2025 $/ha 593 483 626 760 779 799

2026 $/ha 578 467 641 844 854 866

2027 $/ha 564 452 646 925 927 924

2028 $/ha 551 438 660 1,004 999 992

243. Economic prices are derived in Table A2.3 based on the FOB (freight on board) price on ships in Sihanoukville Harbor for export mainly to China, Malaysia, and the European Union (EU). Based on an FOB price for jasmine rice of $800/t, for Sen Kra Ob at $750/t, and white rice at $435/t, the economic price of jasmine (long season) wet paddy is estimated at $370/t in 2018 and at $345/t for Sen Kra Ob.

E. Subproject Farm Performance

244. Crop financial gross margins in 2028, five years after the completion of construction, were estimated and presented in Table 35.20 In summary, crop financial and economic performance under “with” and “without” project imply that it is feasible to almost double the gross margin per ha by production year 6 (when peak yield is obtained), which is subproject year 9 (allowing three years for construction, after which with-project cropping patterns commence).

20 Estimates of crop financial and economic gross margins are presented in detail in Table A2.6 and Table A2.7,

respectively.




Table 35: Financial and Economic Gross Margins “With” and “Without” Project, Prek Po Subproject 2028

Without Project With Project

Wet

Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Wet

Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry

Season

Early

(HYV)

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Area ha 4,622 1,044 58 8,000 7600 400

Irrigated no yes yes yes yes yes

Planted May Jan-Mar Jan Aug Dec Jan

Harvested Nov Apr-Jun Apr Nov Mar Apr

Financial Yield kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 4,500 5,000 8,000

Price $/t 324 302 263 324 302 263

Output $/ha 972 1,057 1,838 1,458 1,511 2,100

Total cost per ha $/ha 371 520 1,204 448 508 1,134

Financial gross margin $/ha 601 537 633 1,010 1,002 966

Economic Price $/t 324 302 263 324 302 263

Output $/ha 972 1,057 1,838 1,458 1,511 2,100

Total cost per ha $/ha 421 620 1,178 454 512 1,108

Economic gross margin $/ha 551 438 660 1,004 999 992

Source: Consultant’s estimates. 245. Few upland crops are grown in the PPIS at present. However, over time, more may be grown, but the area is expected to remain limited, based on Vietnamese experience. However, upland crop budgets have been prepared for the crops considered most suitable for production in the irrigation area. The budgets are summarized in Table 36. In general, the gross margins are similar to improved paddy, although watermelon is higher since no SERF is applied to export paddy in the base case. However, none of the crops appears sufficiently profitable at present to stimulate a mass migration from dry season paddy.

Table 36: Gross Margins of Upland Crops, Prek Po Subproject

Units

Soy-

bean

Mung-

bean

Water-

melon

Corn Peanut Sesame

Yield kg/ha 2,100 1,500 7,000 8,000 3,000 1,200

Price $/kg 0.80 0.80 0.35 0.25 0.40 1.30

Gross

income $/ha 1,680 1,200 2,450 2,000 1,200 1,560

Direct costs $/ha 810 445 1,120 1,074 749 619

Gross

margin $/ha 870 755 1,331 927 452 941

Source: Consultant’s estimates.

F. Subproject EIRR

246. Subproject construction costs are allocated to the three years, 2020-2022, with 30%, 50%, and 20% of total cost expended in each year. Over the construction years, the “with project” and “without project” performance of irrigation is assumed to be the same. There may be some yield or area gains, but these are assumed to be offset by the disruption caused by construction, although the project must make efforts to minimize this. Applying the calculated gross margins for the period




2023-2030 and assuming that margins thereafter remain the same, the subproject cashflow is generated which, in turn, exhibited an economic internal rate of return (EIRR) of 21.6% and net present value (NPV) at a 12% discount rate of $25 million.21 This high rate of return is due both to the envisaged production gains and to the high price generated by aromatic rice on the international market. In fact, the subproject would probably be uneconomic if producing only white (non-aromatic) rice for local consumption.

247. Sensitivity analysis was undertaken in relation to capital cost gains and paddy price declines, with a 10% increase in costs or decline in economic paddy price reducing EIRR to 18.9% and 18.2%. Capital cost would need to increase by 90% or paddy price to decline by 30% to reduce EIRR to 12%, referred to as the switching value, i.e., at which the project becomes uneconomic compared to an opportunity cost of capital of 12% (Table 37).

Table 37: Summary of Sensitivity Analysis Results, Prek Po Subproject

Capital Cost EIRR NPV 12%

$'000 (%) $'000

Capex Option EIRRs Option 1: No lining 20,577 25.5 29,788

Option 2: (Base case) Full lining 26,981 21.6 25,032

Option 3: 2-km spaced secondaries 22,373 24.3 28,726

Sensitivity based on Option 2 Capital cost increased by 10% 19.9 21,861

Paddy price falls by 10% 19.1 17,580

With-project peak yield reduced by 10% 19.0 16,708

Cropping intensity increased to 225% 23.4 31,659

Inclusion of SERF in analysis 22.7 29,161

Switching value for 12% EIRR

Capital cost increase 90

Paddy price decline 33

With-project yield decline 29

248. It is noted that the EIRR for Option 2 is low compared to Options 1 and 3. Reduction in capital cost by not lining most of the larger canals would significantly reduce capital cost (to $21.5 million) and increase EIRR to 25%. If funding is limited and/or advantages are identified for investing in earth canals, Option 1 is recommended.

VIII. ENVIRONMENTAL SAFEGUARDS

A. Regulatory Framework for Environmental Impact Assessment

249. ADB projects are assigned to an environment category depending on the significance of the potential environmental impacts and risks. This project has been classified as Category B for environment. Such projects are judged to have minimal, site-specific environmental impacts mostly occurring during the construction phase. An IEE, including an environmental management plan (EMP) is required.

250. An IEE for the Prek Po Subproject is in preparation following the format in the ADB Safeguards Policy Statement (SPS) (2009). The objectives of the IEE are to:

21 Details are presented in Table A2.8.




• describe the existing natural and socio-economical resources in and surrounding project area;

• identify and assess potential significant impacts based on existing environmental conditions including during project pre-construction, construction, and O&M stages;

• identify and recommend mitigation measures to minimize any potential impacts caused by project activities;

• undertake public consultation to present subproject environmental issues to project stakeholders and local people of the subprojects area and to collect community concerns; and

• develop an EMP with cost estimates and monitoring plans for the construction and operation stages to guide subproject implementation.

251. Since the subproject involves the refurbishment of existing irrigation infrastructure providing a command area in excess of 5,000 ha, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required under RGC Sub-decree No. 72 ANRK.BK. In the Aide Memoire of the ADB Review Mission of 6-8 February 2018, MOWRAM, the executing agency (EA), agreed to confirm the domestic environmental assessment process with the Ministry of Environment (MOE) and request any specific requirements and timescale for MOE’s endorsement. On receipt of this advice and upon completion of the detailed engineering design (DED) of the Prek Po Subproject, the TRTA Consultant will assist the EA in ensuring that the project IEE conforms with these requirements and can be submitted to MOE by MOWRAM in compliance with the sub-decree.

252. The following findings are taken from the environment team’s data collection and preliminary assessment activities.

B. Baseline Environment

253. Geology and soils. The proposed Prek Po subproject area is on quaternary alluvium formations, with the main part on alluvial plain deposits, with organic deposits (swamps) around the boundaries. These both weather in situ to a soil classified as gleyic acrisol under the FAO soil classification, clay-rich, and is associated with humid, tropical climates. There is also a small area of gleyic cambisol on the southeastern boundary. This is an immature soil with only the beginnings of soil and horizon formations but can support agriculture. Cambisols in temperate climates are among the most productive soils on earth.

254. Land use. The command area is fully sown to rice in the wet season and partially in the dry season. There are small village gardens throughout, along the road network. These gardens commonly comprise mango trees, banana, coconut, and papaya. The first 300-400 m of the main canal pass through a built-up area of Prek Po and are encroached upon by houses and outbuildings, vegetation, and rubbish. In the section of the main canal running south from the town of Prek Po, formal plantings of non-native mahogany trees, possibly Senegal mahogany (Khaya senegalensis), line the canal banks. Further into the command area, the main and secondary canals are lined with occasional trees of Acacia melanoxylon and Combetrum quadrangulare and with low trees and tall shrubs of Zizyphus jujube and Albizia myriophylla. The canals themselves are free of vegetation, and no canal fisheries have been noted. Along the paddy dikes away from the canals are occasional Zizyphus jujube, Cassia siamensis, and clumps of Bombax ceiba.

255. Rainfall and hydrology. The monthly rainfall for the Prek Po Subproject area is shown in Table 38. The data show that through the wet season (May-October), crop water requirement could be largely met from rainfall in an average year. In dry years (80% exceedance is shown as a dry year in the table), irrigation is necessary, particularly in view of the uncertainty of the commencement of the wet season.




Table 38: Average Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Rainfall (mm)

1985–2011 Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Annual

Average 99 185 189 181 198 270 204 61 13 11 17 55 1,485

Dry 80% 36 122 124 111 125 169 104 6 0 0 0 1 1,219

50% 75 179 165 163 207 259 212 48 2 1 0 38 1,466

Wet 20% 155 249 278 279 264 350 263 103 25 21 7 104 1,617

Max year 335 375 424 376 319 532 484 225 64 63 247 200 2,164

Min year 11 44 66 51 54 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,024

256. The major waterbody in the area is the Mekong River. The flow records selected to represent the water availability for the Prek Po system in the hydrographic survey is the Mekong River flow at Kampong Cham, just upstream of the subproject area. A hydrograph based on the monthly flows at this station for different years and flow exceedance probabilities is in Figure 31.

Figure 31: Average, Minimum, and Maximum Flows in Mekong River at Kampong Cham

257. Water quality. Surface water quality was sampled at two points along the main canal, which runs north-south through the command area. The sample farthest from Prek Po, in the south of the area, showed the poorest water quality, with selenium levels higher than Cambodian raw water standard and elevated levels of E. coli. Total nitrogen was elevated in both samples, indicating a degree of wastewater contamination. Neither sample contained detectable pesticide residues.

258. Groundwater in the command area is deep, with most domestic wells 30-40 m deep. Two wells were sampled at points along the main canal. Both showed acceptable levels of heavy metals, arsenic, and total nitrogen. However one well, at 40-m depth, showed elevated E. coli levels, suggesting direct contamination. Additionally, elevated levels of 4,4 DDT were found in the sample from a deepwell in the center of the command area, which was 20 times higher than the local standard. It is possible that this originated from recent local spraying for mosquitoes in the residential area and is unrelated to agricultural activity. The sale of DDT is banned in Cambodia.

259. Acoustic environment. Site ambient noise levels are high for a rural setting in Cambodia, due to the number of settlements within the command area and proximity to the main road. The use




of numerous small pumps on paddy dikes and along canals and frequent motorcycles and other vehicles along canal levee banks also result in elevated daytime noise levels. Typical daytime noise levels along the main and secondary canals are 1 hour averages of 50-52 decibels (dB), with maximum peaks of 70-80 dB due to vehicles. At the pump station channel on the Mekong at Prek Po, the noise levels without pumps operating were: 1 hr average, 50.4 dB; max, 78.9 dB; and min, 39.1 dB.

C. Assessment Findings

1. Pre-construction

260. Design issues for the subproject focus on: (i) no encroachment on protected areas and no impact on critical habitats; and (ii) matching the total irrigation area for a full wet season crop and a new dry season crop with water availability.

261. Protected areas and critical habitats. The location of the Prek Po Subproject was checked against MOE maps and the data in the International Biodiversity Assessment Tool (IBAT), and showed that the subproject does not encroach upon any nationally protected areas (IUCN management classes), international conservation agreement areas, or key biodiversity areas (KBAs) (Fig. 32).

Figure 32: IBAT Identification of Areas Showing no Encroachment by the Subproject Area on Protected Lands or Critical Habitats

Source: IBAT Assessment Tool

262. Water availability. The irrigation scheme must be sustainable and responsibly managed to ensure that agreed irrigation flows are maintained and other water users are not disadvantaged. Table 39 shows that more than sufficient water is available from the Mekong River to meet the irrigation demand of the Prek Po command area all months of the year.




Table 39: Cham Monthly Average, Dry, Minimum, and Maximum Flows (million cubic meters [mcm]), Mekong River at Kampong

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Annual

Average 6.5 10.0 25.3 55.2 90.0 89.8 61.0 29.1 16.1 9.8 6.7 6.6 406.0

Dry 80% 5.9 7.1 13.5 39.5 79.1 77.4 48.7 20.9 12.3 8.0 5.7 5.9 324.1

Dry 50% 6.5 8.4 19.9 51.5 91.0 91.0 61.1 28.3 16.0 9.8 6.9 6.5 396.8

Wet 20% 7.0 12.3 38.8 65.9 101.9 101.9 69.7 38.8 20.1 11.3 7.6 7.2 482.4

Max year 7.3 20.5 49.0 99.2 115.0 113.5 83.2 45.4 23.2 13.8 8.4 8.0 586.4

Min year 5.5 6.4 11.8 37.1 47.6 61.9 36.1 18.6 10.8 7.0 5.4 5.6 253.8

263. The additional irrigation areas at Prek Po will be 11,780 ha (an extra 6,780 ha irrigated in wet season and an extra 5,000 ha irrigated in the dry season). A guide to the size of the irrigated water demand, by assuming a water demand of 1.2 l/s/ha in the growing season, gives an indicative monthly water demand of 31.104 mcm for each growing month. This amount is only 0.006 of the lowest monthly flow in the driest year (80% exceedance) in the Mekong flow at the extraction point.

2. Construction

264. During construction of the subproject, the main issues will be air and water pollution and soil erosion, all of which can be managed by strict control of construction contractors and effective implementation of EMP mitigation and monitoring measures. Additional localized traffic congestion is anticipated and must be minimized by responsible transport planning and work scheduling. This will be most significant where canal improvements are being undertaken along the 300-400-m stretch of canal running through the built-up area of Prek Po (Fig. 33). Special measures to minimize impacts on residents, including agreed working hours and access, will be developed in consultation with residents. Mitigation of construction phase impacts will rely heavily on the works contractors, who will be responsible for following specification clauses specifically designed to minimize air and water pollution as well as soil erosion. This mitigation will, in turn, rely on enforcement by the PDWRAM’s environmental management officer and the commune councils.

Figure 33: Main Canal through the Built-up Area of Prek Po


3. Post-construction 265. The main concerns for an irrigation subproject are local increases in the levels of agricultural fertilizer and pesticide residues and their effects on water quality and people. Significant fertilizer




and agricultural pesticide residues are not indicated by the baseline sampling. To safeguard against increases in these factors, post-construction mitigation will focus on capacity building and training under the project to use fertilizers and pesticides efficiently and responsibly.

266. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the increased area of paddy, as a result of the subproject, will come from paddy gas production and the additional use of pumps (powered by internal combustion engines) for water movement. Preliminary estimates of tota l GHG production are approximately 34,500 t/yr (31,500 t/yr from paddy gas and 3,000 t/yr from pumps).

267. Adaptation to predicted future increases in irrigation water demand in the subproject area will be covered in the design by the use of conservative estimates of irrigation water requirements (IWRs) for potential cropping patterns. The rapid environmental assessment (REA) for the subproject identified a medium climate risk. Therefore, a climate risk and vulnerability assessment (CRVA) was undertaken for the whole project, and its recommendations were incorporated into subproject design. These include improving irrigation efficiency through conveyance improvements and irrigation management.

D. Public Consultation

268. Public consultations were undertaken in the Prek Po communes in the first half of April 2018 in conjunction with the subproject household survey. The areas covered included present experience and perceptions of environmental problems and anticipated environmental issues in subproject construction and operation. These will be addressed in the mitigation measures of the IEE. Readiness to complain if things go wrong and the avenues of complaint/redress will also be examined.

E. Grievance Redress Mechanism

269. A project-specific grievance redress mechanism (GRM) has been designed to receive and manage any public environmental issues that may arise due to the subproject. PDWRAM will coordinate the GRM. All stakeholder project agencies and staff will be initiated into the GRM procedures by the implementation team and will take an active role in supporting the GRM when necessary.

F. Environmental Management Plan

270. The IEE will include an EMP, where the identified environmental impacts and mitigation measures are transformed into an action plan for their implementation. The plan will include methods of mitigation, responsibilities, indicators of progress, and frequency and nature of monitoring activities with cost estimates. The EMP will be a critical document for the subproject. The provisions of the EMP will be incorporated into tender documents and construction contracts.

G. Conclusion

271. The environmental assessment has confirmed that the subproject is environment Category B under the ADB SPS and that the design, mitigation measures, and management identified in the IEE, if properly implemented, will result in an environmentally sound outcome.




IX. SOCIAL SAFEGUARDS

A. Socioeconomic Conditions and Poverty in PPIS Communes

272. The section provides an overview of the socioeconomic conditions and poverty in the 24 villages (six communes) where the PPIS is located. The findings were taken from secondary information mostly available in the Commune Database (CDB, 2014), supplemented by primary data obtained during the social safeguard team’s preliminary assessment activities.

273. According to the CDB (2014), the 24 villages in the PPIS have a total population of 28,936 in a total of 6,221 households (HHs) (Table 40). Overall, the population density is low in the six communes at four persons per ha. However, there is wide variation among PPIS villages in terms of household size and the proportion of female-headed households.

Table 40: Population in the PPIS

Commune No. of

Villages Population

(No. of Persons) No. of HHs

HH Size

(No. of Persons)

% of Female- Headed HHs

Chi Bai 5 3,813 932 4.1 9%

Khnar Sa 5 4,533 1,050 4.3 14%

Pram Yam 1 2,653 548 4.8 32%

Preaek Pou 4 6,160 1,356 4.5 12%

Svay Pou 6 9,397 1,780 5.3 19%

Tong Tralach 3 2,380 555 4.3 18%

Total 24 28,936 6,221 4.7 16%

Source: 2014 CDB

274. In PPIS villages, there are nearly equal numbers of men and women; the male to female ratio is 0.96. By age group, people of working age (15-60 years) account for 57% of the population. Just over one-third of the population is young, under the age of 15 years (34%). The proportion of youth to working age adults results in a child dependency ratio of 0.59, i.e., every two working adults must support one child. Elderly people account for about 10% of the population. Overall, the distribution of population by age in the PPIS communes is similar to the provincial average.

275. Education and literacy. Basic education in Cambodia includes primary and lower secondary levels (grades 1-9). Across PPIS villages, the net enrolment rate (NER) in primary school is 75%, i.e., three-quarters of children of primary school age (6-11 years) are enrolled in school. The NER for girls (74%) is lower than that for boys (76%). However, many children start school late so that there are children in primary school who are as old as 17 years. Taking all students in primary school regardless of age, the ratio of girls to boys is 0.99, that is, some girls start primary school later than the normal age of six years.

276. At the lower secondary level (grades 7-9), the overall NER drops to 22% in PPIS communes. For children aged 12-14 years in PPIS communes, the NER for boys is 23%, higher than that for girls (21%). Considering all students enrolled in lower secondary school (12-17 years old), boys outnumber girls at a ratio of 1.15. This decline in lower secondary enrolment in PPIS communes is significant in relation to the high rate of primary enrolment in these communes and in comparison with the average of 33% in Kampong Cham.

277. In many rural Cambodian communities, young people discontinue their education after primary school. One reason is the distance to a lower secondary school although all PPIS communes, except one, are within 2.5 km of the nearest secondary school. Other perhaps more significant reasons are lack of family financial resources to pay for school costs, pressure from




family to leave school in order to work and contribute to meeting household needs or, particularly in the case of girls, to help their mothers in caring for younger siblings and household responsibilities.

278. Overall, the literacy rates in PPIS communes are high among people between the ages of 15 and 45 years, with an overall rate of 92% among men and 91% among women. By age group, nearly all young people aged 15-17 years are literate (98%), and there is gender parity. Among people aged 18-24 years and 25-35 years, the rates are 95% and 93%, respectively, and there is near gender parity (male/female ratio=0.98). Among adults aged 35-45 years, the literacy rate drops to 86% overall, with 89% among men and 83% among women. This is consistent with the lower levels of education among older people and the lower literacy rates among women. There are no data for adults over the age of 45 years, but it is likely that the literacy rate continues to drop as people age and remains lower for older women than for older men.

279. Primary and secondary occupations. Agriculture is the primary occupation of 51% of people over the age of 18 years living in PPIS communes.22 Among men, 55% are engaged in crop cultivation on their own land compared to 47% for women. Among these farmers, 88% of men and 85% of women cultivate rice as a primary occupation. Nobody grows vegetables, and very few people raise livestock as a primary occupation. The service sector is the second most important primary occupation, including 14% men and 18% women. Of those working in the private sector, 78% are women and only 46% are men.

280. Unlike many rural areas, neither agricultural wage labor nor trading is an important primary occupation of people living in PPIS communes. A small proportion of men (4%) and women (3.5%) work primarily as agricultural laborers, and <1% of men and women work primarily as traders. However, while handicraft making is not an important occupation in these communes, there is a group of about 200 female weavers in the village of Prey Tbeh (Preaek Pou Commune).

281. In PPIS communes, only about 16% of people over the age of 18 years have a secondary occupation. Crop cultivation is the most important secondary occupation for 12% of men and 13% of women. Among these farmers, 97% of women and 94% of men grow rice.

282. Intensive rice cultivation (494 ha) was noted for the first time in 2014 in the communes of Khnar Sa and Tong Tralach and for the second time in Svay Pou (1,272 ha). Average yield of both crops was 2.2 t/ha. There was no production of corn, mungbean, soybean, or other crops recorded from PPIS communes in 2014.

283. Ownership of vehicles and mechanized farm machinery. Among households in PPIS communes in 2014, 53% owned a motorbike and 67% owned a bicycle. Very few households (<1%) owned a family car or a small pick-up truck. However, many rural households in Cambodia invest in a hand tractor to replace water buffaloes and cattle for plowing the fields. Hand tractors can also be adapted to haul carts or wagons to facilitate transport of people, agricultural produce, and other goods on rural roads. In 2014, however, only 7% of households in PPIS communes owned a hand tractor. Less than 1% of households own other mechanized farm equipment such as large tractors and machines for harvesting and threshing rice.

284. Land-poor and landless households. Nearly half of the households in the PPIS communes have small rice landholdings that are <1 ha, and 10% of households have no rice land. The proportion of households with small landholdings varies widely across PPIS communes, from only 15% in Tong Tralach Commune to 60-75% in Chi Bai and Svay Pou communes (Table 41). There is less variation among communes with no rice land; the village of Preaek Pou Kraom in Preaek Pou Commune accounts for 24% of households in PPIS communies with no rice land.

22 Available CDB data identify occupations for persons 18 years old and older.




Table 41: Landless and Land-Poor Households, PPIS Communes

<1 ha Rice Land No Rice Land

Number % of Total Number % of Total

Chi Bai 550 59 97 10

Khnar Sa 191 18 58 6

Pram Yam 195 36 20 4

Preaek Pou 521 38 322 24

Svay Pou 1,345 76 109 6

Tong Tralach 86 15 33 6

Total 2,888 46 639 10

Source: 2014 CBD

285. Migration. Work-related migration and the remittances generated by working outside the communes have become major factors in the livelihood of rural households throughout Cambodia. Men and women are increasingly attracted to work in Phnom Penh and in neighboring countries because they are unable to secure land for farming or they prefer wage employment. They are also attracted by regular employment with significantly higher wages for unskilled labor in construction and factories compared with the average daily income from farming. Whereas rural Cambodian men traditionally migrate seasonally to work in Phnom Penh during the dry season, work-related migration patterns have transitioned to include women and men as well as longer-term and often year-round work away from home.

286. Within Cambodia, the growth of the construction sector in urban areas has prompted primarily men to migrate to work in Phnom Penh and other towns. Many rural women leave home to work for one or more years in the garment sector that is concentrated in and around Phnom Penh. In 2014, 14% of people in PPIS communes in the 18-60 year age group migrated within Cambodia for work. Women accounted for nearly 60% of these migrants; it is highly likely they migrated to work in garment factories. Of the men in this age group, 10% also migrated, for instance, to construction sites in Phnom Penh. However, only about 1% of people in the 18-60 year age group migrated from PPIS communes to work outside of Cambodia.

287. Poverty levels. Poverty in Cambodia has declined rapidly from 53.2% in 2004 to 20.5% in 2011 (Table 42). The most significant drop occurred in rural areas from 2007-2009, when the proportion of poor people declined by about 30% from 57.9% to 27.5%. Increases in rice production, higher prices for rice, and higher rural wages were among the drivers of poverty reduction as were government investment in infrastructure, improvements in education and health, and the growth of salaried jobs in urban areas.23

Table 42: Poverty Levels, Cambodia (% of Population)

2004 2007 2009 2011

National 53.2 50.1 23.9 20.5

Phnom Penh 15.8 2.7 4.3 1.5

Other Urban 39.7 35.0 12.7 16.1

Rural 59.0 57.9 27.5 23.7

Source: World Bank, 2014. Cambodia Poverty Assessment 2013.

288. The reduction in poverty levels is reflected in the improved well-being of many including women. Poverty rates for female-headed households (22.5%) are not significantly higher than those of male-headed households (20.1%). Many rural women, who migrate to urban areas to work in the

23 World Bank. 2014. Cambodia Poverty Assessment 2013




garment sector, benefit, as have their families, from the higher wages in this sector although the gender wage gap remains high at 30%.

289. The dependency rate in Cambodia has dropped due to the increase in the working population. Nonetheless, the poverty level among Cambodia’s children (27.2% for children 0-6 years old) is significantly higher than among working Cambodians (17.3% for people between 21-59 old). The elderly, on the other hand, have a low rate of poverty of 15.4%.

290. Moreover, the poverty gap has dropped to 4.2% and 4.8% at the national level and in rural areas, respectively, meaning that poor people have a higher level of well-being than previously. This is reflected in an annual 4.7% increase in consumption levels between 2004-2011, including improvements to housing and purchase of durable goods. Inequality between rich and poor Cambodians has also decreased during this period.

291. Nonetheless, 91% of poverty in Cambodia is among the rural people. Many rural Cambodians have been able to move out of poverty by leveraging their land and labor assets to increase their return on investments. Also, for most rural Cambodians, the reduction in poverty is small, with the majority of poor people living at a level just above the poverty line. It was estimated in 2011 that a reduction in income of 1,200 Khmer Riel (KR) (or $0.30) per day could result in doubling the incidence of poverty.24

292. In 2012, the poverty level in Kampong Cham Province was 20.4%. In the communes where the PPIS is located, there have been declines of 20% to over 40% in poverty rates (Table 43). As a result, poverty levels in all PPIS communes are below the national poverty rate for rural areas.

Table 43: Poverty Levels, PPIS Communes (% of Population)

Commune 2004 2008 2012 Change

Chi Bai 35.7 27.6 21.1 - 41%

Khnar Sa 28.4 22.8 22.3 - 20%

Pram Yam 28.4 25.4 22.1 - 22%

Preaek Pou 23.4 19.1 13.8 - 41%

Svay Pou 30.9 26.6 19.8 - 36%

Tong Tralach 33.6 27.5 24.4 - 27%

Source: Ministry of Planning (MOP). 2012. Poverty Reduction by Capital, Provinces, Municipalities, Districts, Khans, Communes, Sangkats Based on Commune Data Base, 2004-2012.

293. Poverty and social assessment. A PSA for the IAIP (including the Prek Po Subproject) is under preparation.25 However, the initial PSA results suggest that the subproject will contribute significantly to poverty reduction among local residents by providing opportunities to local farmers to improve their crop production (increase of productivity, more cropping seasons, crop diversification, etc.). Potential negative impacts of the subproject include temporary travel inconvenience due to the construction of canal bridge crossings of households and villages along the main canal, as well as dust/noise pollution during construction of the irrigation scheme in the residential area.

24 Ibid. 25 The objectives of the PSA are to: (i) assess the current socioeconomic conditions and poverty in the subproject

communities; (ii) identify expected benefits as well potential negative impacts and risks posed by the subproject to the local people, particularly to the poor, women, and other socially disadvantaged groups; and (iii) propose mitigation measures to address the potential negative impacts and enhance the subproject's benefit distribution in the area. The impacts and associated mitigation/enhancement measures will be specified in a Social Action Plan.




B. Ethnic Minority Groups in PPIS Communes

294. According to the 2016 CDB, about 98.83% of the population in Kampong Cham Province is ethnic Khmer, and the other 1.17% is composed of non-Khmer ethnics (13,344 persons living in 3,176 HHs) belonging to the Cham, Stieng, Vietnamese, and Chinese groups (Table 44).

Table 44: Non-Khmer Ethnics in Kampong Cham Province

Non-Khmer Ethnics 2016

No. of Families No. of Persons

Cham 1,243 5,345

Stieng 166 641

Vietnamese 921 3687

Chiness 846 3671

Total 3,176 13,344

Source: 2016 CDB

295. As per the 2016 Commune Data Base, there are no ethnic minorities living in the PPIS communes. This was confirmed by the local people and local authorities who attended the public consultation held in the area on 9 April 2018 and by the screening of ethnic minorities conducted by the TRTA Consultant in the subproject area. The results of the socioeconomic baseline survey conducted by the TRTA Consultant also confirmed that the entire population in the subproject villages is Khmer, the ethnic majority in Cambodia (Table 45). As there are no ethnic minorities residing in the PPIS area, no activity/intervention is required to address ethnic minority issues in this subproject.

Table 45: Ethnic Minority Population in PPIS Communes

Commune No. of

Villages Population Ethnicity (%)

Khmer Other Ethnics

Chi Bai 5 3,813 100 0

Khnar Sa 5 4,533 100 0

Pram Yam 1 2,653 100 0

Preaek Pou 4 6,160 100 0

Svay Pou 6 9,397 100 0

Tong Tralach 3 2,380 100 0

Total 24 28,936 100 0

Source: 2016 CDB

C. Land Acquisition and Resettlement 296. The main canal of PPIS consists of two sections. Section 1 from station 0+000 m to station 2+000 m is designed as a 2.5-m wide concrete barrel; Section 2 from station 2+000 m to 12+750 m will be 19.7-m wide and lined with concrete (Fig. 34). No land acquisition will be required for the modernization of the main canal as the existing right of way (ROW) is from 20-25 m wide.




Fig. 34: Sketches of Main Canal Sections and Existing Right of Way

Section 1 of the MC will have a width of 2.5 m. The existing ROW has a width of 20-25 m.

Section 2 of the MC will have a width of 19.7 m. The existing ROW has a width of 20-25 m.


297. The new pumping station will be located in an empty public land area (60 m2) that is managed by the Prek Po Commune (Fig. 35).

Figure 35: Proposed Location of the New Pumping Station

The proposed new pumping station will be constructed in an empty public lot. The structures on the river bank are part of the existing floating pumping station, which will be removed once the new pumping station is in place.





298. A total of 22 new secondary canals with a total length of 70 km will be constructed along the existing secondary drains on the right embankment to supply irrigation water by gravity. The secondary canals will be located at 1-km intervals. They will be designed as concrete, U-shaped canals with a width of 2.6 m. Together with the designed secondary drains (13.06 m wide), the total width of the new secondary canals and drains will be 15.66 m, which is within the existing ROW of the secondary drains, which is 18-20 m wide (Fig. 36). Land acquisition for the secondary canals is, therefore, not required.

Figure 36: Sketch of Secondary Canals and Drains and Existing ROW of the Drains

The total width of the secondary canals and drains is 15.66 m. The existing ROW of the drains is 18-20 m.


299. Although land acquisition is not required in the Prek Po Subproject, a number of bridge crossings along the main canal will be affected (Fig. 37). Reconstruction of the bridges will be within the scope of the canal improvement works of the subproject.

Figure 37: Example of Bridge that will be Affected by PPIS Modernization


300. A resettlement due diligence report is under preparation, which will provide a detailed assessment of the need for land acquisition in PPIS and provisions for compensation and support for affected entities if land acquisition will be required during subproject construction. It is a stand-alone report for submission to ADB and the Government for review and approval.




X. GENDER ANALYSIS

A. Gender Roles and Opportunities in Irrigated Agriculture

301. While women are active as farmers throughout Cambodia, they are not necessarily as engaged as men in the management of water resources and irrigated agriculture. This section reviews recent research and experience regarding gender roles and responsibilities in irrigation schemes in Cambodia. There is as yet no FWUC involving farmers with land in the PPIS.

302. FWUCs are established in accordance with Sub-Decree No. 31 (2015), which defines a FWUC as an autonomous legal entity. The structure for a FWUC includes the establishment of farmer water user sub-groups (FWUSGs) that manage water resources at the level of tertiary canals and farmer water user groups (FWUGs) that manage water resources at the level of secondary canals. At each level, there is a management team normally consisting of four people who are elected by FWUC members. Based on MOWRAM data, women’s membership in FWUCs was 16%,26 on average, in 2012.

303. While there is a significant gender gap in FWUC membership, research and consultations carried out with members of FWUCs in three provinces clearly indicate that there are no significant differences in what men and women actually do as members of the FWUCs.27 Some work is reserved for men because of their physical strength, such as opening and closing of water gates. Women are predominantly responsible for collecting service fees and preparing reports on income and expenses once or twice a year. Many other activities may be thought of as men’s or women’s work; in reality, however, there are few gender distinctions in who does the work when needed.

304. The resolution of conflict regarding claims of unequal water distribution or farmers draining water onto their farms without permission is a key function of the FWUC. This is often cited as men’s responsibility, although there is increasing recognition that women are often better able than men to resolve conflicts through dialogue and other peaceful means.28 This is similar to the experiences of community fisheries groups in Cambodia with resolution of conflicts over the use of illegal fishing gear.

305. The absence of farmer water user subgroups (FWUSGs) in the PPIS means that women farmers do not have a platform for their involvement in local water management. When they are functioning, FWUSGs bring together households with landholdings in the command area within a village. Experience with FWUSGs elsewhere in Cambodia supports the view that female farmers are often in the majority among participants at sub-group meetings.29 Similarly, during community meetings conducted by the agronomists in the present TRTA, women comprised majority of the participants.

306. Women attend meetings to represent their household when their husbands are away from the village, for instance, working on household land. The location of the meeting in the village also facilitates women’s participation; there are fewer constraints for women related to limited time, mobility, or childcare. Women farmers in Cambodia are often active participants at meetings about issues related to their agricultural activities such as at FWUSG meetings.30

26 MOWRAM, 2014. MOWRAM Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2014-2018. 27 MOWRAM, 2015. Report of a Pilot Study on Review of Gender Roles and Issues in the Water Sector in Kampong

Thom, Siem Reap and Banteay Meanchey Provinces and to Conduct Awareness Raising and Training. 28 Ibid. 29 Chem Phalla, 2018. pers. comm. 30 Ibid.




B. MOWRAM Institutional Capacity

307. This section summarizes the role of women within MOWRAM and policies and strategies for gender mainstreaming.

308. MOWRAM staff. MOWRAM employs 1,258 people at the ministry and provincial levels. At the national level, there are 633 personnel; at the sub-national level, there are 625 staff, 9% of whom are women. One woman currently holds the position of Deputy Director General at the national level, and one PDWRAM Director is female. Table 46 below shows that women account for just under 10% of MOWRAM staff with management responsibilities.

Table 46: MOWRAM Management Staff

Source: Statistics, Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training, 2018

309. At MOWRAM, the Department of Farmer Water User Communities (DFWUC) is responsible for supporting the establishment and functioning of FWUCs. The current staff of 33 people includes five women (13.5%). Among the female staff at DFWUC, two women hold positions of Vice-Chief in the Office of Training and Research. There are no women in more senior management positions at the DFWUC. The DFWUC does not have any staff at provincial or district levels.

310. IAIP Project Management Unit (PMU). The PMU that has been established to implement the IAIP is composed of 13 MOWRAM staff. Two of them are women who hold the position of Vice-Chief in the Office of Training and Research in DFWUC. Their responsibilities in the PMU relate to administration, finance, and procurement.

311. MOWRAM legal and policy framework. The 2007 Law on Water Resource Management enacted by the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) states, in Article 4, that water resource management is to be undertaken in accordance with international principles of integrated water resource management (IWRM). The 1991 Dublin Statement defines IWRM guiding principles, including, “Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water.”

Male Female Total

National Level

Director General 4 0 4

Deputy Director General 16 0 16

Inspector, Director 1 0 1

Inspector, Deputy Director 2 0 2

Department, Director 20 0 20

Department, Deputy Director 48 6 54

Chief Office 53 3 56

Vice Chief 137 34 171

Provincial Level

Provincial Department, Director 25 0 25

Provincial Department, Deputy Director 54 1 55

Provincial Office, Chief 84 3 87

Provincial Office, Vice Chief 109 17 126

Khan/District Level

District, Chief 62 1 63

District, Vice Chief 3 0 3

Total 618 66 683

MOWRAM Gender Working Group

Gender Technical Working Group 4 14 18




312. The Rectangular Strategy is the RGC framework for economic and social development of Cambodia and is structured through four interrelated strategic rectangles. The strategic rectangle for physical infrastructure development encompasses efficient management of irrigation infrastructure. The strategic rectangle for human resources development stresses the importance of women as “the backbone of national economy and society.”31

313. The National Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSDP), 2014-2018, reflects the commitments of the RGC and its ministries to support the objectives of the Rectangular Strategy. With respect to irrigation infrastructure, the NSDP highlights the: (i) prioritization of the location of expanded and renovated infrastructure in areas where there is good potential for increased economic returns; and (ii) greater participation of farmers and Commune Councils in local financing and management of the operation of irrigation schemes.32 Gender commitments are set out in the Neary Ratanak IV,33 the national gender policy, and stress the overriding importance of women’s economic empowerment and increased roles for women in decision-making at all levels.

314. MOWRAM gender mainstreaming strategies. In 2007, MOWRAM established a Gender Mainstreaming Action Group (GMAG) and prepared a Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan (GMAP), 2007-2011, with support from ADB. In 2014, ADB again supported MOWRAM to produce the GMAP, 2014-2018. At the time of the most recent GMAP, the GMAG membership included 21 MOWRAM staff, 13 of whom are women (62%).

315. The initial GMAP identified strategies and targets to be achieved by 2010. Table 47 summarizes the scope of the GMAP and the level of achievement of its targets.

Table 47: MOWRAM GMAP, 2014-2018

Strategies Outputs

1. Strengthen the capacity of MOWRAM on gender at all levels.

• GMAG receives incentive support for its operations.

• Capacity of gender network in gender mainstreaming and gender analysis is strengthened and a pool of master trainers on gender is established.

• Awareness of MOWRAM officials is raised at all levels with regard to gender concepts and gender awareness issues as they relate to their areas of work.

• Public information and media messages related to MOWRAM are made more gender-responsive.

2. Continue to provide opportunities for women officials in MOWRAM to be promoted into decision-making positions.

• Women’s representation in decision-making is increased.

3. Enhance gender mainstreaming in human resources management.

• Number of women officials in MOWRAM is increased through new recruitment.

• Technical capacity of women officials in MOWRAM is built through the increase of their participation in national and international training and education.

4. Ensure that all services in the water resources and meteorology sector bring more benefits to women in the communities.

• Strategic areas for the following are gender-responsive:

Water resources management and development

Flood and drought management

Development of laws and regulations

Information management in relation to water resources and meteorology

Administrative management and human resources

31 RGC, 2014. Rectangular Strategy. 32 RGC, 2014. National Socio-Economic Development Plan, 2014-2018. 33 RGC, 2014. Neary Ratanak IV.




Strategies Outputs

5. Build good collaboration and partnership between GMAG and all MOWRAM projects to increase aid effectiveness.

• Aid effectiveness is promoted within MOWRAM through gender mainstreaming in the ministry’s projects.

• Collaboration and networking are strengthened among all stakeholders implementing gender equality, especially in the ministry’s projects.

6. Monitor and evaluate the implementation of the GMAP.

• M&E framework is designed and implemented.

• A gender databank is created.

Source: MOWRAM. 2014. Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan, 2014-2018.

C. Mainstreaming Gender in IAIP

316. This section presents a preliminary analysis of key gender issues and a draft Gender Action Plan (GAP) aligned with the proposed outcome and outputs of the IAIP. The analysis and GAP will be updated as necessary in the context of an in-depth gender analysis that is ongoing over the course of the TRTA.

317. Issues of strengthening gender in IAIP. The key gender issues are in two areas, namely: (i) opportunities for female farmers to promote their agricultural activities through access to irrigation resources and participation in decision-making about water resource management; and (ii) the knowledge, skills, and capacity of MOWRAM to address the needs and priorities of women and men in the development, implementation, and monitoring of projects to upgrade irrigation infrastructure.

318. Women farmers in Cambodia have developed in-depth knowledge of growing rice and other crops through extensive in-field experience. Their agricultural production, post-harvest, and value-adding activities are a mainstay of the livelihoods of rural households in terms of the food they grow for household consumption and the crops they grow for sale. However, due to their lack of access to information, lack of control over key resources, and longstanding cultural norms, women are often less able than men to learn about and adopt new technologies to address changing conditions and improve production or to be heard, influence, and/or make decisions that have fundamental consequences on their agricultural activities. Some of the issues surrounding women’s access to and use of irrigation of particular relevance to the IAIP include the following:

• Women who remain in rural villages when men migrate for work are increasingly responsible for management aspects of rice cultivation, such as decisions about hiring in labor and negotiating with traders. In the context of irrigated rice cultivation, women also need to understand and be involved in decisions about water management, for example, water distribution plans.

• Women have traditionally cash-cropped vegetables that, as high-value crops, may be prime candidates for diversified crop production as expanded irrigation affords greater opportunities for dry season and year-round cultivation in the command area. For this reason, the needs and priorities of women and men need to be fully articulated and addressed in planning for crop diversification and crop calendars.

• Women often outnumber men in attendance at community meetings. However, widely held beliefs that water management is men’s responsibility, that women should not speak up in public, and that the lack of education or not being able to read means that a person does not have relevant knowledge, mean that women tend not to participate in discussions or, if they do, their interventions are not “heard”. Increasing women’s participation, for instance, in water user groups or training programs, must address practical constraints, such as limited time and mobility, and, gender quotas are important. However, increasing women’s active participation must also find ways to change attitudes and convince both men and women of the importance and value of women’s active participation and decision-making.




• Women and men in Cambodia often lack the knowledge and skills to fully develop their agricultural activities as successful microenterprises or businesses, for example, in basic areas such as financial literacy and in relation to emerging issues such as climate change and climate-smart agriculture. These are areas of capacity development that are important to validate in the investment in irrigation efficiency.

319. MOWRAM has instituted gender-responsive policies and moved towards achieving strategic objectives to strengthen gender mainstreaming. Nonetheless, the IAIP can contribute to further strengthening the capacity of MOWRAM and PDWRAM staff in the context of the outputs and outcome of the IAIP and in the context of institutional development.

320. Draft Gender Action Plan (GAP). The GAP is closely aligned with the outputs of the IAIP. It identifies a range of activities and strategies that are intended to strengthen the inclusion of women’s needs and priorities at the level of the irrigation schemes and also strengthen the gender mainstreaming capacity in MOWRAM. A draft version of the GAP is presented in Table 48 below. It reflects some of the issues raised in focus group discussions to date with women from households in the PPIS and other stakeholders, as well as secondary research. The GAP will be updated, as required, following completion of the full gender assessment.

Table 48: Draft Gender Action Plan (GAP)

Activities Performance Indicators And Targets

OUTPUT 1: Efficiency and climate resilience of irrigation schemes enhanced

1. Crop diversification demand analysis/ planning and crop calendars: identify women’s and men’s priorities for dry season production of rice and/or other crops.

• Village-level FGDs are conducted with women from households with land in irrigation scheme; FGDs conducted in at least 30% of all villages in irrigation scheme.

• Women represent at least 40% of participants at community meetings to discuss crop diversification plans and crop calendars.

• Demand analysis/crop diversification reports clearly identify women’s and men’s priorities for dry season production of rice and/or other crops.

2. Establishment/strengthening of FWUCs: Encourage women to participate as members and to stand for election to management teams at all levels of FWUC.

• Women who hold title to land in irrigation scheme are signed up at members of FWUSGs and/or FWUGs; target = 100% of women who hold title to land.

• In households where wives and husbands are both named on titles for land in the irrigation scheme, more women are designated as the FWUC member; target = women account for at least 15% FWUC members.

[Baseline: Kamping Pouy: To be confirmed; data from different sources on female members varies from 2% to 10%; Prek Po, 0] Assuming that women join as members of FWUSGs and/or FWUGs: • Women elected to FWUSG management committee; target

= women account for 25% of FWUSG management committee (baseline: Kamping Pouy, 0; Prek Po, 0).

• Women elected to FWUG management team; target = women account for 25% of FWUG management committee (baseline: Kamping Pouy, 2 of 47 FWUG management teams each have 1 female member; Prek Po, 0).

• Women elected to FWUC management committee; target = women account for 25% of FWUC management committee (baseline: Kamping Pouy, 1 female member in FWUC management committee; Prek Po, 0).

3. Works for upgrading and climate proofing irrigation schemes: Encourage employment of women for paid work.

• Village-level FGDs are conducted with women from households with land in irrigation schemes to determine their interests, priorities and needs related to paid work to upgrade and/or climate-proof irrigation schemes.

• Contract specifications and tender documents specify target of 20% for employment of women for unskilled and skilled





paid work to upgrade and/or climate-proof irrigation schemes.

• Priority will be given to women who read and write for paid work related to record keeping.

• All paid work will guarantee equal pay for women and men in similar positions.

• All work sites will have policies prohibiting sexual harassment and policies will be strictly enforced.

• All work sites will provide separate sanitation facilities for women and men.

• Gender orientation and sensitivity training will be provided to all construction site supervision staff.

OUTPUT 2: Water resource management improved

1. Training program for FWUCs/farmers on climate-resilient agricultural strategies: ensure active participation of women in training and field demonstrations.

• Women comprise at least 40% of participants in training on climate-resilient agricultural strategies (paddy water management, crop calendars, climate-resilient and higher-value crops, etc.).

• Women are at least 40% of participants during in-field demonstrations (e.g., different rice varieties, water requirements of other crops, etc.).

• The design and implementation of training programs will take into consideration women’s time, mobility and literacy limitations through appropriate arrangements for the location, timing, and duration of activities as well as design and delivery of training materials.

2. Training program for FWUCs/farmers on water resource management in irrigation scheme (e.g., water distribution, O&M, etc.,): ensure active participation of women in training and field demonstrations.

• Women are at least 20% of participants in training related to water resource management.

• Women are at least 20% of participants during in-field demonstrations related to water resource management.

• The design and implementation of training programs will take into consideration women’s time, mobility, and literacy limitations through appropriate arrangements for location, timing, and duration of activities as well as design and delivery of training materials.

3. Training and mentoring program for FWUCs to build capacity of women and men to participate in and manage activities of FWUCs.

Target topics: Accounting/finance; communications techniques, extension and outreach; conflict resolution; leadership and management skills (facilitation, working with women, etc.); awareness of opportunities/constraints for women and men in relation to irrigation agriculture and water resource management.

• TNA conducted with men and women, including separate meetings as relevant with women, to define scope of training/mentoring program in relation to existing knowledge and priorities for new knowledge and skills; TNA report explicitly identifies men’s and women’s needs/priorities for FWUC/water resource management.

• Training/mentoring program design and delivery to: (i) provide practical knowledge and skills related to FWUC management and operation; and (ii) use methods and tools to promote participatory learning and address literacy and other relevant issues.

• Training conducted with all management teams at FWUC and FWUG levels including all female members.

• Training conducted at FWUSG level in each commune with all management teams at FWUSG level including all female members.

• Ongoing mentoring provided to FWUC management teams at all levels to support full mastery of and capacity to use new knowledge and skills.

4. Gender and TOT training program for MOWRAM and PDWRAM staff, including members of the: (i) GMAG); (ii) Gender Technical Working Group (GTWG); and (iii) GFPs at provincial level.

Target topics: gender issues/priorities in irrigated agriculture and water resource management; gender analysis methods; TOT training, participatory training and facilitation skills; gender budgeting

[GMAP, 2014-2018; Outputs 1.2 and 1.3]

• TNA conducted to identify needs/priorities for a two-tiered training program to: (i) strengthen knowledge and skills related to gender mainstreaming in water resource management; and (ii) strengthen capacity and skills as TOT trainers.

• A two-tiered program of training activities developed as per the above and phased for delivery once a year over the duration of the IAIP; target = TOT trainers will deliver training in Year 3.

• A study tour is organized in Years 2 and 3 of the IAIP for





visits to IAIP irrigation schemes and meetings with FWUCs and other stakeholders in irrigation scheme areas.

• All participants demonstrate increased confidence in their knowledge of gender mainstreaming and in the use of gender mainstreaming tools in relation to their work in MOWRAM/PDWRAM.

• A sub-group of volunteer participants demonstrate increased confidence in their knowledge and ability to conduct training and coaching on gender mainstreaming in irrigated agriculture and water resource management, to colleagues at MOWRAM and PDWRAM and to FWUCs.

5. Gender training at DFWUC and PDWRAM technical staff in IAIP provinces to support capacity to promote women’s opportunities related to FWUC/ water resource management.

Target topics: roles and responsibilities of FWUCs at all levels; opportunities/ constraints for women’s participation in irrigated agriculture and FWUCs; conflict resolution techniques.

[GMAP, 2014-2018; Output 1.3]

• TNA conducted to identify needs/priorities for training and/or coaching on addressing gender issues in relation to the roles and responsibilities of staff, including the scope, content, methods and schedule for training and/or coaching activities over the course of the IAIP.

• A program of training and/or coaching developed and delivered as per modalities indicated above.

• All participants demonstrate increased confidence in their knowledge of how to address gender issues and/or activities in context of their work in MOWRAM/ PDWRAM.

6. Support development of MOWRAM Gender Data Base

[GMAP 2014-2018; Outputs 6.1 and 6.2]

Years 1 and 2, IAIP: • Database development: database platform

established/updated; data collection methods and tools developed; reporting and dissemination methods and procedures established.

• Training program developed and delivered to gender focal points (GFPs) and other MOWRAM/PDWRAM staff with responsibilities for management of Gender Data Base, related to methods, tools and procedures for data collection, analysis, reporting, and dissemination.

• Pilot project: Data collected, analyzed, and reported from provinces/project areas included in IAIP; baseline data collected at beginning of IAIP and updated over course of loan program as relevant.

Year 3, IAIP: • Rapid evaluation study conducted of pilot activities;

approach to Gender Data Base revised, as required. • Data collected, analyzed and reported from other provinces

where FWUCs exist and/or are being established; target = to be established in context of pilot evaluation study.

7. IAIP PMU and PMIC to have designated gender specialists/focal points to support implementation of GAP and facilitate other gender-relevant work, e.g., establishment and strengthening of FWUCs.

• The PMU will designate one MOWRAM gender focal point to liaise with and assist PMIC to implement GAP and other gender-related activities under IAIP.

• TOR are developed to clearly define roles and responsibilities of PMU gender focal point; target = ensure adequate involvement in IAIP without overburdening regular responsibilities.

• The PMIC will have support from 1 international gender specialist (+/- 6 person-months [p-m]) and 1 national gender specialist (+/- 12 p-m) to facilitate the implementation of GAP and other gender-related work.




Appendix 1

PHOTOS OF THE PREK PO IRRIGATION SYSTEM TAKEN DURING

FIELD VISITS OF THE TRTA TEAM

Figure 1: St 00+00. Four existing floating pump station in good condition but with low pumping capacity and are only used for supplementary wet season pumping.

Figure 2: St 00+00. Each pump is equipped with a 65-hp diesel engine with a pumping capacity of 9000 m3/hr when lifting head of about 1-1.5 m.

Figure 3: St 90. Stationary pump station viewed from the river side. It pumps water from the access canal into the main canal downstream.

Figure 4: St 00+22.5. Earth bund at the head of the access canal connected to the bank of Mekong, which will be replaced with a concrete wall.

Figure 5: Side view of stationary pump station, which was constructed in 2011 and served to do parallel pumping to gainmore head. It is currently operated and maintained by the District Authority.

Figure 6: St 90. Two types of pumps are installed at the station: six 15-hp engines and three 25-hp engine pumps.




Figure 7: Sta. 97.5. View from d/s side of the bridge at the head of the main canal. At this location on the lefthand side, there is an inlet pipe into the main canal. Solid waste materials have accumulated at the head of the main canal.

Figure 8: Sta. 382.5. Section of the main canal at the existing bridge crossing at St 0+375. It intrudes into houses along both sides of the canal, and there are weeds and trees growing on the canal perimeter.

Figure 9: Sta. 847.50. Existing box main canal crossing from downstream view.

Figure 10: Sta. 922.5. Upstream view of existing bridge crossing.

Figure 11: Sta. 1054. Downstream view of the existing reinforced concrete bridge crossing.

Figure 12: Sta. 1099. Existing wooded crossing.




Figure 13: Sta. 2175. Existing left bank inlet/outlet viewed from within the main canal.

Figure 14: Sta. 3180. Existing left and right bank inlet/outlet.

Figure 15: Sta. 3438. Weed growth on the main canal section.

Figure 16: Sta. 3820. Main canal section is too wide and deep and overgrown with weeds and trees.

Figure 17: Sta. 4495. Existing check structure, piping and and collapsing of downstream wingwall viewed from downstream.

Figure 18: Sta. 4675: Existing left and right bank inlet/outlet structures.

Figure 19: Sta. 6711. Section of right bank main canal eroded from dry season paddy cultivation drainage water.

Figure 20: Sta. 12605. Upstream view of the existing sluice.




Figure 21: Sta. 4702. Existing main canal section is too deep and too wide

Figure 22: Sta. 6169. Existing check with left and right bank outlets/inlets.

Figure 23: Sta 6544. Eroded main canal section. Figure 24: Sta. 6665. Existing groundwater system for dry season irrigation in the command area.




Appendix 2

SUBPROJECT ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Table A2.1: Prek Po Capital Costs ($’000)

Financial Breakdown of Cost Economic

Option 2 Base Case Mainly Lined Canals Cost Foreign Local Costs Cost

Component 1

Costs Mater-

ials

Skilled

Labor

Unskilled

Labor

1. Civil Works: Embankments and canal upgrading

1 Construction of new pumping station with

installation of electrical/solar submersible/screw

pump 2,,000 320 1,340 100 240 1,796

2 Concrete tank and stilling basin of the pump station,

including dismantling of existing pump station 49 8 33 2 6 44

3 Modernization of the main canal from station 0+007

m to station 2+000 m 1,305 209 874 65 157 1,172

4 Modernization of the main canal from station 2+000

m to station 12+750 m 4,135 662 2,771 207 496 3,714

5 Modernization of small size secondary canals (design

discharge 0.52 m3/s), total length 13.66 km 1,677 268 1,123 84 201 1,506

6 Modernization of secondary canals for medium size

(design discharge 1.03 m3/s), total length 19.89 km 3,484 557 2,334 174 418 3,130

7 Modernization of secondary canals for large size

(design discharge 1.39 m3/s), total length 36.48 km 7,548 1,208 5,057 377 906 6,779

8 Construction of FWUC building at 1 location 35 6 23 2 4 31

9 Construction of associated structures on secondary

canals and drains 2,066 331 1,384 103 248 1,856

Total 22,300 3,568 14,941 1,115 2,676 20,029

Climate proofing (10%) 974 156 653 49 117 875

Contingencies 2,327 372 1,559 116 279 2,090

Total Cost of Civil Works 25,601 4,096 17,153 1,280 3,072 22,995

Components 2 to 4

2. Capacity building for Prek Po FWUC

1 For MOWRAM, PDWRAM and other Institutions 141 14 28 98 128

2 For Farmer Water User Community (FWUC) 273 27 55 191 248

Total 413 41 83 289 376

3. Agricultural demonstration and training activities

1 Demonstration, farmer field schools, extension 120 12 60 48 110

3 Technical assistance 58 6 29 23 53

Subtotal 178 18 89 71 163

4. On-farm facilities and land levelling

1 Tertiary and on-farm facilities 1,960 196 392 1,372 1,800

2 NGO costs for preparation and implementation of

tertiary canal O&M plan 1,400 140 280 980 1,285

Total 3,360 336 672 2,352 3,085

Total Cost, Non-civil Works Components 3,951 395 844 2,713 3,624

Contingencies for non-civil works components 395 40 84 271 362

Non-civil works including contingencies 4,347 435 928 2,984 3,986

Total Subproject Cost including Contingencies 29,948 4,531 18,081 4,264 3,072 26,981




a Based on 2018 prices. b Conversion of financial to economic costs was based on the following shadow pricing: Shadow exchange rate factor (SERF) = 1.10 Shadow wage rate factor (SWRF) = 0.90 Taxes and Duties = 0.10 c Detailed Design & Construction Supervision = 0.07

d Physical Contingency =

0.10




Table A2.2: Economic Fertilizer Prices, Prek Po

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

Urea

Eastern Europe (current $) a $/t 273 199 216 215 221 227 234 240 247 254 261 269 277 284 292 300

Eastern Europe (constant 2010 $) a $/t 284 277 270 264 258 253 247 241 236 230 225 229 234 238 243 247

MUV (2010 = 100) b 2010 98 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121

MUV (2018 = 100) b 2018 100.4 96.5 97.4 100.0 102.1 104.1 106.1 108.0 109.9 111.8 113.8 116.0 118.1 120.3 122.5 124.7

Urea FOB Eastern Europe (constant 2018 $) $/t 272 206 222 215 217 218 221 222 225 227 229 232 234 236 239 241

Freight, insurance, etc. $/t 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

CIF Sihanoukville $/t 352 286 302 295 297 298 301 302 305 307 309 312 314 316 319 321

Freight & handling Sihanoukville to project area $/t 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48

Handling and transport to farmgate c $/t 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Financial farmgate price per ton $/t 406 340 356 349 351 352 355 356 359 361 363 366 368 370 373 375

Economic farmgate price per kg $/kg 0.41 0.34 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 DAP (diammonium phosphate)

US (current $) a $/t 459 345 347 345 353 361 369 377 385 394 403 412 422 431 441 450

US (constant 2010 $) a $/t 470 368 366 355 355 356 358 359 361 363 364 365 367 368 370 371

MUV (2010 = 100) b 2010 98 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121

MUV (2018 = 100) b 2015 100.4 96.5 97.4 100.0 102.1 104.1 106.1 108.0 109.9 111.8 113.8 116.0 118.1 120.3 122.5 124.7

DAP FOB US Gulf (constant 2018 $) $/t 457 358 356 345 346 347 348 349 350 352 354 356 357 358 360 361






Economic farmgate price per kg $/kg 0.59 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 Potassium chloride

Vancouver (current $) a $/t 303 246 216 215 222 230 237 245 254 262 271 281 291 300 310 320

Vancouver (constant 2010 $) a $/t 310 262 228 221 224 227 230 234 238 241 245 249 253 256 260 264

MUV (2010 = 100) b 2010 98 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121

MUV (2018 = 100) b 2018 100.4 96.5 97.4 100.0 102.1 104.1 106.1 108.0 109.9 111.8 113.8 116.0 118.1 120.3 122.5 124.7

KCl Vancouver (constant 2018 $) $/t 302 255 222 215 218 221 223 227 231 234 238 242 246 250 253 257






Economic farmgate price per kg $/kg 0.44 0.39 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.39




Table A2.3: Economic Crop Prices, Prek Po

Paddy rice 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

interpolated

Thailand (current $) a $/t 386 396 400 403 406 409 412 415 418 421 424 427 430 434 437 440

Thailand (constant 2010 $) a $/t 395 423 422 414 409 404 399 395 391 387 383 379 375 371 367 363

MUV (2010 = 100) b 2010 98 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121

MUV (2018 = 100) b 2018 100.4 96.5 97.4 100.0 102.1 104.1 106.1 108.0 109.9 111.8 113.8 116.0 118.1 120.3 122.5 124.7

Rice FOB Bangkok (constant 2018 $) $/t 384 410 411 403 398 393 388 384 380 376 373 368 364 360 357 353

Quality adjustment factor c % 8.7 9.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7

Value adjusted for quality difference $/t 351 370 375 368 363 359 355 351 347 344 340 336 333 329 326 322

Shipping differential to market /d $/t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

FOB Sihanoukville $/t 351 370 375 368 363 359 355 351 347 344 340 336 333 329 326 322

Losses and exporter's margin (3%) $/t 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Freight & handling Battambang to

Sihanoukville $/t 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42

Milling cost (assumed = bran value) $/t

Ex-mill (dry rice 14% moisture) $/t 298 317 322 315 310 306 302 298 295 291 288 284 281 277 274 271

Conversion to dry paddy e $/t 194 206 209 205 202 199 196 194 192 189 187 185 182 180 178 176

Value of wet paddy (29%) $/t 160 170 173 169 167 164 162 160 158 156 155 153 151 149 147 145

Handling and transport farm to mill $/t 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

Economic farmgate price per ton $/t 154 164 167 163 161 158 156 154 152 150 149 147 145 143 141 139

Ratio to 2018 price 0.95 1.01 1.02 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85

Financial Jasmine $/t 348 343 338 333 329 325 321 317 313 309 305 301 297

Financial Sen Kraob $/t 309 305 300 296 292 289 285 282 278 274 271 267 264

Financial White rice $/t 147 145 142 141 139 137 135 134 132 130 129 127 125

Economic Jasmine f $/t 348 343 338 333 329 325 321 317 313 309 305 301 297

Economic Sen Kraob $/t 309 305 300 296 292 289 285 282 278 274 271 267 264

Economic White rice $/t 147 145 142 141 139 137 135 134 132 130 129 127 125 a WB Commodity Price Projections released October 26, 2017 for 2015 through 2030. (Thailand, 5% broken, white rice, milled, fob Bangkok) b Manufacturing Unit Value Index c Adjustment for quality relative to the standard of Thai white rice, 5% broken = 12% based on relativity of Vietnamese to Thai rice 2010-2018 d Standard conversion factor (SCF) applied on half the amount of handling, transportation and milling = 0.9 e Conversion factor of paddy to rice = 60%. In calculating the price of aromatic rice, a milledrice to dry paddy percentage is taken as 42% based on Battambang mill estimates, plus 25%

broken, sold separately. Paddy is dried from an average moisture of 29% to the milling level of 14%.




Maize No 2 yellow FOB US Gulf ports

2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030

interpolated

Maize (current $) $/mt 170 159 155 159 162 166 170 174 178 183 187 192 196 201 205 210

Maize (constant 2010 $) $/mt 174 170 164 163 164 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 171 172 173

MUV (2010 = 100) b 2010 98 94 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 115 117 119 121

MUV (2018 = 100) b 2018 100.4 96.5 97.4 100.0 102.1 104.1 106.1 108.0 109.9 111.8 113.8 116.0 118.1 120.3 122.5 124.7

Corn US Gulf (constant 2018 $) $/t 169 165 159 159 159 159 160 161 162 164 164 165 166 167 168 168

Estimated economic & financial price

Battambang (constant 2018$) 250 250 251 252 253 255 257 258 260 261 262 264 265

https://www.indexmundi.com/cambodia/agriculture/corn.html Source: Consultant’s estimates.

https://www.indexmundi.com/cambodia/agriculture/corn.html

FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT: PREK PO SUBPROJECT S Page 101



Table A2.4: “With Project” Upland Crop Gross Margins, Prek Po, 2028

Units

Soy-

bean

Mung-

bean

Water-

melon

Corn Peanut Sesame

Yield kg/ha 2,100 1,500 7,000 8,000 3,000 1,200

Price $/kg 0.80 0.80 0.35 0.25 0.40 1.30

Gross income $/ha 1,680 1,200 2,450 2,000 1,200 1,560

Units/numbers

1 Land preparation ha 1 2 1 2 1 2

2 Seed kg 65 20 2 15 80 8

3 DAP 18-46-0 kg 200 50 100 50

4 Fertilizer (15-15-15) kg 150 150

5 Urea (46%) kg 50 150 100 100 20

6 KCL kg 50 50

7 Compost/manure t 5 10 7 5 5

8 Organic fertilizer kg 100

9 Pesticides liter 5 5 5 6 5

10 Planting labor days 10 4 15 20 7 2

11 Operating labor days 20 4 20 20 10

12 Harvesting labor days 15 10 15 20 15 10

13 Transport truck hire 1 3 1

Unit costs

1 Land preparation $/ha 40.90 40.90 40.90 40.90 40.90 40.90

2 Seed $/kg 0.50 3.00 30.00 10.00 0.80 1.30

3 Urea (46%) $/kg 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37

4 DAP 18-46-0 $/kg 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49

5 KCL $/kg 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38

6 Fertilizer (15-15-15) $/kg 0.55 0.55

7 Compost/manure $/t 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00

8 Organic fertilizer $/kg 0.35

9 Pesticides $/l 10.00 10.00 25.00 10.00 10.00

10 Labor cost $/day 5.40 5.40 5.40 5.40 5.40 5.40

11 Transport $ 30.00 40.00 30.00

Cost/ha

1 Land preparation $/ha 40.90 81.80 40.90 81.80 40.90 81.80

2 Seed $/ha 32.50 60.00 60.00 150.00 64.00 10.40

5 Urea (46%) $/ha 18.52 55.55 37.04 37.04 7.41

3 DAP 18-46-0 $/ha 98.47 24.62 49.24 24.62

6 KCL $/ha 19.18 19.18

4 Fertilizer (15-15-15) $/ha 82.50 82.50

7 Compost/manure $/ha 250.00 500.00 350.00 250.00 250.00

8 Organic fertilizer $/ha 35.00

9 Pesticides $/ha 50.00 50.00 125.00 60.00 50.00

10 Planting labor $/ha 54.00 21.60 81.00 108.00 37.80 10.80

11 Operating labor $/ha 108.00 21.60 108.00 108.00 54.00

12 Harvesting labor $/ha 81.00 54.00 81.00 108.00 81.00 54.00

13 Transport $/ha 30.00 120.00 30.00

14 Water service (incl

pumping cost) $/ha 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00

Total direct costs $/ha 843.39 507.05 1,151.74 1,108.25 804.20 688.02

Gross margin $/ha 836.61 692.95 1,298.26 992.18 395.80 871.98





Table A2.5: Financial Paddy Price, Prek Po

Jasmine Sen Kraob White

Ex-factory price % of dry paddy $/t $/t $/t

Milled rice 5% broken 45 800 750 435

Broken large (mainly export) 12 340 300 200

Broken small (local) 6 250 220 120

Bran 14 340 340 100

Hulls 20 15 15 15

Losses 3

Total 100

Value at rice mill

Milled rice (5% broken) $/t dry paddy 360 338 196

Broken large (export) $/t dry paddy 41 36 24

Broken small (local) $/t dry paddy 15 13 7

Bran $/t dry paddy 48 48 14

Husk $/t dry paddy 3 3 3

Total ex-factory value $/t dry paddy 466 437 244

Milling, grading, bagging $/t rice 7 7 7

Value 1 t dried paddy (14%) $/t dry paddy 459 430 237

Value 1 t paddy ex farm (28%) $/t wet at mill 395 370 204

Drying cost $/t wet paddy 15 15 15

Freight from village $/t wet paddy 10 10 10

Value at farmgate

Financial value at farmgate $/t wet paddy 370 345 179

Proportion exported % 80% 80% 50%

Shadow exchange rate factor $/t wet paddy 1.1 1.1 1.1

Economic value of export paddy $/t wet paddy 296 276 89

Economic value of local paddy $/t wet paddy 74 69 89

Economic value at farmgate $/t wet paddy 370 345 179





Table A2.6: Crop Financial Gross Margins, Prek Po, 2028


No. Units

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early (HYV)

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Potential irrigable area 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000

% cropped 58% 13% 100% 95% 5%

Water source rainfed bore bore surface surface surface

Area cropped ha 4,622 1,044 58 8,000 7,600 400

Irrigated no yes yes yes yes yes

Planted May Jan-Mar Jan Aug Dec Jan

Harvested Nov Apr-Jun Apr Nov Mar Apr

Inputs/ha

1. Land preparation times 2 2 2 2 2 2

2. Land levelling hand tractor times

3. Seed purchased kg/ha 20 40 15 120 120 15

4. Seed retained kg/ha 80 160 30 30

5. Urea-46% kg/ha 98 190 100 120 120 100

6. DAP 18-46-0 kg/ha 153 60 100 50 50 100

7. KCL (60%) kg/ha 38 32 50 50 50 50

8. Compost/manure t/ha 7 7

9. Pesticides L/ha 5 5

10. Labor days/ha 35 35

11. Harvesting days/ha 15 15

Financial gross margins

Unit costs

1. Land preparation $/ha 42.00 42.00 42.00 42.00 42.00 42.00

2. Land levelling hand tractor $/ha 50.00 50.00 50.00

3. Seed financial price) $/kg 0.25 0.25 10.00 0.25 0.25 10

4. Seed retained 0.25 0.20

5. Urea-46% $/kg 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41

6. DAP 18-46-0 $/kg 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54

7. KCL (60%) $/kg 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42

8. Compost/manure $/t 50.00 50.00

9. Pesticides $/L 25.00 25.00

10. Labor $/day 6.00 6.00

11. Harvesting cost

$/ha or

day 88.00 88.00 6.00 88.00 88.00 6.00

Budget per ha

Yield kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 4,500 5,000 8000

Paddy retained kg/ha 80 160

sold kg/ha 2,920 3,340 7,000 4,500 5,000 8000

Price $/t 324.05 302.14 262.55 324.05 302.14 262.55

Output $/ha 972.16 1,057.49 1,837.88 1,458.24 1,510.70 2,100.44

Costs


2. Land levelling hand tractor $/ha

3. Seed $/ha 36.00 64.00 150.00 96.00 96.00 150.00

4. Urea-46% $/ha 36.29 70.37 37.04 44.44 44.44 37.04

5. DAP 18-46-0 $/ha 75.33 29.54 49.24 24.62 24.62 49.24

6. KCL (60%) $/ha 14.58 12.28 19.18 19.18 19.18 19.18

7. Compost/manure $/ha 350.00 350.00

8. Pesticides $/ha 30.00 50.00 125.00 50.00 100.00 125.00




9. Labor $/ha 120.00 120.00

10. Harvesting cost $/ha 80.00 60.00 120.00 80.00 60.00 120.00

11. Water service (incl pumping) $/ha 15.00 150.00 150.00 50.00 80.00 80.00

Total cost per ha $/ha 371.20 520.18 1,204.45 448.24 508.24 1,134.45

Financial gross margin $/ha 600.96 537.31 633.43 1,010.00 1,002.46 965.98

Note: Medium variety: Phka Rumduol, Raing Chey, Phka Khnhei, Mlis. Late variety: Neang Khon.

In dry season, farmers grow early varieties, Sen Kra Ob and IR 504. Source: Consultant’s estimates.




Table A2.7: Crop Economic Gross Margins, Prek Po, 2028


Unit costs

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early

Variety

Upland

Crop

(Corn)

Wet Season

Traditional

Variety

Dry Season

Early (HYV)

Variety

Upland

Crop (Corn)


2.

Land levelling by hand

Tractor $/kg 3. Seed $/kg 0.80 0.80 10.00 0.80 0.80 10.00

4. Retained $/kg 0.80 0.80 5. Urea-46% $/kg 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37

6. DAP 18-46-0 $/kg 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.49

7. KCL (60%) $/t 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.38

8. Compost/manure $/L 50.00 50.00

9. Pesticides $/day 25.00 25.00

10. Labor $/day 5.40 5.40


12. Water service $/ha 15.00 150.00 150.00 50.00 80.00 80.00

Budget per ha

Yield kg/ha 3,000 3,500 7,000 4500 5000 8000

Paddy retained kg/ha 80 160

Crop sold kg/ha 2,920 3,340 7,000 4500 5000 8000

Price $/t 324.05 302.14 262.55 324.05 302.14 262.55

Output $/ha 972.16 1,057.49 1,837.88 1,458.24 1,510.70 2,100.44

Unit costs 1. Land preparation $/ha 81.80 81.80 81.80 81.80 81.80 81.80

2. Land levelling hand tractor $/ha

3. Seed $/ha 80.00 160.00 150.00 96.00 96.00 150.00

4. Urea-46% $/ha 36.29 70.37 37.04 44.44 44.44 37.04

5. DAP 18-46-0 $/ha 75.33 29.54 49.24 24.62 24.62 49.24

6. KCL (60%) $/ha 14.58 12.28 19.18 19.18 19.18 19.18

7. Compost/manure 350.00 350.00

8. Pesticides $/ha 30.00 50.00 125.00 50.00 100.00 125.00

9. Labor 108.00 108.00


11. Water service $/ha 15.00 150.00 150.00 50.00 80.00 80.00

Total cost per ha $/ha 421.00 619.98 1,178.25 454.04 512.04 1,108.25

Gross margin $/ha 551.16 437.51 659.63 1,004.20 998.66 992.18

Note: Medium variety: Phka Rumduol, Raing Chey, Phka Khnhei, Mlis. Late variety: Neang Khon.

In dry season farmers grow early varieties Sen Kra Ob and IR 504. Source: Consultant’s estimates.




Table A2.8: Economic Internal Rate of Return (Capital Cost, Option 1), Prek Po

Year Capital Cost O&M Gross Margin Cashflow

$’000 $’000 $’000 $’000

2020 1 8,094 -8,094

2021 2 13,490 -13,490

2022 3 5,396 -5,396

2023 4 661 2,351 1,690

2024 5 661 4,142 3,481

2025 6 661 6,112 5,451

2026 7 661 8,241 7,580

2027 8 661 10,529 9,868

2028 9 661 12,978 12,317

2029 10 661 12,757 12,096

2030 11 661 12,547 11,886

2031 12 661 12,547 11,886

2032 13 3,210 12,547 9,337

2033 14 661 12,547 11,886

2034 15 661 12,547 11,886

2035 16 661 12,547 11,886

2036 17 661 12,547 11,886

2037 18 661 12,547 11,886

2038 19 661 12,547 11,886

2039 20 661 12,547 11,886

2040 21 661 12,547 11,886

2041 22 661 12,547 11,886

2042 23 3,210 12,547 9,337

2043 24 661 12,547 11,886

2044 25 661 12,547 11,886

EIRR 21.6%

NPV (12%) $25 million