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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF NEPAL DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION MINISTRY OF IRRIGATION

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF NEPAL

DATA COLLECTION SURVEY ON PROMOTING OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEME IN TERAI

FINAL REPORT

October 2016

Japan International Cooperation Agency

RD JR

16-085

Survey Area: Terai region (the area highlighted with green color)

D.R.

D.R.

1997Western

ral D.R.

2035Eastern D.R. = Development Region

i

Table of Contents

Survey Area Table of Contents Acronyms & Abbreviations

Chapter 1 Background and Objectives of the Survey ............................................... 1-1

1-1 Background of the Survey .............................................................................. 1-1 1-2 Objectives of the Survey ................................................................................. 1-2 1-3 Target Region of the Survey ........................................................................... 1-2 1-4 Scope of the Survey ........................................................................................ 1-3 1-5 Methodology of the Survey ............................................................................ 1-5

Chapter 2 National Policy and Development Plan of the Irrigation and Agriculture Sectors ................................................. 2-1

2-1 Overview of the Country ................................................................................ 2-1 2-2 Positioning of the Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture Sectors in the National Plan ......................................................................................... 2-8 2-3 Legal System of the Irrigation Sector ............................................................. 2-8 2-4 National Policy and Development Plan/Strategy of Irrigation Sector .......... 2-10 2-5 Ministry of Irrigation .................................................................................... 2-16 2-6 Department of Irrigation (DOI) .................................................................... 2-18 2-7 Other Related Institutions ............................................................................. 2-26

Chapter 3 Current State of Irrigation in Terai region .............................................. 3-1

3-1 Overview of Terai region ................................................................................ 3-1 3-2 Outline of Irrigation Systems .......................................................................... 3-8 3-3 Situation of Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture ........................................... 3-17 3-4 Assistance in the Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture Sectors

by Other Donors ............................................................................................ 3-26 3-5 JICA’s Cooperation in the Past ..................................................................... 3-31

Chapter 4 Problems/Challenges of Each Irrigation System ..................................... 4-1

4-1 Irrigation Systems which were the target of the Detailed Study..................... 4-1 4-2 JMIS ................................................................................................................ 4-2 4-3 FMIS ............................................................................................................. 4-17

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Chapter 5 Problems of Irrigation Development and Challenges Extracted through the Survey ............................................... 5-1

5-1 Challenges Identified in the Field ................................................................... 5-1 5-2 Problem and Objective Analyses in the Workshop ......................................... 5-1 5-3 Challenges and Countermeasures Based on Field Survey and Workshop ...... 5-2 5-4 Targets of Technical Cooperation and Possible Activities……………………5-7 5-5 Importance of System-wide Water Management……………………………5-19 5-6 Relevance of Contents Applied from GON………………………………….5-20

Chapter 6 Proposed Approach of JICA’s Cooperation ............................................. 6-1

6-1 Policies and Needs in the Irrigation Sector ..................................................... 6-1 6-2 Proposed Cooperation Approach for an Improvement on the Irrigation O&M in Terai Region ............................... 6-2 6-3 Suggestion to Introduce the Agricultural Component .................................... 6-8 6-4 JICA-TCP Pilot Projects and Dissemination .................................................. 6-9 6-5 Possibility for the Distribution of Roles and Collaboration among the JICA-TCP and Other Donors’ Projects ......................................... 6-9 6-6 Considerations for Future Surveys and Implementation of the JICA-TCP................................................................................................ 6-10

References

ANNEXES:

ANNEX 1 Organization Charts of IMD, GWID and IDD

ANNEX 2 Organization Chart of DOA

ANNEX 3 Summary Tables of Questionnaire Answers (JMIS)

ANNEX 4 Summary Tables of Questionnaire Answers (IDD/IDSD)

ANNEX 5 Summary Tables of Questionnaire Answers (GWID)

ANNEX 6 Training Materials of IMD

ANNEX 7 List of IWRMP Irrigation Sub-projects

ANNEX 8 IWRMP Irrigation Sub-projects' Salient Features

ANNEX 9 List of CMIASP Irrigation Sub-projects

ANNEX 10 Salient Features of CMIASP-AF (Batch 1) Irrigation Sub-projects in Terai region

ANNEX 11 Questionnaire Answers (JMIS) (Digital file)

ANNEX 12 Questionnaire Answers (IDD/IDSD) (Digital file)

ANNEX 13 Questionnaire Answers (GWID) (Digital file)

iii

Acronyms & Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

ADS Agriculture Development Strategy

AMIS Agency-managed Irrigation System

AO Association Organizer

APP Agriculture Perspective Plan

AVRSCS Armed Violence Reduction and Strengthening Community Security

CBS Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat

CMIASP Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project

CMIASP-AF Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project - Additional Financing

DADO District Agricultural Development Office, DOA

DDC District Development Committee

DOA Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agricultural Development

DOI Department of Irrigation, Ministry of Irrigation

DTW Deep Tube Well

DPTC Disaster Prevention Technical Center

DWIDM Department of Water Induced Disaster Management

ET Evapotranspiration

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FGWID Field Groundwater Irrigation Division

FIMD Field Irrigation Management Division

FMIS Farmer-managed Irrigation System

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion

GOJ Government of Japan

GON Government of Nepal

GWID Groundwater Irrigation Division, DOI

IDD Irrigation Development Division, DOI

IDSD Irrigation Development Sub-division, DOI

IMD Irrigation Management Division, DOI

IMT Irrigation Management Transfer

ISP Irrigation Sector Project

iv

ISF Irrigation Service Fee

IWRMP Integrated Water Resources Management Project

IWRMP-AF Integrated Water Resources Management Project -Additional Financing

JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency

JICA-TCP JICA’s Technical Cooperation Project

JMIS Jointly-managed Irrigation System

MOAD Ministry of Agricultural Development

MOFALD Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development

MOF Ministry of Finance

MOI Ministry of Irrigation

NISP Nepal Irrigation Sector Project

NWP National Water Plan

O&M Operation and Maintenance

PIM Participatory Irrigation Management

PNA Peacebuilding Needs and Impact Assessment

SDE Senior Divisional Engineer

SISP Second Irrigation Sector Project

STW Shallow Tube Well

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VDC Village Development Committee

WB World Bank

WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

WIDMP Water Induced Disaster Management Program

WUA Water Users’ Association

WUG Water Users’ Group

Rs. Rupee Currency in Nepal (Rs.1=Yen 0.9604, as of Sept. 2016)

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-3-1 Development Regions and Districts in the Survey Area, Terai region ........................ 1-2 Table 1-4-1 Outline of the Applications Related to this Survey Made by GON ............................. 1-3 Table 1-4-2 Summary and Comparison of the Third Applications and Antecedent Two Surveys in the Past ............... 1-4 Table 1-4-3 Items for This Time Survey and their Details ............................................................. 1-5 Table 2-1-1 Basic Statistic data of Nepal ........................................................................................ 2-5 Table 2-4-1 Targets for the irrigation sector set by the National Water Plan 2005 ....................... 2-11 Table 2-4-2 Decennial transition of the irrigated area (Unit: ha) .................................................. 2-15 Table 2-4-3 Percentages of the irrigated area to the total agricultural land area ........................... 2-15 Table 2-6-1 Main Irrigation Systems in Terai region .................................................................... 2-22 Table 2-6-2 Budget of IMD (Fiscal Year of 2016/17) .................................................................. 2-22 Table 2-6-3 Budgets of Field IMDs for Fiscal Year 2016/17........................................................ 2-23 Table 2-6-4 Budgets allocated to the Bagmati and Babai Irrigation Systems from Project at the Central Level ........... 2-24 Table 3-1-1 Districts in Terai region ............................................................................................... 3-2 Table 3-1-2 Population Density and Road Density in Terai region ................................................ 3-5 Table 3-1-3 Differences in the ceilings of the land area to be possessed before and after the fifth amendments to the Land Act ............ 3-6 Table 3-1-4 Land Ownership and Utilization in Terai region ......................................................... 3-6 Table 3-1-5 Land Ownership, Renting-in and Renting-out of Farmers in Terai region .................. 3-7 Table 3-2-1 Definition of Irrigation System Scale .......................................................................... 3-8 Table 3-2-2 Definitions of Canal .................................................................................................... 3-9 Table 3-2-3 Distribution of roles in JMIS ..................................................................................... 3-11 Table 3-2-4 Comparison of Features between FMISs and JMISs ................................................ 3-11 Table 3-2-2 Comparison of the FMIS and the JMIS ..................................................................... 3-15 Table 3-3-1 Cultivation Area of Main Crops in Terai Region ...................................................... 3-17 Table 3-3-2 Crop Production in Terai Region (tons) .................................................................... 3-18 Table 3-3-3 Number of Agricultural Cooperatives by District in Terai Region ............................ 3-18 Table 3-3-4 Farmland area and irrigated area by water source in Terai region............................. 3-19 Table 3-3-5 Irrigated Area of the 25 Main Irrigation Systems in the Monsoon Season ............... 3-21 Table 3-3-6 Status of IMT of Major Irrigation Systems in Terai Region...................................... 3-24 Table 3-4-1 Comparison of Contents between CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF ............................ 3-30 Table 4-1-1 Irrigation Systems Studied in the Survey (JMIS) ........................................................ 4-1 Table 4-1-2 Irrigation Systems Studied in the Survey (FMIS) ....................................................... 4-1 Table 4-2-1 Water Source and Irrigated Areas of the studied JMISs .............................................. 4-2 Table 4-2-2 O&M of JMISs and WUAs’ Participation into the Irrigation Projects ........................ 4-3 Table 4-2-3 Status of the WUAs ..................................................................................................... 4-4 Table 4-2-4 ISF: Collection Rates and Distribution between WUAs and the GON ....................... 4-6 Table 4-2-5 Condition of Irrigation Facilities in Each Irrigation System Reviewed by the Interview Survey ................ 4-7 Table 4-2-6 Condition of Irrigation Facilities ................................................................................. 4-8 Table 4-2-7 Summary of Malfunctioning of Irrigation Facilities ................................................... 4-9 Table 4-2-8 Frequency of Canal Cleaning and its Record ............................................................ 4-11 Table 4-2-9 Status of Canal Cleaning ........................................................................................... 4-12 Table 4-2-10 Examples of Subsidy Comparisons between Nepal and India ................................ 4-15 Table 4-3-1 ISF and Its Collection Rate ....................................................................................... 4-17 Table 4-3-2 Irrigation Facilities of FMISs Visited ........................................................................ 4-18 Table 4-3-3 Canal Cleaning .......................................................................................................... 4-19

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Table 5-3-1 Challenges Identified through Field Visits, Challenges Recognized in the Workshop and Possible Countermeasures ........ 5-5 Table 5-4-1 Specifications of Candidate Sites of Pilot Project ....................................................... 5-8 Table 5-4-2 Current States of Hardware and Software of Candidate Irrigation Systems ............... 5-9 Table 5-4-3 Outlines of Candidate Irrigation Systems.................................................................... 5-9 Table 5-4-4 Scoring to Select Irrigation Systems for JICA-TCP .................................................. 5-10 Table 5-4-5 Challenges and Possible Activities in Kankai Irrigation Systems ............................. 5-12 Table 5-4-6 Challenges and Possible Activities in Bagmati Irrigation Systems (Hearing from the GAR2 Tertiary-canal-level WUA) .. 5-13 Table 5-4-7 Reaches of the Kankai Irrigation System .................................................................. 5-16 Table 5-4-8 Actual irrigable areas and the targets of irrigated areas of the Kankai Irrigation System ......................... 5-16 Table 5-4-9 Distribution of Roles in the maintenance works for the Kankai JMIS ...................... 5-18 Table 5-6-1 Area Where WUA is Responsible after IMT ............................................................. 5-25 Table 5-6-2 Relevance of Contents that DOI Staff Applied for Cooperation ............................... 5-27 Table 6-2-1 Outline of JIC-TCP (Irrigation Part Only) .................................................................. 6-3 Table 6-6-1 Challenges around the land ownership and their possible impact and mitigation measures .................... 6-10 Table 6-6-2 (1) Possible items to be studied with JMISs to address ethnic issues ....................... 6-13 Table 6-6-2 (2) Possible items to be studied with FMISs to address ethnic issues ....................... 6-13

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1-1 Ecological Zones and Geography of Nepal ............................................................... 2-1 Figure 2-1-2 Trend of the land use in Nepal ................................................................................... 2-2 Figure 2-1-3 Rivers and their Basins in Nepal................................................................................ 2-3 Figure 2-1-4 GDP ........................................................................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-1-5 GDP per capita ........................................................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-1-6 General Government Revenue and Total Expenditure .............................................. 2-4 Figure 2-1-7 Current Account Balance ........................................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-1-8 General Government Gross Debt ............................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-1-9 Inflation, Average Consumer Prices .......................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-1-10 Population ................................................................................................................ 2-4 Figure 2-1-11 Poverty rates ............................................................................................................ 2-4 Figure 2-1-12 Food Surplus and Deficit Districts in Nepal ............................................................ 2-7 Figure 2-4-1 Relationships of Laws, Regulations, Policies and Strategy in Irrigation Sector ...... 2-14 Figure 2-6-1 Organization Structure of DOI ................................................................................ 2-19 Figure 2-6-2 Staff Allocation to the DOI Central Office .............................................................. 2-20 Figure 2-6-3 Organization of IDD, Rautahat District ................................................................... 2-25 Figure 2-7-1 Organization Chart of MOAD ................................................................................. 2-27 Figure 2-7-2 Possible Implementation Structure for an Irrigation Project to be Implemented in Collaboration with MOAD ........ 2-28 Figure 3-1-1 20 Districts of Terai region (highlighted with light blue) .......................................... 3-1 Figure 3-1-2 Human Development Index Values across District, 2011 .......................................... 3-4 Figure 3-1-3 Human Poverty Index Value across Districts, 2011 ................................................... 3-4 Figure 3-2-1 Flow Chart of Rehabilitation Process ...................................................................... 3-14 Figure 3-3-1 Crop Calendar in Terai Region ................................................................................ 3-17 Figure 3-3-2 Rate of Irrigated area by District ............................................................................. 3-20 Figure 3-3-3 Image of Vicious Cycle in O&M of Irrigation Systems .......................................... 3-24 Figure 3-3-4 Schematic Diagram of Irrigation Blocks ................................................................. 3-26 Figure 4-1-1 Locations of Studied Irrigation Systems .................................................................... 4-2 Figure 4-2-1 Sluice Gates of the Tertiary Canals in Kankai ......................................................... 4-14 Figure 5-2-1 Objective Analysis and Countermeasures & Activities for Irrigation Improvement . 5-4 Figure 5-4-1 Tertiary canal and PVC pipe to take water off to the watercourse (left) and watercourse (right) in Bagmati . 5-8 Figure 5-4-2 Layout of Kankai Irrigation System ........................................................................ 5-14 Figure 5-4-3 Layout of Bagmati Irrigation System ...................................................................... 5-15 Figure 5-4-4 ISF Revenue of Kankai WUA (2005/06-2015/16) .................................................. 5-17 Figure 5-5-1 Conceptual Diagram of Joint Management ............................................................. 5-19 Figure 5-6-1 Image of the water management area at the on-farm canal level ............................. 5-21 Figure 5-6-1 Change of Expense for O&M after IMT ................................................................. 5-24 Figure 5-6-2 Transition of the Average IMT Collection Rate (Mexico, 2006) ............................. 5-24 Figure 5-6-3 Changes of Timeliness and Equity of Water Distribution through IMT .................. 5-25 Figure 5-6-4 Changes of Irrigated Area, Crop Yield and Farm Income through IMT .................. 5-25 Figure 6-2-1 Procedures of the pilot project approach ................................................................... 6-3 Figure 6-2-2 Approach of the JICA-TCP: Incentive mechanism for farmers ................................. 6-5 Figure 6-2-3 Proposed Framework of JICA Technical Cooperation Project .................................. 6-7

Data Collection Survey

1-1 JICA

Chapter 1 Background and Objectives of the Survey

1-1 Background of the Survey

Agriculture is one of the major industries of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (Nepal). The

percentage contribution of the Agriculture and Forestry Sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for

the year 2013/2014 was 32.6%1 and 65.62% of the domestic labor population, respectively (aged between

15 and 60 years old). The stability and development of the agricultural sector in which the majority of the

labor population has been involved is one of the priority issues that the Government of Nepal (GON) has

been addressing, and well-functioning irrigation facilities are indispensable for such sectoral development.

The GON has continuously constructed irrigation facilities for a long time, with support from donors. Not

only budget and technology provided by GON but also fund collected from water users as irrigation service

fee (ISF) has been required to maintain such facilities. Thus, the collection of ISF is critical for the

irrigation system management. In addition, it has been recognized the need for capacity development of

water users’ associations (WUAs) in the organizational development and in the technique for operation and

maintenance (O&M)3.

The view of GON on the irrigation development and management mentioned above is reflected in national

policies, including the Agricultural Development Strategy (ADS) 2015-2035, which was approved by GON

in September 2014. The ADS states the importance of the rehabilitation of the existing irrigation systems,

the capacity development of WUAs, the expansion of irrigated area in the existing irrigation systems and

the development of year-round irrigation systems. Such strategies are planned to be implemented,

particularly, in the plain of Terai region where irrigated areas spread all over.

Nepal is divided into three regions from the points of view of geography and climate features: Terai region

(60 - 300m above sea level), Hill region (300 - 4,000m above sea level) and Mountain region (4,000m and

higher above sea level). The agriculture is mainly practiced in Terai and Hill regions. The former is the

producing region of cereals, while the latter is that of vegetables, fruits and livestock products such as milk,

through effective uses of small and narrow farming areas. Terai region consists of the plain of grain belt

stretching from east to west in Nepal.

Very high percentages of major food crops to the national total production are produced in Terai region. The

production amounts of rice, wheat and vegetables in Terai region accounts for 78.6%, 64.1% and 58.1% to

the national total production, respectively4. Nepal has attained the self-sufficiency in crops in general since

2010/11: however, looking at rice, which is one of the staple foods for the Nepalese, it has not attained the

self-sufficiency because the amount of imported rice keeps increasing for the last five years5. So as to attain

the self-sufficiency of their staple foods, it is essential for Nepal to increase the rice production in Terai

region, and this is feasible only when the maintenance of the existing irrigation systems in the region is

1 Statistical Year Book of Nepalese Agriculture 2013/2014, Ministry of Agricultural Development (MOAD) 2 Statistical Year Book of Nepalese Agriculture 2013/2014, MOAD 3 The term of “O&M” is utilized in Nepal to stand for only the maintenance of facilities to keep them functional. Here and after, the term of

“operation” will be utilized to stand for specifically the operation of facilities such as gates to distribute and deliver irrigation water to farmlands. 4 Statistical Year Book of Nepalese Agriculture 2013/2014, MOAD 5 Preparatory Survey on JICA’s Cooperation Program for Agriculture and Rural Development in Nepal -Food Production and Agriculture

in Terai- (2013)

Irrigation Scheme in Terai

DOI, MOI 1-2

given appropriately.

GON planned increases of food crop production and of farm income as agricultural development strategy

for Terai region in the “Agricultural Perspective Plan (APP) －1995/96 2014/15”. APP adopted, as means to

implement such a strategy, the expansion of year-round irrigated area, the construction/rehabilitation of

rural roads, an improvement of agricultural technology and extension services, and the strengthening of

project implementation mechanism with the participation of beneficiaries and/or rural communities in

addition to government agencies. Thus, the promotion of year-round irrigation in Terai region has formed

an important part of national policies and may contribute to an increase in food crop production.

1-2 Objectives of the Survey

Based on the background mentioned in the previous section, GON has made requests to the Government of

Japan (GOJ) for a Technical Cooperation Project of the Japan International Cooperation Agency

(JICA-TCP) to develop capacity for O&M of irrigation systems in Terai region in 2011. After some

discussions between the two governments, the Data Collection Survey on Food Production and Agriculture

in Terai region (2012) and the Preparatory Survey on JICA’s Cooperation Program for Agriculture and

Rural Development in Nepal -Food Production and Agriculture in Terai- (2013) were conducted. Then, this

time, the Data Collection Survey on Promoting Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Irrigation Scheme in

Terai (hereafter referred to as “the Survey”) has been carried out.

The objectives of the Survey are (a) to examine the current state of irrigation projects in Terai region and (b)

to examine Japan’s cooperation strategy and its framework for technical cooperation projects, putting

emphasis on the current state of O&M by both the Department of Irrigation (DOI) of the Ministry of

Irrigation (MOI) and WUAs.

1-3 Target Region of the Survey

The new constitution was promulgated in 2015 and it divides Nepal into seven provinces. However, the five

Development Regions, Eastern, Central, Western, Mid-Western and Far-Western, are still used as

administrative unit practically. Terai region is not a development region and is, as seen in the previous

section, one of the three regions established in Nepal based on geographical and climatic features: Terai

(plain): Hill and Mountain. The five development regions are arrayed from east to west, while the three

regions of Terai (plain), Hill and Mountain lie from south to north. In this report, Terai region refers to the

geographical and climatic one mentioned above and not an administrative unit, except for the case

particularly noted.

Terai region is composed of twenty districts as follows.

Table 1-3-1 Development Regions and Districts in the Survey Area, Terai region

Development Regions Districts NumberEastern Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari and Siraha 5 Central Dhanusha, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, Bara, Parsa and Chitwan 7 Western Nawalparasi, Rupandehi and Kapilbastu 3 Mid-Western Dang, Banke and Baldiya 3 Far-Western Kailali and Kanchanpur 2

Total 20 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Population Atlas of Nepal 2014


1-3 JICA

According to DOI, there is no distinctive difference among the five Development Regions in terms of

irrigation and agriculture development plans.

1-4 Scope of the Survey

There are two antecedent surveys to this time Survey, regarding the requested JICA-TCP:

Data Collection Survey on Food Production and Agriculture in Terai region (2012); and

Preparatory Survey on JICA’s Cooperation Program for Agriculture and Rural Development in Nepal

-Food Production and Agriculture in Terai- (from January to August, 2013).

GON submitted the application for a JICA-TCP for the irrigation sector three times to GOJ, in 2011, 2012

and 2015. The following table shows outlines of the application and the antecedent surveys in

chronological order.

Table 1-4-1 Outline of the Applications Related to this Survey Made by GON

Year/Topic Application in 2011 Application in 2012 Application in 2015 Project Title

Enhancing Food Productivity by Farmer’s Managed Small Irrigation Project (FMSIP) in Terai region

Irrigated Agriculture Strengthening Project

Project for Promoting O&M of Irrigation Systems in Terai Plain

Year 2012-2017 2013-2018

2016-2021

Target Area

3 Districts each from the 5 Development Regions (15 Districts)

Districts of Jhapa, Morang, Dhanusha and Mahottari (4 Districts)

20 Districts in Terai region

Overall Goal

Stable food production by the promotion of small scale irrigation

Promotion of irrigation and an increase in farmers’ income

The O&M system that the project applied is adopted in other areas out of the targeted areas.

Project Purpose

Organizational development of WUAs and capacity development of government officers at the field level who are working for the agriculture sector.

Development of model irrigation schemes to be operated and maintained by WUA

The Irrigation systems are well managed and maintained in the target areas.

Activities Construction of 65 small irrigation schemes, organizational development of WUAs, training to field engineers/officers (no mention of the water management within the command areas at the tertiary and lower level canals under the WUA’s management)

Organizational development of WUAs, training to farmers on agricultural technology (assistance to the development of inventory and manuals on the water management within the command areas at the tertiary and lower level canals under the WUA’s management

Organizational Development of WUAs and capacity development of DOI/IDD in O&M, establishment of model O&M systems, Strengthening the coordination and cooperation among stakeholders (assistance to the development of inventory and manuals on the water management within the command areas at the tertiary and lower level canals under the WUA’s management)

Input Dispatch of Experts, project operation costs, training costs (Costs for the construction of model irrigation facilities are counted as input from Japan)

Dispatch of Experts, project operation cost (no description on costs for the construction of model irrigation facilities)

Dispatch of Experts, project operation cost (no description on costs for the construction of model irrigation facilities)


DOI, MOI 1-4

Year/Topic Application in 2011 Application in 2012 Application in 2015 Related Survey

Data Collection Survey on Food Production and Agriculture in Terai region (2012)

Preparatory Survey on JICA’s Cooperation Program for Agriculture and Rural Development in Nepal -Food Production and Agriculture in Terai- (2013)

Data Collection Survey on Promoting Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Scheme in Terai (2016)

Note: DOI: Department of Irrigation, IDD: Irrigation Development Division, WUA: Water Users’ Association

Relationship between the Survey and the above two antecedent surveys are summarized as follows:

Table 1-4-2 Summary and Comparison of the Third Applications and Antecedent Two Surveys in the Past

TOPIC 2012 Survey 2013 Survey This time Survey

Remarks of this time Survey

Target area

Not specified Districts of Jhapa, Morang, Dhanusha and Mahottari (4 Districts)

Entire Terai Plain (20 Districts)

Field visits: 14 irrigation systems in 13 out of the 20 districts in total were visited. Number of Invited irrigation systems to the Workshop: 6 Targets for the Questionnaire survey6: FIMD：13 offices IDD/IDSD：20 offices FGWID：11 offices

Contents of TCP (overall)

Farm mechanization, seed improvement, extension services, marketing, irrigation policies, micro-finance (credit)

Extension services, micro-finance, farm mechanization, income analysis, agronomy

O&M of irrigation systems

Possibility of the inclusion of Farming components shall be further discussed

Contents of TCP (irrigation)

The construction of new facilities shall be considered for western area (due to the low coverage of irrigation), Rehabilitation of existing facilities (such as FMIS) shall be considered for eastern and central areas

Expansion of year-round irrigated area

Construction/ rehabilitation of facilities shall be undertaken by GON

Note: FIMD: Field Irrigation Management Division, IDD: Irrigation Development Division, IDSD: Irrigation Development Sub-division, FGWID: Field Groundwater Irrigation Division, FMIS: Farmer-Managed Irrigation System. Source: Survey team

On the basis of results of the two antecedent surveys, the issues to be investigated through this time Survey

were defined as follows, with the major focus of the Survey on revealing the current situation of the existing

irrigation facilities in Terai region.

6 Questionnaires were sent to FIMD offices for JMIS, and IDD/IDSD offices for FMIS.


1-5 JICA

Table 1-4-3 Items for This Time Survey and their Details Items Details

Present condition of the existing irrigation facilities

Information collection of individual systems which were not fully covered by the antecedent surveys ((1) sources of irrigation water, (2) conditions (good, rehabilitated, requiring a rehabilitation, with signals for the need for future rehabilitation, partially no functioning, etc.) and problems of the headworks as well as the main, secondary and tertiary canals

Implementation set-up (Distribution of roles)

－ Progress in the IMT process (agreement of the distribution of roles b/w GON and WUA in JMISs) － Demarcation of roles in the maintenance/development/rehabilitation of the irrigation facilities between the GON and WUAs (The 2013 survey mentions that the 2013 Irrigation Policy defines the cost sharing between the GON and WUAs in the construction, rehabilitation and repair of the irrigation facilities. This time survey reveals actual practices on the ground of the cost sharing.

Ability and willingness of farmers to pay costs of O&M

－ Interviews and questionnaire survey with representatives from WUAs (Number of WUAs, ISF collection status, WUA participation in the irrigation projects and O&M activities) (There is no detailed description on the actual situation of WUAs in the reports of the antecedent surveys.)

Notes: IMT: Irrigation Management Transfer, JMIS: Joint-management Irrigation System, IMD: Irrigation Management Division, IDD: Irrigation Development Division, WUA: Water Users’ Association

Source: Survey team

1-5 Methodology of the Survey

1-5-1 Survey Period

The field survey was conducted for 90 days from 19th of June to 16th of September, 2016 in Nepal.

1-5-2 Survey Methodology

(1) Data and information on irrigation and irrigated agriculture in Terai region were mainly collected

through questionnaires to the following 44 offices:

13 Field Irrigation Management Divisions (FIMDs)

20 Irrigation Development Divisions/Sub-divisions (IDDs/IDSDs)

11 Field Groundwater Irrigation Divisions (FGWIDs)

(Refer to Chapter 3 and Annexes for details of the questionnaires and their results.)

(2) The field survey of respective irrigation systems was carried out by visiting and interviewing DOI staff

and WUA members (Refer to Chapter 4 for details of the field survey).

(3) Problem Analysis was carried out in the workshop held on 14th of August, 2016 at the DOI central

office in Kathmandu (Refer to Chapter 5 for details of the workshop).


2-1 JICA

Chapter 2 National Policy and Development Plan of the Irrigation and Agriculture Sectors

2-1 Overview of the Country

2-1-1 Geography

Nepal is a landlocked country which lies thinly from west to east along the main part of the Himalayan

Mountains. It faces the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China (China) in north, and

the Republic of India (India) in south, east and west. The land area of the country is almost 14,720,000 ha

(147,181 km2. Approximately 885 km long from west to east and 193 km long from south to north), which

is less than two fifth of Japan, and one point eight times large of Hokkaido.

83% of its land area belongs to Mountain and Hill regions, while the remaining 17% is Terai region which is

the plain stretches along the international border with India in the southern Nepal (Figure 2-1-1). The

majority of farmers in Mountain and Hill regions live on subsistence agriculture, but the production has

been reducing recently due to land degrading and/or farm retirement. Meanwhile, owing to the sub-tropical

climate and fertile soil, Terai region is the most productive granary in the country.

Figure 2-1-1 Ecological Zones and Geography of Nepal Source: ADS published by MOAD

Looking at the land use of Nepal from 1991 to 2012, it is obvious that population increase has been

affecting it (Figure 2-1-2). In this period, as the total population increased, other land uses than agriculture


DOI, MOI 2-2

and forest also increased. Meanwhile, the forest area has inversely decreased by approximately 1 million

hectare and the agricultural land area seems to have remained as almost the same during these12 years. This

fact indicates that the forest area has been converted into the agricultural land area and areas for other land

uses, such as housing and commercial uses, however, the decline of forest area has not resulted in an

increase of agricultural land area, and it would be difficult to increase agricultural land area from now

onwards. Consequently, it is necessary to improve the land productivity of the existing agricultural lands in

order to increase agricultural production. The expansion of the irrigated area and the promotion of

year-round irrigation in the existing agricultural lands can be one of the possible measures to improve the

land productivity.

Figure 2-1-2 Trend of the land use in Nepal Source: Total population from World Bank, the others from FAOSTAT

2-1-2 Climate

The land area of Nepal lies between 27°and 30°N in latitude, and in Japan the Ogasawara Islands and the

Amami-oshima Island are located at almost the same °N in latitude. Although the entire country belongs to

the sub-tropical climate zone, a variety of climate features can be seen within the country because of a wide

range of elevation: from less than 100m in Terai region to the highest peak in the world, Mount Everest

(8,848 meters above sea level). Such different climate conditions and elevations can divide Nepal into the

following 3 regions:

(a) Terai region (from 60 to 300m high) under the subtropical climate;

(b) Hill region (from 300 to 4,000m high) under the temperate climate; and

(c) Mountain region (more than 4,000m high) under the alpine and cold climate.

The above three regions form continuous geographical features from south to north, and are located on

the Himalayan mountain-building belt which lies on from the Indian Ocean to the northern Tibet high

land. Himalayan oogenesis uplifted the geological formations of these regions made of sedimentary rocks.

The mountain region, which has steep slopes called the Himalayan geological group, has extremely cold

and arid climate. The Hill region is formulated with rocks of the Cretaceous-to-Tertiary Periods, and the

Himalayan oogenesis left lots of cracks inside of the foundations. Therefore, landslides in mountain


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slopes frequently happen and a huge amount of soils and stones are conveyed to downstream areas7.

The skirts of Hill region are called Siwalik, which is composed of sedimentary rocks from the Tertiary

period to the Pleistocene times. The foundation of the skirts is vulnerable to rainfall and causes

slope/land slide every year. The Terai region is composed of alluvial soils conveyed from the Hill region8.

As mentioned above, the geological features of Mountain and Hill regions (upper streams of Terai) are

that they easily cause land slide and soil erosion. Accordingly, rain causes a lot of sediments in river water

which flows down to Terai region during the monsoon season. Thus, irrigation systems in Terai regions

are required to remove sediments as part of the important maintenance activities; the sediments are

conveyed from Mountain and Hill regions by flood.

Figure 2-1-3 Rivers and their Basins in Nepal Source: Website: RAOnline Nepal, http://www.raonline.ch/pages/np/npmaps01i.html, accessed in October 2016

There are 3 large river basins: Karnali (② in Figure 2-1-3), Gandaki (⑤) and Koshi (⑧), and also other

small and medium river basins. Not to mention, the larger river basins have larger geologically vulnerable

area against rainfall than smaller ones, because the larger river basins have larger Siwalik geological area.

Therefore, large river stream includes more sediments than small and medium river streams. This implies

that surface water irrigation systems in small river basins have less sediment in canals than those in large

river basins.

7 T. Yamamoto, et al. 1998. “The Movement of Sediments and River Improvement in Nepal” Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineering,

pp.309-314 8 T. Yamamoto, et al. 1998. “The Movement of Sediments and River Improvement in Nepal” Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineering,

pp.309-314


DOI, MOI 2-4

2-1-3 Society and Economy

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) shows Nepalese economy, current national finance and their

projection as follows (from Figure 2-1-4 to Figure 2-1-11).

Figure 2-1-4 GDP Figure 2-1-5 GDP per capita

Figure 2-1-6 General Government Revenue and Total Expenditure

Figure 2-1-7 Current Account Balance

Figure 2-1-8 General Government Gross Debt Figure 2-1-9 Inflation, Average Consumer Prices

Figure 2-1-10 Population Figure 2-1-11 Poverty rates

Source of all the figures on this page: IMF. 2016. World Economic Outlook Databases April, 2016


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The population is projected to keep increasing by 1.35% per year. GDP and GDP per capita also keep

increasing. The inflation rate goes up once, but it will come down. However, it is predicted that the GON’s

current-account balance gets worse, causing the increased national debt. As for the poverty, it had showed

the downward trend as a whole, but it is important to keep an eye on the trend continuously because the

poverty rate in urban areas turned to the upward trend in 2010/11.

Table 2-1-1 shows basic statistics of Nepal.

Table 2-1-1 Basic Statistic data of Nepal

Item Data / Value Source GDP（2015） 20,880,546 Thousand US

Dollars The World Bank (WB)

GDP per capita（2015） 732.3 US Dollars Exports of Goods and Services: Percentage of GDP (2015) 11.7% Imports of Goods and Services: Percentage of GDP (2015) 41.6% External Debt Stocks (% of Gross National Income) (2014) 20.0% Poverty Headcount Ratio at $1.90 a Day (2011 PPP) (% of population) (2010)

15%

Poverty Headcount Ratio at $3.10 a Day (2011 PPP) (% of population) (2010)

48.4%

Average precipitation in depth (mm per year) (2014) 1,500mm Life Expectancy at Birth (2014) Total 69,6 years

Male 68.2 years Female 71.1 years

Population 26,494,504 National Population and Housing Census 2011

Sex Ratio (Number of males per 100 females) 91.6/100 Population Density 180/km2 Working Age Population (Population between 15 and 59 years old)

57% (15,091,848)

Annual Average Growth Rate of the Population 1.35 Population Distribution Terai region 50.27% (13,318,705)

Hill region 43% (11,394,007) Mountain region 6.73% (1,781,792)

Urban and Rural Populations Urban Area (Population of the 58 Municipalities)

17%

Rural Area 83% Number of Individual Households 5,423,297 households Average Household Size 4.88 persons Female-headed Households 25.73% Source of Drinking Water Tap / Piped Water 47.78%

Tube Well / Hand Pump 35% Spout 5.74% Uncovered Well 4.71% Covered Well 2.45%

Source of Lighting Electricity 67.26% Kerosene 18.28% Solar 7.44% Biogas 0.28%

Caste / Ethnicity 125 Castes / Ethnicity Mother Tongue 123 Languages Literacy Rate Total 65.9%

Male 75.1% Female 57.4%


DOI, MOI 2-6

Item Data / Value Source Religion Hindu 81.3%

Buddhism 9.0% Islam 4.4% Kirat 3.1% Christianity 1.4% Prakriti 0.5% Others 0.3%

Availability of the access to the Internet at the Household Level

Total 3.33% Urban Area 12.11% Rural Area 1.24%

Availability of Mobile Phones at the Household Level


Availability of Landline Telephone at the Household Level


It should be noted that the population of Terai region accounts for 50% of the national population.

Accordingly, the region is the key area for the development of the Nepal. Meanwhile, the male-female ratio

of the region is approximately 90 to 100 (men is less than women), and the ratio of female householders is

25.7%, which seems very high. This is probably due to men’s migrant working abroad. Therefore, the

women’s participation in irrigated agriculture is important.

The literacy rate has large difference between men and women. The literacy rate of males is 75%, while

that of females is as low as 57%. The average rate of 66% covers the low rate of females, and it seems that

the cause for the difference in the literacy rates between males and females attributes to gender

discrimination. That is, sons are prioritized to be educated in the poor household rather than daughters. In

the strong patriarchal system culture of Nepal, parents tend to think that educating daughters is wasting

money since the daughter marries into another family. The number one reason that boys cannot go to

school is “There is no school.” that is approximately 25%, while that of girls is “their parents do not want

to make them educated.” that is approximately 40%9.

As for information and telecommunication, the dissemination rate of fixed-line phone at the national level

is only 7%, but that of cellphone is 65%. The dissemination of cellphone rate is 60% even in rural areas.

Meanwhile, the national rate of access to the internet is as low as 3%. Thus, the cellphone will be very

useful for information sharing and communication in the irrigated areas.

2-1-4 Food Balance

The proportion of the household suffering from food shortage to all the households in Nepal was 51% in

1995/96, and it drastically decreased to 16% in 2010/11. However, food deficit was seen in 32 districts

out of the 75 in total, according to the agricultural production data from 2011/12 to 2013/14 (MOAD,

2016): Nepal: Zero Hunger Challenge National Action Plan (2016-2025)). Areas where the most serious

food shortage occurred were the Hill and Mountain regions in Far- and Mid-Western Development

Regions (ADS. p.32). The climate of these regions is relatively dry. Besides, the traffic system has not

been well developed and farmers’ access to the market is limited. Therefore, subsistence agriculture is

9 Journal of Gender Studies, Ochanomizu Univ. Vol.11 (2008) “Gender Equality in Education: Experiences of Nepal to Achieve EFA Goal 5”


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prevailing and farmers do not produce surplus foods. This is the background of the cause for the delay in

agricultural infrastructure development in these development regions.

Meanwhile, in seven districts in Terai region from Eastern to Central Development Regions, food deficit

due to unbalance between cereal production and demand within those districts has been reported. The

unbalance may be attributed to a yield reduction due to river flooding over agricultural lands during the

monsoon season, although it is not confirmed. Otherwise, it may be attributed to higher population

densities in Eastern and Central Development Regions than in other development regions in the western

part of Terai, although it is not confirmed, neither.

Figure 2-10-12 Food Surplus and Deficit Districts in Nepal Source: MOAD, 2016: Nepal: Zero Hunger Challenge National Action Plan (2016-2025)

MOAD analyzed major causes for the above food deficit as: (a) expensive food prices; (b) food

production which cannot catch up with the population increase, and (c) aftermath of the earthquakes. As

for food production, it is pointed out that the segmentation of agricultural lands among the poor has

resulted in a reduction of the productivity and efficiency of farming.

GON aims at eradicating famine in the next 10 years, and has adopted the following 10 policies with

priority to cope with food deficit comprehensively.

As for rural infrastructure development amongst the 10 policies, particularly, MOAD shall accelerate the

implementation of the rural infrastructure development stated in ADS10 in order to eradicate famine

(MOAD, 2016: Nepal: Zero Hunger Challenge National Action Plan:

(i) Enhanced food production and productivity;

(ii) Increased investment in agriculture;

(iii) Rural infrastructure development;

10 ADS spells out that rural roads, storage facilities, irrigation facilities (construction, rehabilitation, and expansion), improvement of water

management capacity of government agencies and farmers are the priority issues in the rural infrastructure sector.


DOI, MOI 2-8

(iv) Local consumption of local agricultural products;

(v) Agri-business promotion;

(vi) Creation of employment opportunities;

(vii) Promotion for youth to start farming;

(viii) Providing smallholders and landless farmers with agricultural inputs;

(ix) Safety net support for the socially vulnerable; and

(x) Food governance strengthening.

2-1-5 Basic Infrastructure

Infrastructure damaged by the earthquakes in 2015 is still under reconstruction with priority.

The total length of the strategic network of roads11 to date in the country is 12,500km, and that of rural

roads12 is 53,000km. The road density of the country is 0.44km/km2. As part of efforts to attain the

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), GON is to be engaged in the social infrastructure development,

aiming at attaining 5km/km2 of road density, 100% access to telephones, and 10-fold electric-power

generation by 203013.

2-2 Positioning of the Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture Sectors in the National Plan

The National Planning Commission (NPC), which is led by the Prime Minister as the head of the Executive

branch of GON, is in charge of planning and coordinating national development. Nepal intends to get out of

the category of least developed countries by 2022 and join the middle income countries, by attaining more

than US$2,500 of GNI (Gross National Income) per capita by 2030. Currently, the NPC is leading the

formulation of Vision 2030, which is the long-term national development plan to realize the above intent. It

is supposed that irrigation development and irrigated agriculture are addressed as a principal measure for

the rural poor to increase income in Vision 2030.

ADS which was approved in 2014, is the long-term development strategy for the agriculture sector and is

currently under implementation. This strategy addresses not only agriculture but also irrigation, by

integrating related policies such as the 2010 draft doctrine of Integrated Water Resources Management and

the 2013 Irrigation Policy.

2-3 Legal System of the Irrigation Sector

2-3-1 National Code: Muluki Ain

Muluki Ain was promulgated in 1854. It ensures riparian rights and prior use rights of water. However, it

does not specify “ownership of water”.

The above old version of Muluki Ain 1854 was replaced by the new Muluki Ain in 1963. The new version

contains both substantive and procedural laws covering criminal and civil matters. Chapter 8 of Section 3,

“Land Cultivation (Jagga Abad Garneko)” sets out the priority use of water in irrigation, and also regulates

traditional farmer managed irrigation systems.

11 Main and branch roads administrated by the Department of Road 12 Rural and farm roads administrated by the Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Roads 13 National Planning Commission. 2014. "Sustainable Development Goals 2016-2030 National (Preliminary) Report”


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2-3-2 Water Resource Act 1992

It is an umbrella act governing water resource management and declares the order of priority in water use.

The water use for drinking and domestic purposes has the first priority, followed by the water use for

irrigation.

It stipulates the formation of “Water User Association”, and requires water users obtain licenses. However,

no license is required in case of: (a) drinking and any other domestic use on individual or collective basis;

(b) irrigation of one’s own land on individual or collective basis; (c) operation of running water-mill or

water-grinder as cottage industry; (d) personal use of boat as local transportation; and (e) the personal use of

water resources available within specific land by the land owner.

2-3-3 Water Resource Regulation 1993

This regulation was made in accordance with Article 24 of the aforementioned Water Resource Act 1992. It

stipulates the establishment of the District Water Resource Committees as authority to issue licenses for the

water use in general. The submission of an Environmental Impact Assessment is the pre-requisite to apply

for the license for water resource utilization and survey. This regulation also regulates dispute settlement

mechanisms in relation to water charges.

2-3-4 Irrigation Regulation

(1) Irrigation Regulation 1989

This regulation was institutionalized through the accumulation of studies and experiences of the

participatory water management pilot projects, such as the Irrigation Water Management Project

(United States Agency for International Development: USAID, 1985), the Irrigation Line of Credit

(World Bank: WB, 1988), the Irrigation Sector Project (Asian Development bank: ADB, 1988), and

the Irrigation Sector Support Project (United Nations Development Programme: UNDP/WB/ADB,

1989). This regulation provides the legal framework to water user organizations, and was referred to in

the development of the Water Resources Act 1992.


The regulation was developed based on Section 24 of the Water Resources Act 1992 as amendment of

the Irrigation Regulation 1989. The WUA for irrigation is recognized under this regulation and the

WUA shall be registered to an irrigation office of respective districts in order to utilize the irrigation

system developed/rehabilitated by GON. Due to this regulation, the traditional water users’ groups

(WUGs) had to convert into the water users’ association (WUAs) with legal personality, and are

required to register to GON.

The WUAs have responsibility to utilize, distribute, maintain, operate and manage the irrigation

system handed over by GON. GON may fully or partially transfer an entire irrigation system to a

registered WUA.

Those irrigation systems, which are too large for a WUA to provide O&M, can be jointly-managed by

GON and WUA based on a written agreement. In case of the Joint Management Irrigation System,

each WUA can individually make an agreement with GON and begin the joint management.



DOI, MOI 2-10

This regulation is the amendment to the Irrigation Regulation 2000. The items newly added are: (a) the

establishment of exclusive fund for O&M, which can be disbursed for manual desilting, canal

reshaping at small scale, greasing, wage for gate operators, etc., and (b) the deposit of at least 10% of

the total ISF collected by WUAs to such an exclusive fund. In addition, the WUA has to pay 10% of

the total amount of ISF to GON as their income tax. Costs for the O&M are much larger than the total

revenue from the ISF collection for most of the WUAs. Therefore, WUAs have no other choice but to

postpone maintenance works, and they often rely on government assistance.

2-4 National Policy and Development Plan/Strategy of Irrigation Sector

2-4-1 Irrigation Policy

(1) Irrigation Policy 1992

This policy supports the Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) from GON to WUAs, ISF collection

by WUAs, and the demand-based rehabilitation of the Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMISs).

All irrigation policies after the issuance of this policy consistently require the implementation of the

IMT.


The aforementioned Irrigation Policy 1992 was amended in 1997 by reviewing the sections on the

irrigation sector development, resources mobilization, and economic analysis of the former policy.

The new policy intends to promote new technology and to maximize the participation of private and

non-governmental sectors. The new policy also reiterates the importance of demand-driven irrigation

development.


The aforementioned Irrigation Policy 1997 was amended again in 2003. The new version put an

emphasis on decentralization and WUAs’ autonomous management of irrigation systems in order to

enhance the implementation of the Agricultural Perspective Plan 1995/96-2014/15. The primary focus

remained in the extension of irrigation services to all types of irrigation systems.


The aforementioned Irrigation Policy 2003 was again amended in 2013. The new policy provides a

vision to provide sustainable and reliable year-round irrigation services, so as to increase agricultural

production and productivity. In addition, the new policy puts an emphasis on the sustainable

development of the irrigation sector, by maximizing the utilization of available water resources,

effective water management and institutional reform through empowerment of human resources.

2-4-2 Development Plan/ Strategy

(1) Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) 1995/96-2014/15

It was a long-term plan for 20 years and the most comprehensive plan for agricultural and rural

development with the objectives of poverty alleviation and food security through accelerating

agricultural growth. It targeted to increase the agricultural gross domestic product to 4.9% per annum

and to reduce the incidence of poverty to 14% in rural areas by 2015. Six strategies adopted by this


2-11 JICA

plan are as follows:

(i) Accelerated economic growth through technology guided agricultural development;

(ii) Agricultural growth creating production demand with multiplier effects on all sectors of the

national economy;

(iii) Higher employment growth as mechanism of attaining social objectives;

(iv) Public policy and investment focusing on a small number of priorities building on past

investment in human capital, and physical infrastructure and institutions;

(v) A package approach to development, specific to Terai, Hills and Mountain regions, that

would recognize the powerful complementarities of public and private investments in order

to ensure their coordination; and

(vi) Broader participation of key stakeholders that ensures regional balance and involvement of

women.

The first priority in the irrigation sector was the expansion of year-round irrigated area, followed by

the enhancement of women’s participation in WUAs and training in O&M of irrigation systems. APP

1995/96-2014/15 showed Terai region as promising candidate area for the “green revolution” in Nepal,

and stated the following 3 strategies for the region to increase food crop production:

(i) Rural infrastructure development, including irrigation facilities

(ii) Promotion of agricultural technology and of investment

(iii) Organizational development of related government institutions

(2) National Water Plan 2005

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) prepared National Water Plan (NWP) in 2005 so

that the activities identified by the Water Resources Strategy 2002 can be implemented14. NWP 2005

aims to contribute to the overall national goals of economic development, poverty alleviation, food

security, public health and safety, decent standards of living for the people, and protection of the

natural environment in a balanced manner. NWP 2005 also has targets regarding the irrigation sector.

Table 2-4-1 indicates the targets of the irrigation sector set in the National Water Plan 2005. The plan

defines the target irrigated areas at 2007, 2017 and 2027, respectively. The current situation as of 2016

confirmed through interviews with relevant officers and literature reviews is also shown in the same

table as progress. The percentage of the year-round irrigated area to the total irrigated area as of 2016

(18%) was estimated based on the past achievement in 2010. According to DOI, the target value set in

the National Water Plan 2005 for this proportion is relatively high and it assumes that the actual

proportion still remains as only around 18%.

Table 2-4-1 Targets for the irrigation sector set by the National Water Plan 2005 Indicators 2007 Progress as of 2016 2017 2027

Percentage of year-round irrigated area to the 49% 18% 64% 67%

14 Water Resources Strategy 2002 focused on the following areas: (i) Integration of irrigation planning and management in agricultural

development; (ii) Improved management of existing irrigation systems, and improved planning and implementation of new irrigation systems; (iii)

Development of year-round irrigation in order to support the intensification and diversification of agriculture; (iv) Strengthening of capacity in

planning, implementation and management of irrigation; (v) Redistribution of arable land in order to improve irrigation efficiency and agricultural

productivity; and (vi) Improved groundwater development and management.


DOI, MOI 2-12

Indicators 2007 Progress as of 2016 2017 2027 total irrigated area (Source: ADS) Percentage of the irrigated area to the total land area with potential for irrigation

71% 79%

(Source: DOI) 81% 97%

Irrigation efficiency 35%

less than 40% (at least 170,000ha)

(Source: ADS) 45% 50%

Source: National Water Plan 2005

(3) Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) 2015 - 2035

This Strategy15 is a long term agricultural development strategy for 20 years, developed as succeeding

strategy upon the completion of APP. It has been implemented since November 20, 2015 by GON

(DOI. Irrigation Newsletter No. 98, Mid November 2015 – Mid March 2016). The Ministry of

Agricultural Development (MOAD) was in charge of the development of the strategy in consultation

with the related government agencies and concerned donors. The ADS 2015 – 2035 is a

comprehensive strategy aiming at the reinvigoration of entire rural economies based on agriculture,

instead of focusing narrowly on agriculture.

Based on the existing administrative systems, MOAD takes the lead in the implementation of the same

strategy and coordinates other government agencies at different levels as well as donors and private

organizations. In addition to the consolidated funds of GON, financing from donors and private

organizations are also expected as resources for implementing activities of ADS. In particular, the

establishment and utilization of the ADS Implementation Trust Fund (ATF) with contributions from

donors are planned.

Projects and activities for the Irrigation Sector are planned to form a comprehensive package of

infrastructure and capacity development for irrigation development, which is prepared for one of the

13 outputs required to produce one of the four Outcomes of the ADS: Higher Productivity16. The

followings are the 8 strategies in the irrigation sector for the selected output 2.5 “Irrigated Area

expanded equitably and viably, and improved Irrigation Efficiency and Management”.

1) Expand irrigated area by most feasible means

a. Completing surface water irrigation systems under construction at present,

b. Pilot construction of medium scale ponds / groundwater-recharge basins,

c. Repairing damaged surface water irrigation facilities,

d. Repairing damaged shallow tube wells (STWs),

e. Construction of new STWs, and

f. Developing non-conventional irrigation systems.

2) Increase effective area of existing schemes

a. Irrigation efficiency improvement,

15 ADS replaces APP and it is consistent with other present related laws and policies. Although necessary legal backing for the implementation of

the proposed JICA-TCP is already available, the ADS recognizes the need for new legislative documents for the implementation of itself (For

instance, to establish funding sources for O&M activities, a legislation to enhance the ISF payment is proposed in the strategy paper as seen on the

next page, 2-4-2 (3), 6) b.). 16 ADS consists of the 4 expected outcomes: Output 1: Improved Governance, Output 2: Higher Productivity, Output 3; Profitable

Commercialization, and Output 4: Increased Competitiveness.


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b. Command area expansion,

c. Improvement of water allocation and cropping plan: provision of agriculture extension

services,

d. Construction of permanent headworks and improvement of main canals managed by farmers,

and

e. Construction of STWs in areas irrigated by minor canals where water shortage occurs.

3) Increase irrigation intensity

a. Improve catchment management.

b. Construct inter-basin transfer schemes.

4) Improve irrigation facilities and the water management within the command areas (the tertiary

and lower level canals) under the WUA’s management

a. Reform and strengthen the existing Irrigation Management Division (IMD).

b. Provide adequate levels of budget, either from national resources or the collection of

adequate ISF.

c. Build capacity of WUAs and provide advice and possibly funding to farmers.

5) Implement Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) of the management of the 32 government

irrigation systems to WUAs

a. Joint management (government agency / WUA) for large systems with greater

responsibility progressively transferred to the WUA.

b. Full responsibility and ownership transferred to WUAs or federations of WUAs for the

medium scale irrigation systems, whose irrigated area is ranging from 5,000 to 10,000ha.

c. Prepare and implement an IMT pilot project17 for two medium to large irrigation systems,

including the formation of farmer-owned Irrigation Management Company or Cooperative

and studies on international experience of IMT as components.

d. Harmonizing and streamlining legal structures required for ownership transfer to WUAs.

6) Establish funding for O&M

a. Introduce incentives into the system (e.g. government budget support proportional to ISF

collection).

b. Introduce legislation to require a receipt for ISF payment to be attached land tax payment.

c. Enforce the existing requirement that ISF payments be brought up to date, before a land sale

can be registered.

d. Define and charge ISFs per crop in short-term and per volume of water in the long term.

7) Implement integrated water resource management.

a. Finalize the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) policy drafted in 2010.

b. Introduce the IWRM through the country, with management based on hydraulic boundary,

starting in areas where there is inter-sectoral competition or conflict over water.

8) Build capacity of Women Farmers in Irrigated Agriculture and Water Resources Management as

one of measures to enhance Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI).

17 This means a “pilot project” for the implementation of the ADS, and not a pilot project of any specific actual project.


DOI, MOI 2-14

As mentioned above, the irrigation regulations 2004 has been brought to effect based on the Water Resources Act promulgated in 1992. In addition, the foundation of national policies lies in the Irrigation Policy 2013, and to implement this policy, a comprehensive strategy, ADS, which addresses different sectors related to agriculture and rural development, such as agriculture, water resources, as irrigation sectors, was developed and put into practices. Figure 2-4-1 shows mutual relationships of these acts, regulations, policies and strategies.

Figure 2-4-1 Relationships of Laws, Regulations, Policies and Strategy in Irrigation Sector Source: Survey team

Agriculture Perspective

Plan (APP)

(1995/96-2014/15)Cent

Agriculture

Development Strategy

(ADS) 2015 -

Irrigation Policy 2003

Irrigation Policy

2013Far Western

Irrigation Policy

1992Mid Western

Irrigation Policy

Irrigation Regulation

2004

Water Resource

Regulation 1993


2000


1989

Muluki Ain 1963

Water Resource Act

1992

Laws Regulations Strategy Policy

Water Resource Strategy 2002

National Irrigation Plan 2005


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2-4-3 Progress of Irrigation Development

The following tables show the progress of irrigation development of Nepal and Terai region. The irrigated area of Terai region has accounted for 76%, 67%, 69% and 73% to the total irrigated area of the country in 1981/82, 1991/92, 2001/02 and 2011/12, respectively. Thus, 70% of the irrigated area of Nepal is intensively spread over Terai region and this implies that the region meets those conditions important for successful irrigation.

Table 2-4-2 Decennial transition of the irrigated area (Unit: ha) Year 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12 Nepal 583,900 882,400 1,168,300 1,313,406 Terai (Percentage of the area in Terai to the total area of Nepal)

444,900 (76.2%)

595,100 (67.4%)

801,300 (68.6%)

953,740 (72.6%)

Table 2-4-3 Percentages of the irrigated area to the total agricultural land area

Year 1981/82 1991/92 2001/02 2011/12

Nepal 23.7% 34.0% 44.0% 52.0%

Terai 31.7% 43.3% 57.4% 74.2% Sources for Table 2-4-2 and Table 2-4-3 above: Agriculture Monograph and CBS. National Sample Census of Agriculture

(District) 2011/12 and National Sample Census of Agriculture 2011/2012

As seen earlier, there is little possibility of the expansion of the agriculture land in Nepal, and therefore, to

strengthen the cropping intensity on the existing agricultural land together with the provision of appropriate

irrigation facilities is necessary in order to increase agricultural production and to improve productivity.

Tables above show that the irrigated area has been expanded continuously. However, the year-round

irrigated area has not been expanded.

ADS discusses that the total year-round irrigated areas of Nepal in 2010 was 234,000ha and they accounted

for 18% of the irrigable areas of the country. According to the Nepal National Committee for the

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), the percentage of year-round irrigated area to

the total irrigated area in Terai region in 1997 was 36.6% (288,000ha). DOI admitted that such percentages

still remain as almost the same today, though the irrigated area is slightly increased in both Terai region and

in the country as a whole.

As an outcome of the policy implementation, irrigated area has consistently increased. However, the

year-round irrigated area has not increased. This fact implies that the sluggishness of the expansion of

year-round irrigated area could become a bottleneck to achieve increased agricultural production and

improved productivity. In other words, the expansion of the year-round irrigated area is the challenge to be

actively addressed by GON from now on.

2-4-4 Improvement of Irrigation Efficiency

The irrigation efficiency is classified into two categories: conveyance efficiency and application efficiency.

The former is determined by the proportion of water loss occurred while water travels from a headwork to

farming plots. The loss is caused not only due to seepage and evaporation but also due to malfunctioning

canal structures and inadequate gate operations. The latter is determined by the proportion of water loss

occurred when farmers apply water onto crops in their plots. The loss is caused mainly due to

over-irrigation, which may result in deep percolation below the effective root level of crops. Such water


DOI, MOI 2-16

loss by deep percolation can be reduced if farming plots are leveled, since water can pervade uniformly

over the plots without concentrating on the lowest areas.

ADS aims at improving the irrigation efficiency. To improve the conveyance efficiency, canal lining, proper

allocation of irrigation facilities to secure their functions as well as proper operation of facilities for water

management are needed. Lining reduces the seepage loss and water is distributed properly by well allocated

irrigation facilities. Controlling water flow by properly operating water management facilities makes

accurate water distribution possible. On the other hand, ADS pursues the improvement of the application

efficiency by the establishment of water distribution network through capacity development of WUA

members, leveling of farming plots, on-farm water management, and so forth.

2-5 Ministry of Irrigation

2-5-1 Mandates

Abundant water resource in Nepal is utilized not only for irrigation but also for hydraulic power generation,

urban and rural water supply, and industrial uses, and therefore, it is invaluable natural resource for Nepal’s

economic development. The authority for the water use and management in the irrigation sector is MOI.

MOI is in charge of the preparation of policies and plans and their implementation in the irrigation sector,

and at the same time, is responsible for the attainment of targets of the irrigation sector among the national

targets.

As per the Work Division (Second Amendment) Rules, 2009 of GON, this ministry has the following

duties:

(1) Development and implementation of policies/plans for conservation, regulation and utilization of

water resource for irrigation;

(2) Conducting and Promotion of surveys, researches and feasibility studies of irrigation

development;

(3) Construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities;

(4) Human resource development and capacity building;

(5) Activities related to Flood and Flood Control;

(6) Study, research, feasibility study, construction, operation and maintenance of each irrigation

facility;

(7) Promotion of the participation of private sector in the irrigation development;

(8) Conducting survey and research on water resource development and undertaking of such

development;

(9) Groundwater Resources;

(10) Construction, conservation, integrated operation of irrigation facilities in rural areas as part of

Irrigation Development of the country;

(11) National and international seminars and workshops;

(12) Facilitation of bilateral and multilateral dialogues, agreements and mutual understandings

regarding irrigation;

(13) Cooperation among institutions related to irrigation development;

(14) Matters related to tax imposed on the use of irrigation;

(15) Prevention of natural disasters related to water;


2-17 JICA

(16) Surveys and researches on disasters related to water;

(17) Coordination with International institutions and organizations on disasters related to water;

(18) Development and Implementation of policies and plans on disasters related to water;

(19) Qualification setting for the recruitment, transfer and promotion of technical service officers who

work for the following groups

- Meteorology Group

- Irrigation Sub-group

The Secretary is the administrative head of the Ministry and there are established three Divisions and two

Departments which are directly answerable to the Secretary. The Administration Division, Planning &

Program Division and Policy & Foreign Coordination Division are the three Divisions which assume the

roles of the ministry’s secretaries and most of their activities are carried out at the central level. On the

other hand, the two Departments, DOI and the Department of Water Induced Disaster Management

(DWIDM), have their activities at the local level. The outline of these Divisions and Departments are

described in 2-5-2 and 2-5-3 below.

2-5-2 Divisions

(1) Administration Division

This Division consists of the following three Sections.

(2) Planning & Program Division

The Division consists of the following three Sections.

(3) Policy & Foreign Coordination Division

The Division consists of the following four Sections.

Planning & Program Division

Budget & Program Section Monitoring & Evaluation Section

Information & Public Relations Section

Policy & Foreign Coordination Division

Environment Section Research & Development Section

Foreign Coordination Section Policy Section

Administration Division

Human Resource Management Section Fiscal Administration Section Legal Section


DOI, MOI 2-18

2-5-3 Departments

(1) DOI

DOI is a governmental agency, with the mandate to plan, develop, maintain, operate, and manage

socially adoptable and environmentally sustainable irrigation and drainage systems. The agency works

for surface water irrigation systems irrespective of their scales ranging from small to large scale, as well

as groundwater irrigation systems irrespective of their ownership ranging from individually owned to

community owned. The primary goal of DOI is to increase the irrigated area in the country as large as

possible, through the provision of year-round irrigation facilities. The overall goal is to contribute to an

increase of GDP and an improvement of the living standards of beneficiary farmers, by meeting basic

conditions to improve the farming land productivity through the expansion of the irrigated area.

(2) DWIDM

Nepal has a high potential that various types of water-induced disasters such as flood, soil erosion,

landslides, debris flow, bank erosion, etc. are induced easily due to its rugged topography and weak

geological formation with active fault. The expansion of such disasters may turn into serious threat to

sustainable development of the country by doing harms on roads, houses, hydraulic power generation

facilities, irrigation facilities and water purifying plants.

In order to prevent such water induced disasters in Nepal, the Disaster Prevention Technical Centre

(DPTC) was established based on an agreement between GON and GOJ signed in October 1991. The

support from JICA to DPTC was provided for seven and half years and GON has been implementing the

Water Induced Disaster Management Program (WIDMP) since July 2000, so as to institutionalize the

achievements of DPTC with support from JICA. DWIDP has been implementing WIDMP through its

seven divisions and five sub-divisions.

2-6 Department of Irrigation (DOI)

DOI belongs to MOI and is the governmental department responsible for irrigation development. Figure

2-6-1 shows its organization structure. The Director General is the head of Department and under the

Director General, there are 5 divisions headed by Deputy Director Generals. In addition, 5 Regional

Irrigation Directorates, Groundwater Irrigation Directorate and Irrigation Management Directorate are set

as branch offices directly answerable to the Director General. Directors of central level projects and

programs are appointed by the Director General.

The Irrigation Management Division (IMD) is in charge of O&M, on-farm water management and IMT at

the DOI central office. The Irrigation Management Directorate and the 13 Field-level Irrigation

Management Divisions (FIMDs) as well as the Irrigation Development Divisions/Sub-divisions

(IDDs/IDSDs) under each of the five Regional Irrigation Directorates are in charge of such duties at the

local level. In addition, the Groundwater Irrigation Directorate and the 11 Field-level Groundwater

Irrigation divisions (FGWID) construct tube wells and give maintenance to them.

D

ata Collection S

urvey

2-19

JICA

Irrigation Schem

e in Terai

DO

I, MO

I 2-20

Senior Divisional Engineer(Gazetted (II) Civil)

1

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1Computer Operator(Nongazetted (I) Misc.)

1

Clerk (Nongazetted (I) /Gen.Admin.)

1

Office Assistant 2

Sub-total 6

Computer and documentation Computer and documentationComputer Officer (Gazetted (III)) 1 Computer Officer (Gazetted (III)) 1 Computer Officer (Gazetted (III)) 1 Computer Officer (Gazetted (III)) 1 Computer Officer (Gazetted (III)) 1 Under Secretary (Chief Admin.

Officer)1

Clerk (Nongazetted (I) / Gen.Admin.) 1 Clerk (Nongazetted (I) / Gen.Admin.) 1 Clerk (Nongazetted (I) / Gen.Admin.) 1 Clerk (Nongazetted (I) / Gen.Admin.) 1 Clerk (Nongazetted (I) / Gen.Admin.) 1 Section Officer 3Office Assistant 2 Office Assistant 2 Office Assistant 2 Office Assistant 2 Office Assistant 2 Clerk (Nongazetted (I) /

Gen.Admin.)4

Sub-total 4 Sub-total 4 Sub-total 4 Sub-total 4 Sub-total 4 Computer Operator(Nongazetted (I) Misc.)

4

Electrician 1Plumber 1

Senior Divisional Engineer (Gazetted (II)Civil)

1 Senior Divisional Engineer (Gazetted (II)Civil)

1 Senior Divisional Engineer (Gazetted(II) Civil)

1 Senior Divisional Hydrogeologist(Gazetted (II) Hydrogeology)

1 Senior Divisional Engineer(Gazetted (II) Agri)

1 Store Keeper 4

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 2 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 4 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)

1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Office Assistant / SecurityGuards / Gardener / Sweepers

13

Computer Engineer (Various) 1 Sub-total 5 Sub-total 2 Sub-total 2 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Sub-total 31

Sub-total 4 Sociologist (Gazetted (III) Various) 1 Account Section

Sub-total 4 Chief Treasury Controller 1

Monitering and Evaluation Section Senior Divisional Engineer (Gazetted (II)Civil)


1 Account Officer 2

Senior Statistical Officer (Gazetted (II)Financial Planning & Statistics)

1 Sociologist (Gazetted (III) Misc.) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Senior Divisional Hydrogeologist(Gazetted (II) Hydrogeology)

1 Accountant 4

Sociologist (Gazetted (III) Various) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 2 Sub-total 2 Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)

1 Senior Sociologist (Gazetted (II)Various)

1 Computer Operator(Nongazetted (I) Misc.)

1

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Agri. Economist (Gazetted (III) Agri. Eco.Marketting)

1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Assistant Accountant 1

Agri. Economist (Gazetted (III) Agri.Eco. Marketting)

1 Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)

1 Sub-total 3 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Office Assistant 2

Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)

1 Engineering Geologist (Gazetted (III)Engineering Geology)


1 Sub-total 3 Sub-total 11

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 2 Law Section

Statistical Officer (Gazetted (III)Financial Planning & Statistics)

1 Sub-total 8 Sub-total 3 Senior Divisional Hydrogeologist(Gazetted (II) Hydrogeology)

1 Senior Legal Officer 1

Sub-total 7 Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)


1 Legal Officer 1


1 Senior Divisional Mechanical Engineer(Gazetted (II) Mech.)

1 Chemist (Gazetted (III) Chem) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Computer Operator(Nongazetted (I) Misc.)

1


1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Mechanical Engineer (Gazetted (III)Mech.)

2 Sub-total 3 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Sub-total 3

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Sub-total 2 Mechanical Sub-Engineer(Nongazetted (I) Mech.)

1 Sub-total 3 Library

Sociologist (Gazetted (III) Misc.) 1 Senior Mechanist (Nongazetted (I)Mech.)

2 Senior Divisional Hydrogeologist(Gazetted (II) Hydrogeology)

1 Librarian 1

Environment Inspector 1 Senior Sociologist (Gazetted (II) Misc.) 1 Vehicle Driver 17 Hydrogeologist (Gazetted (III)Hydrogeology)


1 Library Assistant 1

Sub-total 4 Sociologist (Gazetted (III) Misc.) 2 Sub-total 23 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 1 Office Assistant 1

Sub-total 3 Sub-total 3 Engineer (Gazetted (III) Agri) 1 Sub-total 3Senior Divisional Engineer (Gazetted (II)Civil)

1 Sub-total 3

Engineer (Gazetted (III) Civil) 2

Sub-total 3

Total 23 Total 23 Total 35 Total 16 Total 18 55

Total Number of Posts 170

Organization Chart of Department of Irrigation

Program Monitering and Evaluation Division Planning Division Surface Irrigation, Environment andMechanical Division

Groundwater Irrigation Division Irrigation Management Division

Deputy Director General Deputy Director General Deputy Director General Deputy Director General Deputy Director General Gazetted (I) / Civil - 1 Gazetted (I) / Civil - 1 Gazetted (I) / Civil - 1 Gazetted (I) / Hydrogeology - 1 Gazetted (I) / Agri- 1

Computer and documentation Computer and documentation Computer and documentation Administration Section

Geomatics Section Planning and Design Section Small and Medium Irrigation Section Shallow Tubewell Section System Management Section

Large Irrigation Section

Feasibility Study Section DeepTubewell Section

Water User's AssociationStrengthening Section

Procurement and Agreement ManagementSection

Water Quality Evaluation and UseSection

Water Management Section

Foreign Coordination Section Mechanical Management Section

Environment and climate change section

Ground Water Investigation Section

Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Section Irrigation Management TransferSection

Total (incl. Director General)

(Source: DOI)

Program and Budget Section

Director GeneralGazetted (I)

Figure 2-6-2 Staff Allocation to the DOI Central Office


2-21 JICA

DOI officers affirmed in the interviews that DOI has accumulated skills in the irrigation facility

construction, since the main duties of the Department have been planning, designing, and constructing

of irrigation facilities for a long time. Accordingly, it is assumed that the DOI engineers have enough

capacity to plan and design small scale irrigation systems, and for the construction of large-scale

facilities, they have rich experience in the supervision, as DOI, usually, outsources the construction of

large scale facilities.

DOI is aware of the importance of O&M of the irrigation facilities, and has been developing the

capacity of their engineers in O&M. All the existing positions within DOI are shown in Figure 2-6-2

and the training materials to the DOI officers are listed in Annex-6.

With regard to the human resource capacity, currently 87 persons are assigned to the 27 positions for

civil engineer shown in the establishment for FIMDs, according to the obtained information.

Meanwhile, there are currently 20 persons are assigned to the 24 positions for agricultural engineers

defined in the establishment.

2-6-1 Irrigation Management Division (IMD)

The IMD is the division responsible for the management of Jointly-Managed Irrigation Systems

(JMISs), which are large and major scale irrigation systems developed by DOI. Separately, there are

IDD and IDSD as responsible offices for the management of medium and small scale irrigation systems.

IMD supports IDD and IDSD in O&M of medium and small scale irrigation systems under specific

projects such as the Integrated Water Resources Management Project – Additional Financing –

(IWRMP-AF) and the Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project – Additional

Financing – (CMIASP-AF).

The large scale irrigation systems under the management of IMD are called “Main Irrigation Systems”,

which DOI has selected because of their scale (irrigated area) and difficulties in O&M. There are 25

Main Systems in Terai region, which are jointly managed by WUAs and 13 FIMDs and the IDD of

Rupandehi. The following table shows the general information on the 25 Main Irrigation Systems and

the irrigated areas vary from system to system. The smallest irrigated area is 1,800ha while the largest is

68,000ha: more than 37 times as large as the smallest one. The average irrigated area of the 25 systems is

12,800ha.


DOI, MOI 2-22

Table 2-6-1 Main Irrigation Systems in Terai region S/N IMD Name District S/N Irrigation System Command

Area (ha) 1 Kankai Jhapa (1) Kankai 8,000 2 Sunsari Morang Sunsari (2) Sunsari Morang 68,000

(3) Chanda Mohana 1,800 3 Koshi Pump Chandra

Nahar Saptari (4) Chandra Nahar 10,000

(5) Koshi West Canal (Distribution System) 10,500 (6) Koshi Pump Canal 13,180

4 Kamala Dhanusha (7) Kamala 25,000 (8) Hardinath 2,000

5 Bagmati Sarlahi (9) Mansumara 5,200 (10) Bagmati 37,600 (11) Jhanj 2,000

6 Narayani Parsa (12) Narayani 28,700 (13) Narayani Tube Well 2,800

7 Narayani Lift-Khageri Chitwan (14) Narayani Lift 4,750 (15) Khageri 3,900

8 Gandak Nawalparasi (16) Nepal Gandak Western Canal 10,300 9 Bhairawa Lumbini

Groundwater Rupandehi (17) Bhairahawa Lumbini Bhumigath Jalshorat 20,309

10 Banganga Kapilbastu (18) Banganga 6,350 11 Praganna Dang (19) Praganna Kulo 6,684 12 Babai Rajapur Bardiya (20) Babai 27,000

(21) Rajapur 14,870 13 Mahakali Mahakali (22) Pathraiya 2,000

(23) Mohana 2,000 (24) Mahakali 11,600

IDDO Rupandehi Rupandehi (25) Machawar Lift 5,600 13 Field IMDs & 1 IDDO 25 Irrigation Systems 330,143

Source: IMD and FIMD

The total budget of IMD for the fiscal year of 2016/17 is shown in Table below. The amount includes not

only the budget for O&M but also that for construction (rehabilitation).

Table 2-6-2 Budget of IMD (Fiscal Year of 2016/17) Item Amount (Unit: Nepal Rs.) *1 Remark

Irrigation System Management and Training Programs

8,927,000(8,605,628)

O&M*2 852,232,000(821,648,048)

The amount for all the O&M activities to be undertaken by IMD.

Rehabilitation of Large Scale Irrigation Systems and IMT Projects*3

646,094,000(622,834,616)

TOTAL 1,507,353,000(1,453,088,292)

*1 The amounts in Japanese Yen (Rs. 1 = Yen 0.9604) are shown in the parenthesis. The information on the budget adequacy for duties as well as on the availability of financial support from donors was not obtained. *2 This item includes the budget of the 13 FIMDs for O&M activities such as cleaning of canals and repairs of small scale canals, which is amounting to Rs. 263,331,000. *3 This item includes the budget of the 13 FIMDs for the repair and rehabilitation of facilities (LISP), which is amounting to Rs. 634,585,000.

Source: Ministry of Finance. Estimate of expenditures, Budget Details - Red Book


2-23 JICA

Table below shows the annual budget for the FIMDs. As the Kankai irrigation system has a schedule of

large scale rehabilitation (re-plastering weir) in this coming spring, the costs for such rehabilitation is

budgeted under the item of construction. The budget for the Bagmati and Babai Irrigation Systems is zero,

since the budget required for these two irrigation systems is going to be allocated as part of the budget of the

project at the central level, as shown in Table 2-6-3. Therefore, such budget cannot be incorporated into the

budget of FIMDs.

Table 2-6-3 Budgets of Field IMDs for Fiscal Year 2016/17

Unit: Nepal Rupees, and the figure in parenthesis is the amount converted into Japanese Yen (Rs. 1 = Yen 0.9604)

No. FIMD in charge District Name of Irrigation

System O&M

(AMIS) Construction TOTAL

1 Kankai Jhapa Kankai 19,600,000 52,446,000 72,046,000 (18,894,400) (50,557,944) (69,452,344)

2

Sunsari Morang

Sunsari

Sunsari Morang 2,734,000 0 2,734,000 (2,635,576) (0) (2,635,576)

Chanda Mohana 8,055,000 0 8,055,000 (7,765,020) (0) (7,765,020)

Total of FIMD 10,789,000 0 10,789,000

(10,400,596) (0) (10,400,596) 3

Koshi Pump Chandra Nahar

Saptari

Chandra Nahar

8,042,000 90,000,000 98,042,000 (7,752,488) (0) (94,512,488)

Koshi West Canal (Distribution System)

4,255,000 47,500,000 51,755,000 (4,101,820) (0) (49,891,820)

Koshi Pump Canal

25,968,000 47,700,000 73,668,000 (25,033,152) (0) (71,015,952)

Total of FIMD 38,265,000 185,200,000 223,465,000

(36,887,460) (0) (215,420,260)

4

Kamala

Dhanusha

Kamala

18,545,000 0 18,545,000 (17,877,380) (0) (17,877,380)

Hardinath

4,240,000 185,456,000 189,696,000 (4,087,360) (178,779,584) (182,866,944)

Total of FIMD 22,785,000 185,456,000 208,241,000

(21,964,740) (178,779,584) (200,744,324) 5

Bagmati

Sarlahi

Mansumara

3,900,000 0 3,900,000 (3,759,600) (0) (3,759,600)

Bagmati

0 0 0 (0) (0) (0)

Jhanj

5,236,000 0 5,236,000 (5,047,504) (0) (5,047,504)

Total of FIMD 9,136,000 0 9,136,000

(8,807,104) (0) (8,807,104) 6 Narayani

Parsa

Narayani

2,050,000 0 2,050,000 (1,976,200) (0) (1,976,200) Narayani Tube Well 8,582,000 68,742,000 77,324,000 (8,273,048) (66,267,288) (74,540,336)

Total of FIMD 10,632,000 68,742,000 79,374,000

(10,249,248) (66,267,288) (76,516,536)


DOI, MOI 2-24

No. FIMD in charge District Name of Irrigation

System O&M

(AMIS) Construction TOTAL

7 Narayani Lift-Khageri

Chitwan

Narayani Lift

6,857,000 70,447,000 77,304,000 (6,610,148) (67,910,908) (74,521,056) Khageri

37,491,000 0 37,491,000

(36,141,324) (0) (36,141,324)

Total of FIMD 44,348,000 70,447,000 114,795,000

(42,751,472) (67,910,908) (110,662,380) 8

Gandak

Nawalparasi

Nepal Gandak Western Canal

10,768,000 41,147,000 51,915,000 (10,380,352) (39,665,708) (50,046,060)

9 Bhairawa Lumbini Groundwater

Rupandehi Bhairahawa Lumbini Bhumigath Jalshorat

9,955,000 0 9,955,000 (9,596,620) (0) (9,596,620)

10 Banganga Kapilbastu Banganga 17,715,000 31,147,000 48,862,000 (17,077,260) (30,025,708) (47,102,968)

11 Praganna Dang Praganna Kulo 20,540,000 0 20,540,000 (19,800,560) (0) (19,800,560)

12 Babai Rajapur

Bardiya

Babai

0 0 0 (0) (0) (0) Rajapur

21,715,000 0 21,715,000

(20,933,260) (0) (20,933,260)

Total of FIMD 21,715,000 0 21,715,000

(20,933,260) (0) (20,933,260)

13

Mahakali

Mahakali

Pathraiya

6,671,000 0 6,671,000 (6,430,844) (0) (6,430,844)

Mohana

1,717,000 0 1,717,000 (1,655,188) (0) (1,655,188)

Mahakali

18,695,000 0 18,695,000 (18,021,980) (0) (18,021,980)

Total of FIMD 27,083,000 0 27,083,000

(26,108,012) (0) (26,108,012) TOTAL 13 FIMDs

24 Irrigation

Systems 263,331,000 634,585,000 897,916,000

(253,851,084) (611,739,940) (865,591,024) *AMIS: Agency Managed Irrigation System

Source: Ministry of Finance. Estimate of expenditures, Budget Details - Red Book

Table 2-6-4 Budgets allocated to the Bagmati and Babai Irrigation Systems from Project at the Central Level

Unit: Nepal Rupees, and the figure in parenthesis is the amount converted into Japanese Yen (Rs. 1 = Yen 0.9604)

Irrigation System

O&M Construction TOTAL

Bagmati 101,655,000 296,718,000 398,373,000 (97,995,420) (286,036,152) (384,031,572)

Babai 8,000,000 658,300,000 666,300,000 (7,712,000) (634,601,200) (642,313,200)

TOTAL 109,655,000 955,018,000 1,064,673,000 (105,707,420) (920,637,352) (1,026,344,772)

Source: DOI

2-6-2 Field Level Irrigation Management Division (FIMD)

In July 2015, DOI newly established the Irrigation Management Directorate and the 13 FIMDs in Terai

region. The Irrigation Management Directorate guides, monitors and evaluates the FIMDs. Twenty-four out


2-25 JICA

of the 25 Main Systems are managed by the 13 FIMDs, and the remaining one (Machawar Lift Irrigation

System) is under the IDD of Rupandehi District (Table 2-6-1). Each FIMD manages 1 to 3 Main Systems in

cooperation with WUAs. All these Main Systems are the targets of IMT and GON is bringing forward the

transfer process in accordance with the ADS as well as the Irrigation Policy 2013.

FIMD chiefs are the skilled Senior Divisional Engineers (SDEs), which is the second highest rank of the

DOI engineers. In addition, undergraduate engineers (civil engineers and/or agricultural engineers);

engineers with diploma (sub-engineers) and association organizers who are undergraduates, are assigned to

the FIMDs. The actual number of staff assigned to each FIMD is listed in Annex 3, while the proposed

establishment numbers and organizational structure are shown in Annex 1.

2-6-3 Irrigation Development Division / Sub-division (IDD/IDSD)

IDDs and IDSDs are placed under the Regional Irrigation Directorates located in each of the five

Development Regions of Nepal: Far-Western, Mid-Western, Western, Central and Eastern. Currently, either

IDD or IDSD is established in each District of the country, and there are 20 IDDs or IDSDs placed in Terai

region. IDDs and IDSDs are in charge of the development and O&M of small and medium scale surface

water irrigation systems, namely, FMISs. The figure below shows the organization of the IDD in Rautahat

District. Though the organization structure varies from district to district, the positions (SDE, Engineers,

and Sub-Engineers) and the number of staff assigned to IDD are similar. IDSD has the same functions as

IDD does, but its scale (the number of staffing) is smaller than IDD. Association Organizers (AOs) are

sociologists, who are engaged in the establishment and development of WUAs. The organizational

structure and budget of each of the IDDs are attached in Annex 1.

Figure 2-6-3 Organization of IDD, Rautahat District Source: IDD in Rautahat district

2-6-4 Groundwater Irrigation Divisions

There are 11 Groundwater Irrigation Divisions (GWIDs) established in Terai region and they are manned

with hydrogeologists, engineers and sociologists, although the total number of staff is limited (See Annex-1,

Proposed establishment, for details of the staff allocation). GWIDs build deep and shallow tube wells for

groundwater irrigation systems. In case of the irrigation system with the conjunctive use of surface and

ground water, GWID takes care of the part of groundwater within such systems.

Technical Section Administrative Section Finance Section

Engineer: -2 Sub Engineer:-2 Association Organizer:-1

Administrative Assistant (Nayab Subba):-1 Typist (Computer Operator):-1 Office Assistant (Kaa.Sa.):-4 Light Vehicle Driver:-1

Finance / Account Officer:-1 Accountant:-1

Chief Divisional Engineer (C.D.E.)


DOI, MOI 2-26

2-7 Other Related Institutions

2-7-1 Ministry of Agricultural Development

MOAD, when participating in an irrigation project, takes care of the agricultural component (Figure

2-7-1). More concretely, MOAD may be in charge of practices of crop water management, water-saving

rice-growing techniques, cropping patterns, production of improved seeds, agricultural mechanization, soil

management, support for marketing, improvement on access to markets, cropping plan, soil fertility

analysis and management, and the utilization of small agricultural machines and equipment, among others

within the command areas (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the WUA’s management.

Meanwhile, DOI is in charge of supporting water management in the command areas under the

management of WUAs, such as calculation of irrigation requirement for the distribution of water and the

training of on-farm irrigation method. After the completion of the IMT, WUAs remain responsible for the

water management of the command areas under their management, while beneficiary farmers assume the

responsibility for irrigation water use and crop production on their individual farming plots.

IMD of DOI is playing a pivotal role in projects for the irrigation sector, which are under the

implementation with support from WB and ADB and the participation of MOAD. As part of the

implementation structure, a Project Appraisal Committee chaired by the Director General of DOI is to be

set above IMD, and likewise, a Project Steering Committee chaired by the Secretary of MOI, above the

Project Appraisal Committee (Figure 2-7-2).

The Secretary of MOI chairs the Project Steering Committee, while the Director Generals of DOI and

DOA should be assigned to the same committee as members. Representatives from other related

government agencies, such as the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development and the Ministry of

Finance, are usually assigned as members as well. The Project Steering Committee meets twice a year to

monitor progress of the project, to provide necessary instruction to the project, and to coordinate among

different government agencies for the implementation of the project.

The Director General of DOI chairs the Project Appraisal Committee, while all the Deputy Director

Generals of Division of DOI and the head of the Directorate of Agricultural Extension (DAE) compose

the Committee as members. The DAE is a program directorate of DOA and in charge of the agricultural

extension. The Project Director and Project Leaders also attend the meetings of the Project Appraisal

Committee. The appraisal meeting of the Committee is held usually twice a year, prior to the meeting of

the Project Steering Committee, in order to confirm progress, outputs and problems of the project, and to

examine challenges and possible countermeasures based on such a confirmation.

In order to implement the agricultural component, a Project Implementation Unit is established inside

DAE at the central level as PIU/DAE, and the Regional Agricultural Directorates (RADs) and the District

Agricultural Development Offices (DADOs) of the project are also involved in the implementation at

their respective levels. With the purpose of the coordination between DOI and DOA/DAE at the central,

between IMD and RAD, or between RID and RAD at the regional level and between FIMD and DADO,

or between IDD/IDSD and DADO at the district level, a coordination committee (CC) is set up at the

respective levels. The coordination meeting is usually held on a quarterly basis, with the participation of

representatives from the District Development Committees (DDCs) so as to share the information. In case


2-27 JICA

where two districts are involved in the irrigation project or system such as JMIS (e.g. Bagmati Irrigation

System), the CC should be established in each district.

Figure 2-7-1 Organization Chart of MOAD Source: MOAD

Honorable Minister

State Minister

Secretary

Administration Division

Monitoring & Evaluation Division

Food Security, Agribusiness Promotion &

Environment Division

Planning Division

Policy & International Cooperation Coordination

Division

Agriculture Information and Communication Center (AICC)

Seed Quality Control Center (SQCC)

National Agriculture Research and Development Fund (NARDF)

Department of Agriculture (DOA)

Department of Food Technology and Quality Control (DFTQC)

Janakpur Agriculture Development Project

(JADP)

Agriculture Service Centers

District Agriculture Development Offices

Regional Labs Program

Directorates Regional

Directorates

Board Nepal Tea Coffee Development Board (NTCDB)

Council Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC)

Committees

1. Kalimati Fruit and Vegetable Market Development Committee (KFVMDC)

2. Cotton Development Committee (CDC)

3. Chandradangi Seeds and Milk Production Development Committee (CSMPDC)

4. Nepal Sugarcane and Sugar Development

Companies/Industries

1. Agriculture Inputs Company (AIC)

2. National Seeds Company (NSC)

Direct Control/command Coordination/ Facilitation


DOI, MOI 2-28

CPMO = Central Project Management Office PIU = Project Implementation Unit MOI = Ministry of Irrigation MOAD = Ministry of Agricultural Development DOI = Department of Irrigation IMD-= Irrigation Management Division DOA = Department of Agriculture DAE = Directorate of Agricultural Extension

RID = Regional Irrigation Directorate IMDe = Irrigation Management Directorate RAD = Regional Agricultural Directorate IDD/IDSD = Irrigation Development Division/Sub-division FIMD = Field Irrigation Management Division DADO = District Agricultural Development Office CC = Coordination Committee

Figure 2-7-2 Possible Implementation Structure for an Irrigation Project to be Implemented in Collaboration with MOAD

Source: Drawn by the Survey team based on the cases of other projects supported by WB and ADB

Agriculture Component

DOI (IMD) CPMO

DOA (DAE)

PIU

FIMDs DADOs (20)

MOA

FMISs JMISs

WUAs

IIDDOs

/IDSDOs (20)

Project Steering Committee

(PSC)

Project Appraisal Committee

(PAC)

RADs

Doner

Organization

IMDeRIDs

CC

CC

CC

Central Level Regional Level District Level

Local Offices in Terai, which manage large-Scale Irrigation Systems.


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2-7-2 District Development Committee and Village Development Committee

It is known that the District Development Committees (DDCs) and the Village Development Committees

(VDCs) are taking part in the irrigation development. These local government institutions are established in

each District and Village under the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development. They are supposed

to have updated information on the irrigation development projects and their progress.

It is possible for WUAs to request financial assistance to DDCs or VDCs: however, in a hearing survey

conducted on the matter, the respondents admitted that there had been few cases that the local government

had provided assistance in response to such requests. In wake of special cases, such as natural disasters,

DDCs and VDCs may provide emergency support. Based on this background, WUAs usually request for

both technical and financial supports to IDDs, IDSDs or FIMDs. Nevertheless, the information on those

projects to be implemented in response to the requests from WUAs shall be shared with DDCs and VDCs

through the implementation periods.


3-1 JICA

Chapter 3 Current State of Irrigation in Terai region

3-1 Overview of Terai region

3-1-1 Climate and Geology

The Terai region spreads in the southern part of Nepal covering from the west boarder to the east boarder

and lies in north of the Gangetic Plain of India. It has 17% of the total land area of the country, including the

area with the lowest elevate in the country: 70 meters above sea level. It enjoys the abundant amount of the

sun light and rain fall of the sub-tropical climate with fertile soil, and there are a large number of irrigation

systems with surface and ground water. The majority of the food crops for national consumption are

produced in this region.

Figure 3-1-1 20 Districts of Terai region (highlighted with light blue)

Source: Drawn by the Survey team based on the Research Gate Website

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/227417012_fig1_Fig-1-Political-map-of-Nepal-showing-study-district-and-other-districts-by-ecological

[Accessed on 15/08/2016])

Terraced paddy field is one of the typical scenery of Nepal, however, it has become more and more difficult

to maintain those fields, due to decreased labor force and reduced collaborative agriculture works in the

hilly area of Nepal. The area has recently experienced a rapid population decrease due to a drastic increase

of emigrants from rural areas to urban areas or foreign countries. This tendency has caused an increase in

the abandoned farmland area, a decrease in the soil productivity and an increase in the frequency of soil

erosion and landslide in Hill and Mountain regions of Nepal. In addition, long-lasted conflicts, in

conjunction with a widening gap between the rich and the poor, made people tired and lose their identity of

community.

The tendency of an increase of emigration is also seen in Terai region. More people have abandoned

agriculture to work for manufacturing in near-by factories or to work in other countries, although the degree

of depopulation is not significant. Unlike those terraced paddy fields whose water retention function has


DOI, MOI 3-2

reduced, paddy fields in the plain area tend to have little damage caused by soil erosion. This implies that

Terai region has demonstrated its potential for the further development of irrigated agriculture, since the

region meets the required geographical conditions; however, sediments brought by river stream from

upstream should be removed incessantly.

As seen earlier, there are 20 Districts within Terai region, and each District is composed of villages and

municipalities, which are the minimum administrative unit of Nepal. The VDCs are supposed to have

general information on the irrigation facilities which exist within their village, and the DDCs are

supposed to have such information at the district level.

Table 3-1-1 Districts in Terai region No. District Population

(National Population

and Housing Census 2011)

No. of the

VDCs

No. of the Municipalities

Administrative Zone

Development Region

State

1 Kanchanpur 451,248 4 8 Mahakali Far-Western State 7 2 Kailali 775,709 28 8 Seti 3 Bardiya 426,576 18 5 Bheri Mid-Western State 5 4 Banke 491,313 33 25 Dang 552,583 31 4 Rapti 6 Kapilbastu 571,936 53 6 Lumbini Western 7 Rupandehi 880,196 48 68 Nawalparasi18 643,508 56 79 Chitwan 579,984 8 8 Narayani Central State 3 10 Parsa 601,017 66 2 State 2 11 Bara 687,708 68 612 Rautahat 686,722 84 313 Sarlahi 769,729 84 5 Janakpur 14 Mahottari 627,580 66 315 Dhanusha 754,777 71 616 Siraha 637,328 63 6 Sagarmatha Eastern 17 Saptari 639,284 91 518 Sunsari 763,487 39 5 Kosi State 1 19 Morang 965,370 50 820 Jhapa 812,650 33 8TOTAL 13,318,705 994 111 9 (out of 14) 5 (out of 5) 5 (out of 7)

Note; VDC stands for the Village Development Committee.

Sources: Local Governance and Community Development Programme – II, Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Government

(http://lgcdp.gov.np/GIS_national [Accessed on 16/08/2016]), and Wikipedia

(https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8D%E3%83%91%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%81%AE%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8C%

BA%E7%94%BB [Accessed on 15/08/2016])

DOI manages the medium and small scale irrigation systems by district and development region, and it

could not be confirmed through this Survey if DOI also manages the systems by administrative zone. DOI

remains functioning with their local offices at the district and development region levels, and any near

future restructuring of the Department has not yet been confirmed in accordance with the creation of

provinces in 2015. It should be noted that there is the possibility of restructuring of irrigation works by

province at some point. The following table illustrates the administrative system in Terai region. There are

18 As results of the establishment of 7 States by the new Constitution, Nawalparasi District is spread over both the States 4 and 5.


3-3 JICA

25 irrigation systems at a large scale, which are called Main Irrigation Systems and are JMISs between

DOI and the WUAs, in Terai region. Out of these 25, 24 systems are managed by the 13 FIMDs, while the

remaining 1 is managed by IDD of Rupandehi District of Western Development Region.

3-1-2 Socio-economic Development

The “Nepal Human Development Report 2014” published by the NDP together with the United Nations

Development Programme (UNDP) Nepal Office reveals gaps in the Human Development Index Value

between Regions and Districts within the country as of 2011. The value of Terai region cannot be compete

with that of the national capital, Kathmandu, or that of the western Hill region, but still it remains almost as

same as the national average value: 0.490. However, looking at more closely the value per district, there are

gaps among Districts in Terai region. Chitwan District marked the highest value, 0.551, while Rautahat

District marked the lowest value, 0.386 (see Figure 3-1-2). Likely, regarding the Human Poverty Index

Value of 2011, there are significant gaps among Districts in Terai region. Chitwan District marked the

lowest value, 24.8, while Rautahat District marked the highest value, 46.4 (see Figure 3-1-3). As seen in

Section 2-1-4 of Food Balance, Chitwan District of Central Development Region is one of the districts

which have not met the self-sufficiency of food, reasons for which are considered as a rapid urbanization

and population growth.

The degree of social bond or solidarity within administrative units or villages in Terai region is not strong,

compared to that in Hill region. It is believed that this can be attributed to the background of the society of

the region. People in Terai region originally came from different places after measures against Malaria

mosquitos were taken by GON in the 1950s. On the other hand, the people in Terai region have formed

communities based on the year of immigration, ethnicity or caste, and they have a strong identity of such

social communities (Subedi, Das and Messerschmidt. “Tree and Land Tenure in the Eastern Terai, Nepal”).

Although the caste system was officially abolished by the 1963 Constitution, the system is still subtly alive

within the social structure of Nepal, significant gaps in the living standard remain between higher and

lower castes. The opportunities for women and lower castes in education and jobs are still limited, and they

are not granted equal access to public service delivery, compared to others.

Table 3-1-2 is a summary of the population and road network in Terai region as of 2011/2012. In the last

rows of the table, the proportion of value of Terai region to that of the entire country is shown. 50% of the

national population lives in Terai region, and the population density of the region is twice as high as the

national average. This indicates that the total production of this region, including the agriculture

production, is enough to sustain such a large population. In addition, the road density of Terai region

(km/100km2) is one point five times as high as the national average. This can be attributed to lower costs

required for the construction compared to those in Hill and Mountain regions, high population density,

and the strategic importance of the region for transit to India.

In order to look at the situation inside of Terai region, all the districts in the region are listed in Table

3-1-2 below in the geographical order from west to east. The population density of the districts in Eastern

and Central Development Regions, except Chitwan District, is higher (ranging from 445 persons/km2 to

652 persons/km2) than that of the districts in Far-Western, Mid-Western and Western Development

Regions, except Rupandehi District (ranging from 189 persons/km2 to 328 persons/km2). The road density

shows a similar tendency, namely, the density in Eastern and Central Development Regions is higher than


DOI, MOI 3-4

that in Far-Western, Mid-Western and Western Development Regions. These facts indicate that the eastern

part of Terai region is more developed than the western part.

Figure 3-1-2 Human Development Index Values across District, 2011 Source: National Planning Commission & UNDP Nepal. 2014

Figure 3-1-3 Human Poverty Index Value across Districts, 2011 Source: National Planning Commission & UNDP Nepal. 2014


3-5 JICA

Table 3-1-2 Population Density and Road Density in Terai region No.

District Population (National Population and

Housing Census 2011)

Land Area (km2)

Population Density

(persons/ km2)

Road Length

(km)

Population per 1km of

road

Road Density

(km/ 100km2)

1 Kanchanpur 444,315 1,610 275.97 155 2,859 9.652 Kailali 770,279 3,235 238.11 310 2,488 9.573 Bardiya 426,946 2,025 210.84 211 2,019 10.444 Banke 493,017 2,337 210.96 226 2,178 9.695 Dang 557,852 2,955 188.78 366 1,523 12.396 Kapilbastu 570,612 1,738 328.32 223 2,559 12.837 Rupandehi 886,706 1,360 651.99 164 5,417 12.048 Nawalparasi 635,793 2,162 294.08 204 3,119 9.439 Chitwan 566,661 2,218 255.48 233 2,429 10.5210 Parsa 601,701 1,353 444.72 53 11,392 3.9011 Bara 701,037 1,190 589.11 167 4,189 14.0612 Rautahat 696,221 1,126 618.31 88 7,927 7.8013 Sarlahi 768,649 1,259 610.52 181 4,237 14.4114 Mahottari 646,405 1,002 645.11 185 3,489 18.4915 Dhanusha 768,404 1,180 651.19 195 3,938 16.5416 Siraha 643,136 1,188 541.36 145 4,438 12.2017 Saptari 646,250 1,363 474.14 247 2,622 18.0918 Sunsari 751,125 1,257 597.55 191 3,932 15.2019 Morang 964,709 1,855 520.06 216 4,462 11.6620 Jhapa 810,636 1,606 504.75 197 4,123 12.24Total or Average of Terai region (A) 13,350,454 34,019 392.44 3,958 3,373 11.63

Total or Average of Nepal (B) 26,494,504 147,181 180.01 11,636 2,277 7.91

(A) / (B) 50% 23% 218% 34% 148% 147%Source: Department of Roads. Road Network Data (2011/2012)

3-1-3 Land Ownership

The problems around the land ownership in Terai region stem from the malfunction of clear rules around

the issue, including the land registration system.

It is said that the land was traditionally distributed among the neighbors through discussion and verbal

agreements, and even today, not many Nepali people are aware of the land registration system. There is a

study which states that a half of the land owners in Nepal do not legally have the property right (Wily. L.A.

2008. "Land Reform in Nepal: Where is it Coming From and Where is it Going?” p.72), and there have

been cases where the claimed landowners could not submit any official document which proves their

property right on the land inherited from generation to generation, when they are involved in land conflicts.

Land conflicts can be caused when the owners of neighboring plots have different understandings of the

plot border, or when one of them intentionally tries to expand his/her plots beyond the plot border. In

addition, the case where an owner bribed the surveyor to manipulate the measurements, the case where a

person registered unregistered plots of somebody else in his/her name, and the case that a former owner of

the land did not take the necessary procedure to change the ownerships after selling his/her land, and finally


DOI, MOI 3-6

he/she pushed out the new owner from the land have been also reported19. Moreover, there were cases

where those people who do not have land but have been contracted by owners for actual cultivation on the

ground, start to claim the ownership of the entire or part of the land as remuneration for their long-time

works.

In Nepal, the farmland reform took place in the 1950s, and the Land Act, which is the principal legislation

for the reform, was enacted in 1964. The concerned act has been amended several times since then, and the

fifth amendment was given to the act in 2002. The act with the fifth amendments is still valid today,

although it has not been fully complied for various reasons20, including the amendment to reduce

drastically the ceiling of the agriculture land area (See Table 3-1-3).

Table 3-1-3 Differences in the ceilings of the land area to be possessed before and after the fifth amendments

to the Land Act Region Before the fifth amendment (ha) After the fifth amendment (ha)

Farmland Residence Total Farmland Residence Total Terai 16.40 2.00 18.40 6.77 0.68 7.45 Kathmandu Valley 2.70 0.40 3.10 1.27 0.25 1.52 Others 4.10 0.80 4.90 3.56 0.25 3.81

Source: Saito; Saito and Paudel. 2015

The Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/2011 revealed the situation of the land ownership and utilization

as follows. Table 3-1-4 illustrates the land ownership and utilization by all the population of each region.

As the left column of the table, “Proportion to all the land utilized”, indicates, 24.9% of the total land

utilized by the population in Terai region is rented-in land. Meanwhile, the right hand of the same table

explains the situation of the land which is rented out to others. As average in Terai region, 6.8% of the

total land is rented out. The renting in and out of land is more actively undertaken in urban area than rural

area in this region.

Table 3-1-4 Land Ownership and Utilization in Terai region

Percentage to total operated land (%)

Percentage to total owned land (%)

Owned and operated land

Rented-in land

Total Owned and operated land

Rented-in land

Total

Nepal 81.60 18.40 100.00 94.30 5.70 100.00 Mountain region 87.80 12.20 100.00 94.90 5.10 100.00 Hill region 86.20 13.80 100.00 95.00 5.00 100.00 Terai region

Total 75.10 24.90 100.00 93.20 6.80 100.00 Urban Area 68.20 31.80 100.00 85.20 14.80 100.00 Rural Area

Eastern Development Region

71.20 28.80 100.00 95.20 4.80 100.00

Central Development Region

75.40 24.60 100.00 95.80 4.20 100.00

Western Development Region

80.60 19.40 100.00 95.10 4.90 100.00

Mid & Far Western Development Region

80.50 19.50 100.00 88.40 11.60 100.00

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. National Living Standard Survey 2010/2011

19 The Asia Foundation. 2014. LAND DISPUTES AND SETTLEMENT MECHANISMS IN NEPAL’S TERAI, JSRP Paper 20 Saito et al. 2015. A Simulation Analysis on Land Reform in Nepal


3-7 JICA

Unlike the previous table, the following table 3-1-5 illustrates the land ownership and utilization by only

farmers. The proportion of farmers whose farming land is all rented-in, in other words, the proportion of

farmers without land in Terai region is 9.1%, which is relatively higher than that in other regions, since the

proportion of national average is 5.4%, that in Mountain region is 1.5%, and that in Hill region is 2.7%.

Within Terai region, the proportion of the farmers without land in Eastern and Central Development

Regions is 9.1% and 11%, respectively. These proportions are higher than those in Western (3.2%), Mid-

and Far-Western (3.7%) Development Regions. There are more population in Eastern and Central

Development Regions, and therefore, the number of farmers without land is arguably also large in these

development regions.

Based on the situation of land ownership in Terai region mentioned above, those points to be considered

to bring forward the cooperation in the irrigation sector in Terai region are put together in “6-6

Considerations for Future Surveys and Implementation of the JICA-TCP”.

Table 3-1-5 Land Ownership, Renting-in and Renting-out of Farmers in Terai region Percentage of

households with owned agriculture

land (%)

Percentage of

households renting-out

land (%)

Percentage of

households renting-in land (%)

Percentage of

households renting-in

land only (%)Nepal 94.60 10.20 31.60 5.40Mountain region 98.50 10.60 28.10 1.50Hill region 97.30 9.70 28.00 2.70Terai region

Total 90.90 10.60 36.20 9.10Urban Area 80.50 17.50 38.60 19.50Rural Area

Eastern Development Region 90.90 8.80 41.10 9.10Central Development Region 89.00 8.10 35.90 11.00Western Development Region 96.80 8.30 31.80 3.20Mid & Far Western Development Region

96.30 15.90 31.20 3.70

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. National Living Standard Survey 2010/2011

In the existing irrigation system, there have been reported disputes on the water distribution. Most of the

canals are equipped with several intake and drainage points, and this allows those farmers in upper streams

to induce more volume of water than they are supposed to do. Disputes may occur when an inequity of

water distribution is seen (Stein. D and Suykens. B. 2014. “Land Disputes and Settlement Mechanisms in

Nepal’s Terai”).

3-1-4 Ethnic issues

There are different ethnic and social groups in Terai region which are dedicated in agriculture. One of

such groups is Madhesi people, for instance, and irrigation systems are important common assets for them.

Madhesi established hundreds kilometers of canals in today’s Jhapa and Morang Districts hundreds of

years ago. Every year, Madhesi people live in areas between mid-west and far-east elects their village

leaders (badghar) between January and February (One vote per household). Badghar has the authority to

order village residents to repair canals within the village. For a canal runs through several villages,

badghars of the concerned villages select a Chaundhary who is responsible for O&M of such a canal.


DOI, MOI 3-8

Chaundhary can give an instruction to badghar to send villagers for the construction and/or rehabilitation

of such a canal. The equity among the villages is an important factor for the distribution of water from

such a canal21.

The promulgation of the new Constitution in 2015 has brought about a new social, economic and political

tension in the country especially in Terai region. There has been seen protest activities over the country

around the Constitution promulgated in September 2015. In Southern Nepal, the protest groups organized

general strikes called bandas. Vehicles of those people who did not participate in the strikes, office

buildings of the government agencies and facilities belonging to the police were attacked by the protest

groups, and frequent conflicts between the protest groups and the security units have left more than fifty

casualties from both sides.

This situation adds one more reason for DOI to develop guidelines for the Gender Equality and Social

Inclusion (GESI) in order to promote the GESI in irrigation policies and projects. In line with this, DOI is

making efforts to enhance the participation of different ethnic and social groups of Terai region in the

irrigation related projects and activities.

3-2 Outline of Irrigation Systems

3-2-1 Definition of the Scale of Irrigation Systems

The acreage for small, medium, large and major scales of irrigation system are different between Hill and

Terai region, because of topography. The table below shows the definition of scales of irrigation system in

these two regions.

Table 3-2-1 Definition of Irrigation System Scale Scale Hill Area Terai region

Major > 1,000ha > 5,000ha Large 500 to 1,000ha 2,000 to 5,000ha Medium 25 to 500ha 200 to 2000ha Small < 25ha < 200ha Source: Irrigation Policy 2013

The different scales of irrigation systems in Terai region can be classified into the following four

categories: small (less than 200 ha), middle (from 200 to less than 2,000 ha)22, large (from 2,000 to less

than 5,000 ha), and major (more than 5,000 ha). Based on this categorization, DOI divides the irrigation

systems into two categories for their own management purpose: the small and medium scale irrigation

systems and the large and major scale irrigation systems.

3-2-2 Definition of Canals

The main and lower level canals are defined by stream order. Meanwhile, those secondary and lower level

canals are classified by their irrigable areas. The table below summarizes the definitions of irrigation canals

in Nepal. For example, a canal which can irrigate an area ranging from 30 to 100 ha is classified as tertiary

canal, even if it is directly offtaking from the main canal.

21 Cederroth, Sven (1995), 'Managing the Irrigation: Tharu Farmers and the Image of Common Good', Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, Denmark. 22 This definition is different from the definition by ADS of the governmental middle-scale irrigation systems. According to ADS, the irrigated

area of the governmental middle-scale irrigation systems ranges from 5,000 to 10,0000ha.


3-9 JICA

Table 3-2-2 Definitions of Canal Terms utilized in

this report Terms Definition

Main Canal Main Canal The canal off taking directly from the intake or headwork Secondary Canals Branch or Secondary

Canal The canal off taking from the main canal.

Distributaries or Sub-Secondary Canals

The canal offtaking from main and other canals, , which irrigates the area from 100 to 500 hectares

Tertiary Canals Minor or Tertiary Canals The canal off taking from main or secondary canals, which irrigates the area from 30 to 100 hectares.

On-farm Canals Watercourses The canal off taking from main, secondary or tertiary canals, which irrigates the area from 4 to 30 hectares.

Field Channels The canal off taking from main, secondary or tertiary canals, which irrigates the area up to 4 hectares.

Source: Irrigation Policy 2013

3-2-3 Management Type of Irrigation Systems

These small and medium scale irrigation systems in Terai region, whose irrigated area is less than 2,000 ha,

are originally traditional FMISs. They had been developed, operated and managed by the beneficiary

farmers for years. For such FMISs to have government supports for the rehabilitation or upgrade of

facilities, water user groups (WUGs) of those FMISs, which are composed of beneficiaries, are required to

organize WUAs with the registration to IDD or another irrigation office in charge, prior to the submission

of the application for government supports.

With the registration to the government agencies, the traditional WUGs are turned into the FMIS WUAs

registered to the government, and they become eligible for the government support.

Such WUAs tend to have few problems and challenges in the collective management of irrigation

facilities. They are organized on the basis of small scale community-based traditional groups for the

irrigation, and they can develop their regulations based on the existing traditional organizational structure

and regulations, although they can also refer to the organizational structure and regulations developed by

the government, with the guidance of Association Organizer. Moreover, their members’ experience in the

management of the irrigation systems and the group of users will help the WUAs to manage their

organizations.

The government intervention to FMISs is mainly on the organization and the registration of WUAs besides

on the rehabilitation of facilities. The traditional organization structure and regulations applied on the

ground are respected in the process of the registration to convert their irrigation system into an FMIS

registered to the government. When the construction work is completed, and the training in O&M of the

system and agriculture is implemented, the management of the irrigation system is transferred back to the

concerned WUA of FMIS. After the transfer of management, the government provides a minimum

intervention for O&M. The office of IDD/IDSD is normally situated far away from the WUAs, and this

geographical distance likely contributes to less support from IDD/IDSD to the WUAs after the transfer

and the initial training. Since such a FMIS is originally a property of beneficiary farmers, it cannot be the

target of IMT, even if the government manages the system temporarily during the construction period.

For the medium scale irrigation systems among FMISs, GON through DOI has been implementing the


DOI, MOI 3-10

Medium Irrigation Project (MIP) with its own budget since 2004/05. The targets of this project are the

medium scale irrigation systems over the country and its objectives are expansion of the irrigated area and

improvement on the agricultural productivity. According to DOI, MIP has already completed works by

August 2016 for 36,711 ha of the 288 irrigation systems, and is currently working for 95,433 ha of the

679 irrigation systems. DOI has the intension to continue the current support to the medium scale FMISs

for the time being. The targets of those projects supported by donors, CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF are

also medium scale FMISs (refer to 3-4-2 The Contents and Challenges of the On-going Projects).

In Terai region, there are a large number of FMISs registered to the government and the traditional FMISs

which have never received the government support as well. According to the GWID, there are numerous

groundwater irrigation systems in Terai region. IDD or IDSD of each district does not have the

information on the actual number of FMISs within the jurisdiction. Consequently, DOI neither has the data

of the actual number and name of FMISs.

On the other hand, there are large or major scale irrigation systems which are developed by DOI. They are

called “Main Systems” and there are a total of 25 Main Systems in Terai region. Out of the 25 systems, 24

systems are directly administrated by IMD. These Main Systems are classified into 3 types by the water

management conditions in the area prior to the establishment of Main System: Type 1) Systems which

were established by GON to benefit rain-fed farming plots. Type 2) Systems which were established by

GON to integrate several small-scale FMISs into one large-scale Main System, and Type 3) Systems

which were established by GON to integrate the rain-fed farming plots and neighboring FMISs under a

large-scale Main System.

They are JMISs, which are managed jointly by DOI (13 FIMDs and 1 IDD) and the WUAs. The number of

the WUA members of JMIS may be over 1,000, and if it is the case, to manage such a big group, there

should be put in place a systematic organizational structure and clear regulations on which the members

can agree. Accordingly, the WUAs of JMIS are required higher organizational management capacity than

those WUAs of FMIS. The operation of Main Systems requires experiences as well as engineering

knowledge. Moreover, due to the scale of Main Systems, the total canal length tends to be long, and

WUA’s burden for O&M is heavy in both the terms of work load and costs.

The columns of canal and maintenance of the following table show the distribution of roles on

maintenance between GON and WUA, although details of such a distribution are determined by a written

agreement as result of negotiation (Irrigation Regulation 2000, Irrigation Policy 2013). Depending on the

specific conditions of each system, such as the scale, the status quo of facilities, and the WUA’s current

level of capacity, the actual distribution of roles between GON and WUA can be adjusted. In JMISs, the

problems of a delay and/or a lack in the development of the major irrigation facilities are often

experienced. In order to make a required amount of water reach to tertiary and lower level canals, there

are cases where WUAs take necessary measures including those tasks which are not original the WUAs’

tasks such as the cleaning of the main canals. Even when the major irrigation facilities are well developed,

there are cases where the management of the entire irrigation system does not work fully and the water is

not distributed in an equitable manner. Appropriate technical assistance to address such managerial

problems is required.


3-11 JICA

Table 3-2-3 Distribution of roles in JMIS Canal Construction Maintenance

Main Canals DOI DOI (IMD) Secondary Canals DOI DOI (IMD) in the participation of WUA

Tertiary Canals DOI or WUA (construction by outsourced contractors or by WUA members) WUA

On-farm canals Note: The Irrigation Regulation 2000 and the Irrigation Policy 2013 describe the distribution of roles in the maintenance works, but not that in the construction.

Source: Irrigation Policy 2013 and DOI especially for the distribution of roles in the construction

The management of the large and major scale irrigation systems mentioned above is transferred from DOI

to the WUAs of JMIS, which are organized with support from the FIMD. DOI provides the WUAs with

the training in the organizational development, O&M, etc. The FIMD office is normally situated near

from the WUAs and the FIMD and the WUAs can maintain a good level of mutual communication.

Because of such a geographical proximity, the WUAs seem to have a better access to the government

agencies to seek supports from them. FIMD provides the WUAs with technical assistance to develop the

irrigation schedule and to increase the knowledge required for the irrigation management such as

Evapotranspiration (ET) and irrigation efficiency, among others. However, the decision-making power is

always left to the WUAs.

The following table is a summary of the comparison of features between FMISs and JMISs.

Table 3-2-4 Comparison of Features between FMISs and JMISs Items FMISs JMISs partly handed over

by IMT Project Legislative Background (Law, Regulations)

Muluki Ain 1963 Water Resources Act 1992 Water Resource Regulation 1993 Irrigation Policy 2013

Water Resources Act 1992 Water Resource Regulations 1993 Irrigation Policy 2013

Strategic Background (Strategy, Plan)

Water Resource Strategy 2002 National Water Plan 2005 ADS 2015 - 2035

Water Resource Strategy 2002 National Water Plan 2005 ADS 2015 - 2035

Supervisory Office Irrigation Development Division (IDD) Irrigation Development Sub-division (IDSD)

Irrigation Management Division Project Office (IMDPO)

Number of Irrigation Systems in Terai (surface water and groundwater systems)

3,500 – 7,000 ha (a total irrigated area is estimated as approximately 709,831 ha) #1

25 systems (total command area is 330,143 ha)

Command area in Terai region

Small systems (less than 200 ha) Medium systems (200 – 2,000 ha)

Large systems (2,000ha – 5,000ha) Major systems (more than 5,000ha)

Financial sources for the development / rehabilitation

Multi and bilateral donors Own funds of GON

Multi and bilateral donors Own funds of GON


DOI, MOI 3-12

Items FMISs JMISs partly handed over by IMT Project

O&M Implementation institutions / agencies

WUAs

Headworks & main canals: DOI Secondary canals: DOI with

participation of WUAs Tertiary canals & Distribution

Networks: WUAs Policy: the regular management

responsibility of large systems is gradually transferred from IMDPOs to WUAs.

Implementation institutions / agencies for the development and rehabilitations

Water users in principle Water users with the support from the

IDD/IDSD staff, in case that water users cannot technically and financially bear with burdens.

Portions for DOI: DOI Portions for WUAs:

Water users in principle Water users with the support

from the IMDPO staff, in case that water users cannot technically and financially bear with burdens.

Issues for further development / rehabilitations

Increased irrigation efficiency (ADS#2) Improvement on headwork, main canal

and distribution networks (ADS) Improvement on water management

(ADS) Capacity development of WUAs (ADS)

Promotion of IMT (Irrigation Policy 2013, ADS) Capacity development of IMD (ADS) Capacity development of WUAs

(ADS) Improvement on water management

(ADS) Rehabilitation / Improvement of

facilities (ADS) Technical assistance needed in order to optimize water use for reliable year-round irrigation (2016.8.14 workshop results)

Newly installation of tube-well as water source.

Maintenance of existing DTWs & STWs Maintenance (dredging) of the existing

reservoirs as water source. Enhancement of improvement on ISF

collection mechanism, including periodical auditing system.

Establishment/update of asset management of irrigation facilities.

Construction and/or improvement of on-farm irrigation system

Introduction of new technology to increase irrigation efficiency

Construction/maintenance of water-regulating structures

Establishment/improvement of drainage systems for the medium/large scale projects in plain area.

Enhancement of construction of on-farm irrigation and drainage system

Newly installation of tube-well as water source.

Maintenance of existing DTWs & STWs

Maintenance (dredging) of the existing reservoirs as water source.

Enhancement of improvement on ISF collection mechanism, including periodical auditing system.

Establishment/update of asset management of irrigation facilities.

Construction and/or improvement of on-farm irrigation system

Introduction of new technology to increase irrigation efficiency

Construction/maintenance of water-regulating structures

Establishment/improvement of drainage systems for the medium/large scale projects in plain area.

Enhancement of construction of on-farm irrigation and drainage system


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Items FMISs JMISs partly handed over by IMT Project

Relative importance on the above technical assistance weighted by participants of the workshop held in the DOI central office

30% 70%

#1 Irrigated area in Terai region (2011/12) = 953,740ha Command area of the 25 Main Systems in Terai region = 330,143ha Irrigated area (estimation) by FMISs in Terai region = 953,740 – 330,143 = 623,597ha With the assumption of: the average size of FMIS command area = 100ha, No. of FMISs = 6,235 With the assumption of: the average size of FMIS command area = 200ha, No. of FMISs = 3,118 #2 ADS

Source: Survey team

3-2-4 The Process of Facility Improvement and Farmer’s Participation

(1) FMIS

The farmers (WUG/WUA members) participate in the irrigation infrastructure rehabilitation/upgrading

from the beginning. First of all, farmers have to make contact with IDD and to apply for improvement of

facilities by submitting the filled “Demand Form” and depositing the amount of 50Rs./ha in accordance

with the size of the command area. The process from the survey to designing is carried out by DOI staff

discussing with the applicant WUG/WUA members, by utilizing the opportunities such as monthly

meetings with the WUG/WUAs. It takes 2 to 3 months to go through this process. The following flow

chart shows the process of infrastructure rehabilitation / upgrading of a FMIS. It involves the screening and

examination at the IDD, the Regional Directorate and the DOI central office, respectively. It takes 2 to 3

years until the budget is allocated to the applied works, after the final approval by the DOI central office is

given on the application.

(2) JMIS

The WUA’s main executive committee submits the filled-up “Demand Form” to the FIMD office in charge.

The FIMD staff and the concerned WUA members discuss the contents of government support, its priority,

etc. to reach an agreement. Since the irrigation system was developed by GON, a feasibility study is not

required for the rehabilitation / upgrading of the system, but the cost estimation is essential. Once a

detailed plan of government support is developed, the FIMD makes a written proposal report and submits it

to IMD. Once it is approved and the necessary budget is allocated, the government support will be

provided.


DOI, MOI 3-14

Figure 3-2-1 Flow Chart of Rehabilitation Process Source: Survey team

8. The proposal report is sent to the DOI central office and screened.

If it passes the screening

If it passes the screening and it is approved.

1. Water Users Group (WUG) submits the Demand Form to IDD in charge.

2. WUG deposits the amount of money of 50Rs./ha multiplied by the command area to the above IDD.

3. The above IDD screens demands (applications) from WUGs based on the Demand Forms submitted.

4. DOI engineers visit the site and conduct the identification survey (location, water source, topography, etc.) and screen demands (application) from WUGs.

5. Feasibility (land survey, planning, designing, cost estimation) is conducted by IDD. IDD implements this process consulting with WUG, and usually it takes a few months.



6. IDD submits the proposal report, which contains the demand form and its feasibility results to the Regional Irrigation Directorates (RID).

7. RID screens WUGs’ demands based on the proposal reports submitted by IDDs under the directorate.

If it is concluded feasible

9. Tendering for construction is held (2 -3 years later after the approval).

11. WUA deposits the money of 0.5% of the contract amount to IDD.

12. WUA bears 3 to 15 % of the contract amount and contributes by cash or in kind. A written agreement is made between IDD and WUA.

13. When construction is completed, the money deposited at the above 2 and 11 is refunded to WUA.

10. Association Organizer (AO) of IDD organizes WUG to Water Users’ Association (WUA).


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Table 3-2-2 Comparison of the FMIS and the JMIS Item FMIS JMIS

WUA Water users organize the WUAs at each level of the main, secondary and tertiary canals. In this regard, there is only the main committee established for a small scale system. The structure of the committees varies from the system to system.

The WUA is registered to IDD or IDSD. A constitution is made by the WUA with

support from IDD or IDSD. It can be made based on traditional rules.

The committee members are selected by methods stipulated by the constitution, which is usually an election.

The General Assembly Meeting is usually held once a year, and as needed for emergency case. It is stipulated in the constitution.

The treasurer of the main committee manages finance. The financial status is reported to the members at the General Assembly Meeting.

An audit report is submitted to IDD or IDSD annually in order to re-new the registration.

Information is distributed from the main committee to the members through verbal messages, cell phone, notice to the public, FM radio, etc.

Water users organize the WUA s at each level of the main, secondary and tertiary canals. The number and the structure of WUAs vary from the system to system. For those canals at a lower level than the tertiary canal and for the canals at the field level, water users organize Water Users Groups (WUGs).

The WUA main committees are registered to FIMD. The WUAs at the secondary canal level are registered to the WUA main committees. The WUAs at the tertiary canal level are registered to the WUAs at the secondary canal level.

A constitution is made by the WUA with support from FIMD. It is usually made based on traditional rules.

The committee members are selected as stipulated in the constitution. They are usually selected by election.

The General Assembly Meeting is usually held once a year, and as needed for emergency case. The General and Special Assembly Meetings are stipulated in the constitution. In case that there are too many WUA members to meet at the same time, the representative system can be adopted.

The treasurer of the main committee of the WUA manages finance. The financial status is reported at the General Assembly Meetings. And then, the participants inform all other members.

An audit report is submitted to FIMD annually in order to re-new the registration.

Information is distributed from the main committee to members through verbal messages, cell phone, notice to the public, FM radio, etc.

Participation of Farmers

Refer to “3-2-4. The Process of Facility Improvement and Farmer’s Participation (1) FMIS”

Refer to “3-2-4. The Process of Facility Improvement and Farmer’s Participation (2) JMIS”


DOI, MOI 3-16

Item FMIS JMIS Canal Cleaning

The WUA is responsible for the entire irrigation system.

No written records, except for expenditures.

No written plans. The canals are cleaned twice a year before the commencement of the crop seasons, at least.

The WUA can apply for technical or financial support from IDD for anything the WUA alone cannot handle.

Responsibilities of FIMD and of the WUA are stipulated in the agreement (Table 3-2-3)

FIMD’s maintenance works are planned and reported since the budget is allocated from the consolidated fund.

The WUA has no written records, except for expenditures.

No written plans. The canals are cleaned twice a year before the commencement of the crop seasons, at least. FIMD may support the WUA to plan, if requested.

The WUA can apply for technical or financial support from FIMD for anything the WUA alone cannot handle.

Repair works

The WUA is responsible for the entire irrigation system.

No written records, except for expenditures.

The WUA can apply for technical or financial support to IDD in the rehabilitation, or for anything the WUA alone cannot handle. (Refer to “3-2-4. The Process of Facility Improvement and Farmer’s Participation (1) FMIS”)

Responsibilities of FIMD and of the WUA are stipulated in the agreement (Table 3-2-3)

The FIMD works are planned and reported since the budget is allocated from the consolidated fund.

The WUA has no written records, except for expenditures.

The WUA can apply for technical or financial support to FIMD in the rehabilitation or for anything that the WUA alone cannot handle (Refer to “3-2-4. The Process of Facility Improvement and Farmer’s Participation (1) FMIS”).

Water Allocation

The WUA makes the irrigation schedule by going through the procedure written in the constitution.

The schedule needs to be informed to and approved by all the WUA members.

The WUA members can express objections to the schedule, if any.

The WUA makes the irrigation schedule with support from FIMD. All the related decisions are made by the WUA.

The schedule needs to be informed to the lower-level committees and to be approved by all the WUA members.

The WUA members can express objections to the schedule, if any.

Water Delivery

The WUA members operate the canal system and deliver water.

No record is taken, except for the pumping irrigation systems.

In accordance with the schedule, FIMD and the WUA operate the canal system in charge and deliver water.

The Flow rate is confirmed by gauges or Parshall flumes if they are furnished.

Farming Paddy is cultivated in the monsoon season. Wheat, vegetables, pulses, maize are

cultivated in the winter season. Vegetables, pulses are cultivated in the

spring season where water is available. The farmers understand the importance of

irrigation facilities. Increased benefits by improved yields

and/or marketing becomes as incentive.

Paddy is cultivated in the monsoon season. Wheat, vegetables, pulses, and maize are

cultivated in the winter season. Vegetables, pulses are cultivated in the

spring season, where water is available. Reliable water delivery down to the tail end

becomes an incentive; reliable water delivery results in an expansion of irrigated area, and increased yields.

Source: DOI, WUA


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3-3 Situation of Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture

3-3-1 Crop Production in Terai Region

There are three crop seasons in Terai region: monsoon (summer) from July to October, winter from

December to March and spring from March to July. While rice is cultivated in monsoon, wheat is a winter

crop. The following figure is a crop calendar in Terai region.

Crop Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecRice (Main) Rice (Spring) Maize (Winter) Wheat Maize (Spring) Rapeseed and Mustard Jute Pluses and Vegetables

Figure 3-3-1 Crop Calendar in Terai Region Source：DOA

The table below shows the cultivation areas of main crops in Terai region. Maize, pluses and vegetables

are produced in the winter and spring seasons. The cultivation areas of rice in the region account for

68.3% of the national total areas, likewise, the areas of wheat, pulses and vegetable account for 57.2%,

75.3% and 55.6%, respectively. The cultivation areas of the Eastern and Central Development Regions in

Terai region are significantly larger than those of other three Development Regions. The production of the

Eastern and Central Development Regions in Terai region seems to contribute significantly to the national

total production, and to play an important role in the irrigation development. Meanwhile, the Cultivation

area of maize in Terai region accounts for only 17.4% and it is mainly produced in Hill region.

Table 3-3-1 Cultivation Area of Main Crops in Terai Region

Source: MOAD. Agricultural Statistics in 2013/2014 in Nepal

3-3-2 Crop Production in Terai Region

The production of rice and pulses, among major crops, in Terai region accounts for 80% of the national

total production of the same crops. These crops are produced more in the Eastern and Central

Development Regions. The following table shows the production share of major crops among different

Development Regions.

Region Eastern Central Western Mid western Far western Total (Terai) Nepal Percent (%)Paddy 297,363 280,744 190,850 126,730 120,246 1,015,933 1,486,951 68.3%Maize 65,150 37,162 14,770 35,000 9,140 161,222 928,761 17.4%Wheat 70,935 165,500 79,140 50,177 65,933 431,685 754,468 57.2%Pulses 49,890 72,929 27,985 66,100 30,542 247,446 328,738 75.3%

Vegetables 42,742 57,775 12,740 13,812 14,630 141,699 254,932 55.6%


DOI, MOI 3-18

Table 3-3-2 Crop Production in Terai Region (tons) Development Region Rice (%) Wheat (%) Pluses (%) Vegetables (%)

Eastern 1,066,353 21.1 183,900 9.8 50,240 14.3 584,880 17.1Central 1,298,442 25.7 483,241 25.7 80,834 22.9 794,695 23.2Western 761,711 15.1 245,458 13.0 32,529 9.2 208,073 6.1Mid-Western 484,567 9.6 154,367 8.2 74,877 21.2 189,281 5.5Far-Western 353,461 7.0 141,000 7.5 31,340 8.9 209,918 6.1

A total of Terai region 3,964,534 78.6 1,207,966 64.1 269,820 76.6 1,986,847 58.1A total of Nepal 5,047,047 1,883,133 352,473 3,421,035

Terai region/ Nepal (%) 78.6 64.1 76.6 58.1 Source: MOAD. Agricultural Statistics in 2013/2014 in Nepal

3-3-3 Agricultural Cooperatives

The tables below show the number of agricultural cooperative in each district. There are a number of

small scale cooperatives, and several cooperatives belong to one large scale or main irrigation system.

Members of the cooperatives are different from those of WUAs. Water users of WUAs are not necessarily

the member of the cooperatives.

Table 3-3-3 Number of Agricultural Cooperatives by District in Terai Region

Eastern Development Region (1,697 agricultural cooperatives in total)

District Jhapa Morang Sunsari Saptari Siraha Dhanusha Mahottari Agricultural

Cooperatives 317 192 197 211 236 291 253

Central Development Region (1,390 agricultural cooperatives in total)

District Sarlahi Rautahat Bara Parsa Chitwan Agricultural

Cooperatives 275 409 432 163 111

Western Development Region (516 agricultural cooperatives in total)

District Nawalparasi Rupandehi Kapilbastu Agricultural

Cooperatives 73 132 311

Mid-Western Development Region (603 agricultural cooperatives in total)

District Dang Banke Bardiya Agricultural

Cooperatives 253 188 162

Far-Western Development Region (393 agricultural cooperatives in total)

District Kailali Kanchanpur Agricultural

Cooperatives 205 188

Source: DOA

Data C

ollection Survey

3-19

JICA

Jhapa Morang Sunsari Saptari Siraha Dhanusa Mahottari Sarlahi Rautahat Bara Parsa ChitawanNo. of total holdings 120,538 126,891 86,650 89,241 88,527 96,006 80,844 98,288 79,233 81,292 59,496 n.a.Area (ha) of total holdings 102,443 109,943 75,141 73,908 78,798 72,307 64,977 80,678 64,835 56,867 48,899 n.a.No. of irrigated holdings reporting 70,518 92,912 69,063 61,062 62,404 72,564 59,177 69,597 74,042 75,103 52,012 n.a.Area (ha) of irrigated holdings reporting 54,774 83,577 68,331 46,620 52,119 52,560 47,137 61,918 59,330 52,048 42,489 n.a.River/lake/pond by gravity No. of holdings 30,072 35,628 35,094 21,679 13,393 20,474 20,730 15,084 14,460 13,443 4,559 n.a.

Area (ha) 22,470 23,320 38,227 16,144 9,777 11,274 10,225 11,773 9,871 8,751 3,446 n.a.pumping No. of holdings 2,506 6,187 2,128 9,024 6,303 24,001 8,919 13,780 9,862 10,748 16,085 n.a.

Area (ha) 1,544 5,857 1,414 4,661 3,348 14,185 4,431 12,129 4,659 4,298 9,835 n.a.Dam/reservoir No. of holdings 4,461 16,706 1,365 11,088 4,851 6,194 13,359 17,910 14,794 11,147 20,272 n.a.

Area (ha) 4,373 20,398 807 8,620 3,954 3,603 6,714 12,980 9,732 6,166 14,533 n.a.Tube well/boring No. of holdings 30,122 44,703 39,310 30,971 44,492 24,948 29,405 28,039 48,645 51,644 25,892 n.a.

Area (ha) 22,050 31,714 27,162 16,761 33,689 14,237 18,516 21,984 32,524 30,760 12,525 n.a.Others No. of holdings 4,511 2,733 402 994 2,820 8,646 2,647 1,608 1,965 4,426 1,720 n.a.

Area (ha) 2,400 1,395 104 309 701 5,272 1,323 396 364 485 1,273 n.a.Mixed No. of holdings 2,656 1,289 1,084 229 954 6,796 6,720 3,434 5,154 2,562 1,892 n.a.

Area (ha) 1,938 893 617 126 650 3,990 5,929 2,657 2,180 1,587 876 n.a.Percentage of Irrigated Land Area 53.5 76.0 90.9 63.1 66.1 72.7 72.5 76.7 91.5 91.5 86.9 76.3Poverty Head Count Ratio 10.6 16.5 12.0 39.5 34.6 23.1 16.2 17.7 33.4 29.9 29.2 8.9

DistrictDevelopment Region Eastern Central

Nawalparasi Rupandehi Kapilbastu Dang Banke Bardiya Kailali Kanchanpur

No. of total holdings 101,337 104,174 74,770 86,623 61,433 68,063 111,662 70,573 1,685,641Area (ha) of total holdings 56,125 71,188 64,578 61,952 44,120 47,234 66,659 44,353 1,285,003No. of irrigated holdings reporting 82,269 92,334 41,778 65,388 40,648 52,957 101,559 65,640 1,301,027Area (ha) of irrigated holdings reporting 42,584 58,925 28,068 43,151 22,405 37,940 60,079 39,685 953,740River/lake/pond by gravity No. of holdings 25,950 13,371 12,040 8,173 3,997 9,200 23,988 47,518 368,853

Area (ha) 10,571 6,403 5,869 4,198 2,013 6,979 12,418 29,628 243,354pumping No. of holdings 13,115 23,275 16,559 1,482 9,532 2,139 11,660 1,678 188,983

Area (ha) 6,722 11,135 10,115 490 4,757 893 4,873 988 106,334Dam/reservoir No. of holdings 10,789 7,338 6,384 50,003 1,015 24,102 4,628 15,638 242,044

Area (ha) 5,301 4,172 4,516 34,797 361 18,717 3,295 8,775 171,816Tube well/boring No. of holdings 32,043 59,740 12,578 7,573 28,441 19,282 66,089 0 623,917

Area (ha) 16,361 34,880 6,076 3,407 14,243 9,423 35,598 0 381,908Others No. of holdings 10,743 4,727 2,023 2,204 2,368 5,364 13,707 3,121 76,729

Area (ha) 2,211 769 718 171 832 1,640 2,410 295 23,069Mixed No. of holdings 4,465 3,421 1,707 561 277 611 3,293 0 47,105

Area (ha) 1,418 1,566 773 90 199 288 1,485 0 27,260Percentage of Irrigated Land Area 75.9 82.8 43.5 69.7 50.8 80.3 90.1 89.5 74.2Poverty Head Count Ratio 17.0 17.3 35.5 25.1 26.4 28.7 33.6 31

DistrictDevelopment Region

TotalWestern Mid-Western Far-Western

Table 3-3-4 Farmland area and irrigated area by water source in Terai region

Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. 2015. National Sample Census of Agriculture 2011-2012

Irrigation Schem

e in Terai

DO

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Figure 3-3-2 Rate of Irrigated area by District Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. 2014. Population Atlas of Nepal, 2014


3-21 JICA

3-3-4 Irrigated Area in Terai Region

Terai Region is an advanced irrigated area and irrigated areas account for 74.2% of a total farm land.

Surface water constitute 54.6% of water resources for irrigation and 36.6% out of the surface water are

supplied by rivers, lakes and ponds (gravity irrigation system: 25.5% and pump irrigation system: 11.1%),

and 18% by dams and reservoirs. Meanwhile, groundwater irrigation (shallow and deep wells) accounts

40.0%. This implies the importance of groundwater development and utilization in Terai plain,

particularly for the areas where is neither perennial rivers nor storage of water in dams or reservoirs.

Table 3-3-4 indicates source of irrigation by region, and Figure 3-3-2 irrigation rate by district. The

groundwater irrigation is necessary for year-round irrigation, and its irrigated area is expanded including

conjunctive use with surface water. Table 3-3-5 shows areas under irrigation by main systems during

monsoon season.

Table 3-3-5 Irrigated Area of the 25 Main Irrigation Systems in the Monsoon Season S/N Irrigation Area Command

Area (ha) Irrigable Area

(ha) Beneficial

Households1 Kankai 8,000 7,000 11,000 2 Sunsari Morang 68,000 60,550 n.a.3 Chanda Mohana 1,800 1,800 n.a.4 Chandra Nahar 10,000 10,000 30,000 5 Koshi West Canal (Distribution System) 10,500 10,500 n.a.6 Koshi Pump Canal 13,180 13,180 n.a.7 Kamala 25,000 25,000 36,000 8 Hardinath 2,000 2,000 5,600 9 Mansumara 5,200 5,200 n.a.

10 Bagmati 37,600 n.a. 27,00011 Jhanj 2,000 2,000 n.a.12 Narayani 28,700 n.a. n.a.13 Narayani Tube Well 2,800 2,800 n.a.14 Narayani Lift 4,750 4,700 n.a.15 Khageri 3,900 3,900 10,00016 Nepal Gandak Western Canal 10,300 9,000 n.a.17 Bhairahawa Lumbini Bhumigath Jalshorat 20,309 10,443 7,00018 Banganga 6,350 6,000 5,000 19 Praganna Kulo 6,684 5,800 3,900.20 Babai 27,000 27,000 n.a.21 Rajapur 14,870 13,200 n.a.22 Pathraiya 2,000 2,000 n.a.23 Mohana 2,000 2,000 n.a.24 Mahakali 11,600 11,600 n.a.25 Machawar Lift 5,600 3,500 n.a. A total of 25 Irrigation Systems 330,143 n.a. n.a.

Source: Interview with DOI and WUA and their reply to questionnaires

3-3-5 Organizations Related to Irrigation Systems Management

Because of the government policy, irrigation management and O&M are decentralized to WUAs. In

principle, small and medium scale irrigation systems are fully transferred to WUAs. Meanwhile, large and

major scale irrigation systems are partly transferred to WUAs based on a written agreement between the

GON and WUAs, in consideration of technical difficulties in O&M.


DOI, MOI 3-22

(1) Irrigation Management Division (IMD)

IMD has thirteen FIMDs in Terai region. Those thirteen IMDs and IDD of Rupandehi District jointly

manages the large scale irrigation systems with the WUAs. In accordance with agreement with the WUAs,

they implement (a) operation of irrigation facilities in charge, (b) maintenance and repair of irrigation

facilities, (c) formulation of an irrigation plan with WUAs, (d) technical and/or financial support, on a

demand basis, for repair works that WUA cannot handle, and (e) organizational development of WUA

(Refer to “2-6 Department of Irrigation (DOI)”).

(2) Irrigation Development Division (IDD)/ Irrigation Development Sub-Division (IDSD)

IDDs/IDSDs are in charge of rehabilitation and upgrade of irrigation facilities based on demand from

WUAs and other farmer groups such as a non-registered water user group (WUG) of farmers. Since those

irrigation systems are FMIS, IDDs/IDSDs are not involved in O&M. Once the construction works are

completed, they hand over the facilities to respective WUAs (Refer to “2-6 Department of Irrigation

(DOI)”).

(3) WUA

WUAs are the managing bodies of irrigation systems, not only for FMISs but also for JMISs (Irrigation

Regulation 2000). The WUAs of JMIS make decisions on those issues arising from the area under their

management within the JMIS. GON supports the WUAs through consultations. In order to receive

government assistance, beneficiaries have to establish WUAs following the GON policy, and the WUA

main committees must have their written constitutions and be registered to an irrigation office in charge:

FIMD, IDD or IDSD. It is necessary to turn in the audit report annually to the office to renew the

registration.

The members of WUA main committee cannot exceed eleven, and at least 67% of the members shall be

representatives from the areas irrigated with the secondary, tertiary and lower level canals. Water users at

each level of the canals, from the main to the tertiary canals, should set up a WUA (Irrigation Policy

2013). The WUA at the tertiary canal composes of the WUA at the secondary canal and therefore is

registered as water user to the WUA at the secondary canal. Likewise, a WUA at the secondary canal is

registered as water user to the WUA at the main canal. The WUA at the main canal is registered to the

government, such as FIMD. For those canals lower than the tertiary canal, a WUA is established at each

canal. Those small scale irrigation systems consisting of only a main canal have a WUA at main canal

only and does not have a hierarchy of WUAs with WUAs at main, secondary and tertiary canal levels

WUAs.

The WUA committee at the main canal addresses issues related to the management of the entire irrigation

system under the main canal, while the WUA committee at the secondary canal addresses the issues

related to the management of the secondary canal, and the WUA committee at the tertiary canal addresses

the issues related to the management of the tertiary canal. The WUA at the main canal can delegate their

power and responsibilities to the lower level canal WUAs, and as a result, for example, WUAs at the

tertiary canal may have the delegated power and responsibility to carry out the cleaning of their own

canals. According to the irrigation policy in 2013, WUA shall have female representatives at a rate of

33% as well as proper representation of Dalit, Downtrodden and Backward ethnic communities.


3-23 JICA

WUA contributes to construction works by 3 to 15% of the contract amount and this contribution is cash

or in kind (Irrigation policy in 2000). The word “in kind” means labor service. WUA members supervise

contractors’ construction works after being trained by IDD technical staffs, since IDD engineers cannot

come to the site for supervision every day. Meanwhile, WUAs manage, operate and maintain FMISs and

on-farm facilities of JMIS. Workload of WUAs to implement O&M of main and secondary canals

depends on agreement between the GON and WUA main committees. Activities at lower-level canal

WUAs are based on the regulations written by individual WUAs.

3-3-6 Status of IMT

Whereas IMT is one of the important polities in the irrigation sector in recent years, the progress is lagged

behind, because the development of irrigation facilities seems to be prioritized to the management of

existing irrigation systems in budget allocation. Those projects with support from donor were often

implemented as pilot, and within the framework of such projects, only those facilities managed by the

target WUAs were improved. The extension of similar investment to other irrigation systems is still

on-going. As seen earlier, the requirement of a great deal of budget and labor load for O&M of the intake

facilities due to a large volume of sediments is one of the factors which contribute to such a delay in the

promotion of IMT.

The progress of IMT in the 25 main systems in Terai region is not significant. In most of the WUAs, their

members understand that they have to assume the responsibilities for O&M of the on-farm irrigation

systems and for the provision of support to GON in O&M of the main and secondary canals, to benefit

from the irrigation water. However there are the preconditions for the WUA members to perform such

responsibilities. Namely, enough volume of water is delivered to their plots and they are satisfied with the

yields of their crops. Nevertheless, such preconditions have not been met, since the water delivery is not

reliable and the users cannot use irrigation water efficiently in many of the irrigation blocks.

The major problems can be summarized as follows:

(a) The tertiary and lower level canals within the irrigation system are not developed, or the functions of

the irrigation system have been reduced because of aging (For example, the irrigation systems in

Narayani, Kamala, Hardinath, Banganga, and Machawar).

(b) The irrigation water is not delivered as required due to the dilapidation of the main irrigation facilities

for aging (For example, the irrigation systems in Hardinath, Machawar, Narayani, Banganga, and

Chandra Nahar)

(c) The volume of water flow has been reduced due to changes of canal cross-section by scouring and/or

sediments (The Banganga irrigation system)

(d) The amount of sediments accumulated in canals is too large to be removed manually (For example,

the irrigation systems in Kamala, Hardinath, and Banganga)

The above cases show that the challenge identified by the WUAs is the fact that water is not reaching to

every corner due to problems in somewhere within the irrigation system. Such malfunction of system may

promote failures in the water management, and failures in the water management may lower the farmer’s

willingness to undertake agricultural works as well as to participate in the WUA’s activities. This may

lead to a reduction in the ISF collection rate and subsequently, a reduction of the WUA’s O&M activities.

Then, the irrigation facilities may not be kept in good condition and degraded. The irrigation system falls


DOI, MOI 3-24

in a vicious cycle in this way.

Figure 3-3-3 Image of Vicious Cycle in O&M of Irrigation Systems Source: Survey team

When both hardware (infrastructure) and software (organizational and institution development, O&M,

etc.) aspects are maintained well, IMT can be done in a successful manner. The following table shows

IMT status of the main systems in Terai region. Software improvement is necessary for all of the systems,

and most of them need rehabilitation of infrastructure. In case of irrigation taking surface water, problems

with sedimentation would be serious due to large scale rivers.

IMT pilot projects do not target the entire large or medium scale irrigation systems, but a part of them (for

instance, an irrigation block. Reference to Figure 3-3-4). WUA members and FIMD staffs learn the

know-how of the pilot projects and are expected to disseminate it to the remaining irrigation blocks

within the same systems. Currently, IWRMP-AF is implementing IMT pilot projects in the Narayani I

(Block 2), Sunsari-Morang (Ramgunj Branch) and Mahakali Irrigation Systems.

Table 3-3-6 Status of IMT of Major Irrigation Systems in Terai region

S/N Name of the Project District IMT Status Conditions before the

Project No

Assistance necessary

Hardware improve-

ment needed

Software improve-

ment needed

1 Kankai IS Jhapa Type 3 2 Sunsari Morang IS Sunsari & Morang Type2 3 Chanda Mohana IS Morang Type 2 4 Chandra Nahar IS Saptari Type 2 5 Koshi West Canal

(Distribution System) IS Saptari on-going Type 1

6 Koshi Pump Canal IS Saptari on-going Type 1 7 Kamala IS Siraha & Dhanusha on-going Type2 8 Hardinath IS Dhanusha Type 9 Mansumara IS Sarlahi Type 3

10 Bagmati IS Sarlahi & Rautahat Type 2 11 Jhanj IS Rautahat Type 3

Lack of irrigation water

Malfunction of irrigation facilities Shortage of

budget for facility

maintenance

Decrease in ISF collection

Decrease in theirrigated area, Reduction in the

production

Deterioration of Facilities

Stagnation on maintenance activities

Farmers’ loss of motivation

Increase of cost for facility

maintenance

Inadequate water management


3-25 JICA

S/N Name of the Project District IMT Status Conditions before the

Project No

Assistance necessary

Hardware improve-

ment needed

Software improve-

ment needed

12 Narayani IS Parsa, Bara & Rautahat Type 1 13 Narayani Tube Well IS Bara & Parsa Type 1 14 Narayani Lift IS Chitwan Type 1 15 Khageri IS Chitwan Type 3 16 Nepal Gandak Western

Canal IS Nawalparasi Type 1

17 Bhairahawa Lumbini Bhumigath Jalshorat IS

Rupandehi Type 1

18 Banganga IS Kapilbastu Type 3 19 Praganna Kulo IS Dang Type 3 20 Babai IS Bardiya Type 3 21 Rajapur IS Bardiya Type 3 22 Pathraiya IS Kailali Type 3 23 Mohana IS Kailali Type 3 24 Mahakali IS Kanchanpur Type 3 25 Machawar IS Rupandehi Type 3

TOTAL Note: Conditions before the Project: 1: There had been no traditional irrigation system at all. Farmers had practiced rain-fed agriculture. 2. There had been traditional FMISs and those FMISs were developed and integrated to a large system. 3. There had been both rain-fed area and traditional FMISs. Those areas were developed and integrated to a large system,

Source: IMD, DOI

The rightmost column of the table above shows the classification of each Main Irrigation System by the

conditions of farming practices before the establishment. Out of the 25 systems, 7 systems categorized as

Type 1 were established to benefit the rain-fed farming plots. 5 systems categorized as Type 2 were

established to benefit several FMISs, and 13 systems categorized as Type 3 were established to benefit

both rain-fed farming plots and their neighboring FMISs. As each system has different and specific

background before its establishment, lessons from an IMT pilot project targeting a part of a system may

not be relevant to other parts even within the same System.

Since the aforementioned IMT pilot projects tend to target only a part of the system, their approach may

not contribute to an improvement on the performance of the entire system. Indeed, what would be

required in order to break the vicious cycle and bring the positive cycle is that each stakeholder enhances

his/her capacity to improve water management as a whole. In line with this, IMT should be promoted

further.

The schematic diagram of irrigation blocks of Figure 3-3-4 illustrates a block rotation irrigation

mechanism instead of the water distribution to the entire system at once. It is recommended to implement

such block rotation irrigation on a pilot project basis.

Irrigation blocks are basically formed at the tertiary canal level. Representatives from the WUAs of the

tertiary canals are the members of the WUAs of the secondary canals, and subsequently, representatives

from the WUAs of the secondary canals are the member of the WUA of the main canal. Since the WUA at

a higher level should coordinate all the WUAs under the same, all the WUAs should be involved in the


DOI, MOI 3-26

implementation of block rotation irrigation.

Figure 3-3-4 Schematic Diagram of Irrigation Blocks

Source: Survey team

3-4 Assistance in the Irrigation and Irrigated Agriculture Sectors by Other Donors

3-4-1 Content of Past Projects

(1) Nepal Irrigation Sector Program (NISP from November 1999 to June 2004 funded by WB)

The NISP project was launched by the DOI with financial assistance from WB in the Far-Western,

Mid-Western, Western and Eastern development regions, covering an irrigable area of 68,735 ha. The

project is aimed at introducing reforms in the water resource sector on a national scale, contributing to the

National Water Resource Development Plan23. It also aims to increase productivity of the irrigation

schemes through large scale adoption of proven technical intervention. Additionally, it supports the

government with institutional and technical capability in water planning, management and orienting

public agencies by handing over their O&M responsibility to user organizations.

(2) Irrigation and Water Resource Management Project (IWRMP, from 2007 to 2013 funded by WB)

Main objectives of the project were improvement of agricultural productivity in selected irrigation

schemes and enhancement of institutional capacity for integrated water resource management. Primary

23 National Water Resource Development Plan is made by WECS in 2003, which is mentioned in “WB Report No 31484: IMPLEMENTATION

COMPLETION REPORT (IDA-30090) ON A CREDIT IN THE AMOUNT OF SDR 58.70 MILLION (US$ 79.77 MILLION EQUIVALENT) TO

THE KINGDOM OF NEPAL FOR AN IRRIGATION SECTOR PROJECT (February 11, 2005)”. However, its contents are unclear. Neither the

Plan itself nor relevant materials are found in DOI.


3-27 JICA

target beneficiary groups of the project were water users and WUAs. The IWRMP was comprised of the

following four components:

Component A: Rehabilitation and Modernization of Irrigation Infrastructure

Component B: Irrigation Management Transfer Reform

Component C: Institutional and Policy Support for Improved Water Management

Component D: Integrated Crop Water Management (ICWM)

(i) Component A: Rehabilitation and Modernization of Irrigation Infrastructure

Objective of this component were to improve irrigation water delivery service in the selected

schemes: Mountain (1,024ha), Hills (10,680ha) and Terai Plain (1,624ha). Under this component,

rehabilitation and improvement of 168 FMISs spreading over 40 districts in Nepal were conducted

for the improvement of the irrigation water delivery to 26,392ha of land in total. With regard to

groundwater, the project directly supported DTW groundwater schemes covering an estimated

area of 2,100ha.

(ii) Component B: Irrigation Management Transfer Reform

The component was designed for the implementation of IMT to address problems on large scale

irrigation system projects (JMIS projects) such as low capacity performance, poor O&M, low cost

recovery, and inadequate maintenance funds. The component B worked with four legally

empowered WUAs and implemented four subprojects located in Kankai, Sunsari Morang,

Narayani, and Mahakali. Irrigated area of the four projects in total was about 23,100ha.

All the activities requiring civil construction have been completed. Activities of the WUA capacity

development program in Kankai was also been finished. Meanwhile, development activities at a

considerable number of WUAs still remain in the Sunsari, Morang, Narayani and Mahakali

irrigation subprojects, and they were handed over to IWRMP-AF.

(iii) Component C: Institutional and Policy Support for Improved Water Management

Objective of the component C was to provide more effective and streamlined water resources

management services at the national level within selected basins through institutional

strengthening of relevant institutions, namely the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

(WECS) and the DOI. The activities included river basin plans, establishment of telemetry

systems and initiation of rules and policy.

(iv) Component D: Integrated Crop Water Management (ICWM)

Primary objective of this component was to increase crop production and improve productivity

and profitability of agriculture by means of integration between agriculture and water management.

Sub-objectives of the Component D are as follows:

Integration of crop and water management;

Improvement of on-farm water distribution structure; and

Investment support for communities and productive assets.

The activities included improvement support for field level channels and water distribution

structures, community support for small scale investment such as unconventional irrigation


DOI, MOI 3-28

technologies, seed banks, storage facilities, market collection place and farm-to-market access

facilities were provided.

(v) Issues and Problems

The following issues and problems were observed during the project implementation period. As

the second issue explains, because the project focused only on the implementation of trainings, it

did not cover overall capacity development of WUAs. Future project formulation should take

account of this point.

The Kankai, Mahakali and Sunsari Morang projects encountered frequent flood attacks.

Especially edges of the command area nearby rivers exposed to the serious damage.

The WUA capacity development programs focused on training only, thus did not meet the

requirements for overall development of WUAs

The budget allocated by the government for WUA capacity development works were not

timely and adequate

Participation of officers in workshops and field training programs was limited due to

insufficient availability of qualified officers and engineers

(3) Irrigation Sector Project (ISP, from 1989 to 1996 funded by ADB)

The DOI implemented the ISP in thirty-five districts at the eastern and central development regions with

assistance from ADB. The Irrigation policy (1988) stressed strategic approach on participation of farmers’

groups and cost-sharing mechanism for irrigation development and O&M works of canals.

As pilot tests of the approach, the DOI implemented community development projects focusing on

agriculture communities which had already managed traditional irrigation systems. The DOI also

conducted programs to enhance WUAs’ capacities in order to improve livelihood of small scale farmers,

reduce poverty rate and generate employment opportunities in rural areas. The cropping intensity

increased by 14% compared to the beginning of the projects which was 149%.

(4) Second Irrigation Sector Support project (SISP from 1997 to 2003 funded by ADB)

The SISP has been implemented as a follow up project of the ISP. The SISP was launched with the

implementation of provisions for the Irrigation Policy (1992), which stresses the importance of

participatory approaches of farmers in irrigation construction. The project targeted farming communities

which already managed traditional irrigation systems and strengthened WUAs in thirty-five districts of

the central and eastern development region of Nepal. The project scope was limited to enhancement of

WUAs, improvement of FMIS, capacity development of irrigation offices and provision of agricultural

extension services. The project accomplished 278 sub-projects (FMIS) covering 39,757ha out of the

planned 283 projects which covers 41,147ha. About 278 WUAs were registered while 178 were planned.

The cropping intensity increased by 40% compared to the beginning of the projects which was 170%.

Yields of paddy, wheat and maize also increased thanks to improvement in water availability.

(5) Irrigation Management Transfer Project (IMTP from 1995 to 2004 funded by ADB and the USAID)

The DOI implemented the IMTP financed by ADB and United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) which aimed to achieve the Irrigation Policy 1992. This project included


3-29 JICA

achievement of the Development Plan formulated in 1985 and irrigation management transfer to WUAs.

The IMTP emphasized the need to improve O&M of the existing government operated projects through

beneficiary participation and transferring O&M responsibilities. The total area transferred from the eight

districts of Saptari, Dhanusha, Sarlahi, Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Kapilbastu, Kailali and Kanchanpur was

45,563 ha.

The project performance increased considerably when irrigation system rehabilitation (main, branch,

tertiary) was completed. The participation of WUAs also increased and intensive water distribution

schedule was implemented. Capacity of fourteen WUAs was developed to manage all the branch canals

of the jointly managed irrigation project, except for Panchakanya, which was fully turned over to the

farmers. The average irrigation intensity increased by 27% and productivity of irrigated paddy, maize and

early paddy increased remarkably in three projects where farmers operated and maintained the branch

canals.

(6) Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project (CMIASP from 2006 to 2013 funded by

ADB)

This ADB-assisted project is a follow-up program of the Irrigation Sector Project (ISP) and the Second

Irrigation Sector Project (SISP) covering thirty-five districts in the Eastern and Central development

regions. The objective is to improve agriculture productivity and sustainability of existing small and

medium sized FMISs suffering from low productivity and high poverty incidence.

Under CMIASP, 111 irrigation subprojects (ISP) were implemented with a total target area of 16,105 ha.

The subprojects are comprised of irrigation infrastructure development that involves rehabilitation of

existing irrigation infrastructure and/or expansion of irrigation networks, social development,

strengthening of WUAs, agricultural development and livelihood enhancement. A report on the evaluation

is not obtained.

3-4-2 The Contents and Challenges of the On-going Projects

Currently, Community Managed Irrigated Agriculture Sector Project – Additional Financing

(CMIASP-AF) supported by ADB and Integrated Water Resources Management Project – Additional

Financing (IWRMP-AF) supported by WB are under implementation. The target area of CMIASP-AF is

the Eastern and Central Development Regions, while that of IWRMP-AF is the Western, Mid-Western

and Far-Western Development Regions. These two programs cover the whole country, dividing it into two

zones. While the major target of these two programs is small and medium scale irrigation systems, which

are FMIS, the IWRMP-AF is also implementing the IMT at the 3 main irrigation systems out of the 25

JMISs in Terai region.

Table 3-4-1 explains comparison of the CMIASP-AF and the IWRMP-AF. The contents of those

programs are basically composed of rehabilitation of irrigation facilities, institutional development, water

management and agriculture. Due to a lawsuit brought by consulting companies employed by the DOI,

the water management of the IWRMP-AF component has been suspended. These contents are

implemented for not only FMISs but also for three main irrigation systems under IMT. The DOI is in

charge of rehabilitation of irrigation facilities, institutional development and water management, while the

DOA implements agriculture component.


DOI, MOI 3-30

While field level officers of the DOI are in charge of the both programs of FMIS and employed

consultants are supporting these officers, consultants (engineers, experts of social development, etc.)

hired by WB implement IMTs of the three main irrigation systems. Those consultants and officers of the

IMD listen to WUA members and address the issues related to agriculture, maintenance and improvement

of facilities, institutional development, collaboration of water management and agriculture.

The project period is about five years, but rehabilitation of the facilities takes three years. Therefore, the

capacity development of WUA members and the trainings in agriculture and water management have to

be conducted simultaneously. Water is not yet distributed, as the rehabilitation of irrigation facilities has

been still on-going, and the implementation of the soft components is not fully bringing about expected

outputs. It is expected to find and apply solutions to those challenges posed by the tight schedule.

Table 3-4-1 Comparison of Contents between CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF

CMIASP-AF (ADB) IWRMP-AF (WB)

Period 2014 - 2020 2014 - 2018

Target area Eastern and central development regions Western, mid-western and far-western development

regions

Irrigation

Sub-projects

150 FMISs

Out of which, 145 FMISs are traditional

ones while the remaining 5 are newly

developed.

83 FMISs

IMT None 3 main systems1 in Terai (large or major system)

Infrastructure Rehabilitation and improvement of

Irrigation Systems

Irrigation infrastructure improvement/rehabilitation

Institutional

Development

Trainings of Organizational operation and

accounting, Planning for O&M and water

management Irrigation service fee (ISF) collection. Gender Equity and Social Inclusion

(GESI) WUA strengthening

Trainings of Organizational operation and accounting, Planning for O&M and water management Irrigation service fee (ISF) collection. Gender Equity and Social Inclusion (GESI) WUA strengthening

Water

Resources

Management

None Integrated water resources management plan for hydropower and irrigation at river basins

Policy support for productivity increase (Note) it is suspended.

Agriculture Leader farmer training Farmers Field School and

demonstration: - On-farm Water Management

Training - Water-saving Rice Technologies - Cropping Pattern - Improved Seed Production - Farm mechanization

Soil management Market Support and Accessibility

Leader farmer training Farmers Field School and demonstration:

- On-farm Water Management Training - Water-saving Rice Technologies - Cropping Pattern - Improved Seed Production - Farm mechanization

Soil management Market Support and Accessibility Trainings to 60 social mobilizers (28 females) in

cropping pattern design, soil fertility management, and use of small farm machinery

1 Narayani Block ; 2 Sunsari-Morang Ramgunj Branch and Mahakali

Source: CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF


3-31 JICA

3-4-3 Problems with Implementation of Sub-projects by Donors

As for FMIS, DOI field staffs (IDD/IDSD staff) and local consultants hired by DOI mainly implement the

sub-project components. Meanwhile, as for the IMT of the three main systems, WB consultants

(engineers and sociologists) play core roles in facilitating IMT between FIMD and WUAs. They listen to

WUA members to identify problems and solve them with FIMD staff so that farmers are willing to accept

hand-over of the irrigation system. Such problems are usually infrastructure rehabilitation/upgrade,

institutional development and O&M and farming. There is a common problem in implementation of

CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF.

The irrigation sub-project implementation period of CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF is usually 5 years.

And, the irrigation sub-project most likely includes the rehabilitation of headworks and/or main canal. In

order to fund rehabilitation of such facilities, the procedure explained in Section 3-2-4 has to be taken.

Therefore, it takes at least 3 years to finish the rehabilitation works. Meanwhile, O&M and agricultural

components need at least 2 to 3 years respectively. That is, it takes 7 to 9 years to finish the irrigation

sub-project because rehabilitation, O&M and agriculture should be implemented in series. Accordingly,

the 5-year sub-project brings confusion on the implementation. In practice, it is not possible to provide

O&M training to farmers using facilities under construction. Likewise, it is difficult to give farmers

trainings related to farming without proper water delivery.

Coordination committees are established between DOI and DOA. They are not only at the central level,

but also development regional and district level, too. The coordination committees are held as needed. At

the beginning of the program, such as at the stage of the planning and sub-project selection, they may

have meetings frequently, for instance, monthly. After that, they are held every 3 months during the

implementation phase. They usually discuss planning and implementation schedule of the components in

the coordination committees. Discussion at district-level committee is crucial because implementation of

the program becomes usually behind schedule.

Since the main component of CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF is the rehabilitation of headworks and/or

main canals, the sub-project requires an extension of the project period for a couple of years. However, in

case of a program/project whose main component is O&M such as JICA-TCP, it seems feasible to achieve

expected outputs and objectives of a pilot program/project within 5 years as far as well-functioning

irrigation systems which do not require large scale rehabilitation works are selected as program/project

site.

3-5 JICA’s Cooperation in the Past

3-5-1 Janakpur Zone Agriculture Development Project (1980 - 1983)

A Model Farm Project of Irrigated Agriculture had been implemented from 1980 to 1983 as a part of the

Janakpur Zone Agriculture Development Project. The model farm is the model of groundwater irrigation

in rain-fed agricultural areas. Three district, namely Sarlahi, Mahottari and Dhanusha, are selected in

Terai because it was confirmed that there were abundant groundwater in those 3 districts. There are 3

model farms with STW (4.1 to 5.6 ha) and 1 model farm with DTW (45.6 ha). Those model farms were

served as not only hubs of extension activities but also models of groundwater irrigation.


DOI, MOI 3-32

3-5-2 Rajkudwa Irrigation Proejct

The “Integrated Rural Development Project in the Lumbini Zone”, which was conducted from 1988 to

1989 with support from JICA, marked the Rajkudwa Irrigation Project as one of the projects to be

prioritized in the implementation. The project aimed at an expansion of irrigated area in the paddy fields

located between the Gudrung and the Kondre rivers in Kapilvastu District.

Having the DOI of the Ministry of Water Resources as the responsible agency from GON, the

pre-feasibility study was conducted in 1992. Likewise, the feasibility study from 1992 to 1993, and the

basic designing mission in 1994, respectively. The population of the project site was 33,260 with 5,150

households at that time, and the project aimed to increase the irrigated area from 890ha to 1,800ha. The

overall project cost was 681.8 million Nepal Rupees.

Nonetheless, the project has made no progress since the completion of basic designs in January 1995. In

accordance with the report of the JICA’s Project Status Survey 2014, the project was cancelled no later

than year 2000. The report says the reason of the cancellation is high cost.

3-5-3 Master Plan Study on Terai Groundwater Resources Evaluation and Development Project

(1991 - 1995)

Irrigation by STWs is prioritized where surface water is not easily available and STW development is

more advantageous technically and economically than surface water irrigation development. However,

the irrigable area of DTWs is generally larger than that of STWs and it is supposed that DTW

development is more advantageous technically and economically than STW development. Thus, the

preliminary survey of the master plan survey mentioned above was conducted in March 1991. As a result,

Jhapa, Mahottari and Banke districts selected as study areas for groundwater development by DTWs.

The master plan survey was implemented from October 1991 to March 1995. Potential areas of DTW

irrigation were selected and a master plan was formulated regarding DTW irrigation. The target areas of

the master plan, that is, potential areas of DTW irrigation were 17,000ha, 7,000ha and 8,000ha in Jhapa,

Mahottari and Banke districts respectively. The entire project costs and periods were US$357.8 million

(US$3,400/ha) and 10 years for Jhapa district, US$31.7 million (US$4,500/ha) and 9 years for Mahottari

district and US$30.2 million (US$3,800/ha) and 8 years for Banke district. Also, it was concluded that the

irrigable area of a DTW should be 30ha or more (pumping discharge is at least 30L/s) so that the

irrigation system is economically feasible.

3-5-4 Feasibility Study on the Sunsari River Irrigation (2001 - 2002)

Based on the Scope of Work for the above mentioned study signed off on 29 November 2000, the study

was conducted from April 2001 to December 2002. The objectives of the survey were formulation of an

irrigation plan and its feasibility study as well as technical transfer to Nepali engineers through the survey.

The target area of the survey was 168.2km2, beneficiary population was 97,700 (13 VDC, 16,200

households). A rough irrigation plan was formulated in the first year of the survey. In the second year, a

development plan and an implementation schedule were formulated followed by the feasibility study.

The target area for irrigation development was 10,544ha, of which 397ha was STW irrigation. The overall

project cost was US$18.1 million. Also, the project evaluation concluded that it should be implemented

early, because it exceeds 12% that is the Nepali opportunity cost and it is anticipated that spillover effect


3-33 JICA

to the landless poverty group. The JICA’s Project Status Survey 2014 has reported that it was in

preparation for implementation as of year 2003.


4-1 JICA

Chapter 4 Problems/Challenges of Each Irrigation System

4-1 Irrigation Systems which were the target of the Detailed Study

Through an interview with IMD, those target irrigation systems for the study were selected. To select

JMISs, it was considered to select: 1) both good and poor JMISs in the operation and management, 2)

both the JMISs with good and poor potential in the water resources availability, 3) both the JMISs with

and without supports from other donors and 4) the JMISs recommended by IMD or in the workshops

(Table 4-1-1). The FMIS’s selection criterion for the study was either being good in the operation and

management, having supports from other donors, or having groundwater as water resource in order to

include different types of FMISs in the study targets (Table 4-1-2). Figure 4-1-1 indicates the JMISs and

FMISs visited and studied by the Survey team.

Table 4-1-1 Irrigation Systems Studied in the Survey (JMIS) Irrigation System

District Command Area

Reason for the Selection as a Target Survey Area

Kankai Jhapa 8,000ha Well-managed JMIS and recommended by IMD as a pilot project site

Kamala Siraha & Dhanusha

25,000ha A poorly managed JMIS

Hardinath Dhanusha 2,000ha A JMIS having insufficient water and poor management Narayani Parsa, Bara

& Rautahat 28,700ha A JMIS having insufficient water and with supports from

the other donors (WB) Banganga Kapilbastu 6,350ha A JMIS having sufficient water resources and reservoir Machawar Rupandehi 5,600ha A JMIS using pump and water resources are in short

supply in spring Praganna Kulo Dang 5,800ha Nominated as a pilot project candidate by the workshop

participants Bagmati Sarlahi &

Rautahat 37,600ha Nominated as a pilot project candidate by the workshop

participants Chandra Nahar Saptari 10,000ha Nominated as a pilot project candidate by the workshop

participants Source: Survey Team

Table 4-1-2 Irrigation Systems Studied in the Survey (FMIS) Irrigation System District Reason for the Selection as a Target Survey Area Buwa Gramin (115ha, 172HH)

Morang A well-managed FMIS

Kalikoshi (187ha, 2,000HH)

Morang A well-managed FMIS

Dudhmati (230ha, 600HH)

Mahottari A subproject site of the other donors’ project (CMIASP-AF funded by ADB)

Itiyakulo (2,500ha, 8,450HH)

Rupandehi A well-managed FMIS and a subproject site of the other donors’ project (CMIASP-AF funded by ADB)

Jhimjhime (200ha. 800HH)

Rupandehi A subproject site of the other donors’ project (IWRMP-AF funded by WB)

Tamsariya (240ha, 540HH)

Rupandehi A FMIS combining ground water and surface water

( ) Irrigated area and beneficiary households identified in the field survey

Source: Survey Team


DOI, MOI 4-2

Figure 4-1-1 Locations of Studied Irrigation Systems

JMIS FMIS Source: Survey Team

4-2 JMIS

4-2-1 Conditions of Irrigation

Following Table 4-2-1 indicates condition of irrigation systems studied by the Survey.

Table 4-2-1 Water Source and Irrigated Areas of the studied JMISs

Note) The figures in parentheses of Kankai are actual irrigated areas at present.

Source：Responses to the Questionnaire applied to the JMISs

The information on the irrigable area in Table 4-2-1 was obtained by applying the questionnaire to the

concerned JMISs. The values of the irrigable areas in the rainy season of the table above seem reliable,

while the figures of the irrigable areas in winter and spring seem overestimated. All of the irrigation

systems take water from perennial rivers except the Banganga irrigation system. The irrigation systems

Irrigation System

Water Source Means of Water

Intake

Area (ha)

CommandArea

Irrigable Area Rainy

Season Winter Spring

Kankai Perennial River Diversion Dam 8,000 7,000

(5,500) 4,000

(3,000) 3,600

(2,500) Kamala Perennial River Barrage 25,000 25,000 25,000 10,000 Hardinath Perennial River Diversion Dam 2,000 2,000 2,000 1,000 Narayani Perennial River Barrage in India 28,700 - - -

Banganga Perennial/Seasonal Rivers Diversion Dam & Reservoir

6,350 6,000 4,000 2,000

Machawar Perennial River Diversion Dam 5,600 3,500 3,000 50Praganna Kulo Perennial River - 6,684 5,800 3,500 3,500 Bagmati Perennial River Diversion Dam 37,600 - - -Chandra Nahar Perennial River Diversion Dam 10,000 10,000 10,000 8,000

Kankai

Bagmati

Chandra Nahar

Hardinath

KamalaMarchawar

Banganga

DudhmatiBuwa Gramin

Kalikoshi

Itiyakulo

Jhimjhime

Tamsariya

Praganna Kulo

Narayani


4-3 JICA

take water from the headworks by diverting flow of rivers. The irrigated areas in the rainy season are the

same as those in the winter season, or may be the former is little less than the latter. Nevertheless, the

irrigated areas in the spring season decreases significantly. This can be attributed to little discharge of

rivers before the rainy season, and annual water discharge of those rivers shall be confirmed.

4-2-2 WUA

(1) Organization

The responsibility of government for O&M of the irrigation facilities of JMISs varies depending on the

irrigation systems. The JMISs which were studied in this survey were listed in the following table, and

they are categorized in two types: Type-A and Type-B. In the Type-A JMIS, the GON controls the main

canal only and in the Type-B JMIS, the GON controls both main and secondary canals. The GON usually

controls up to the secondary canals in the large scale irrigation systems whose command area is more

than 10,000ha (The irrigated areas highlighted in bold font and underlined in Table 4-2-2).

Table 4-2-2 O&M of JMISs and WUAs’ Participation into the Irrigation Projects

JMIS O&M

Responsibility Distribution*1

Command Area (ha)

Beneficiary Households

*2

WUAs’ Participation into Projects Planning Designing Construction

Kankai A (GON: Main) 8,000 11,000 Yes No Yes Kamala B (GON: Secondary) 25,000 36,000 - - Yes Hardinath A (GON: Main) 2,000 5,600 - - Yes Narayani A (GON: Main) 28,700 - Yes No No Banganga A (GON: Main) 6,350 5,000 Yes No No Machawar A (GON: Main) 5,600 n.a. Yes Yes Yes Praganna Kulo A (GON: Main) 6,684 3,900 Yes No Yes Bagmati B (GON: Secondary) 37,600 27,000 Yes No Yes Chandra Nahar B (GON: Secondary) 10,000 30,000 Yes No Yes

*1: A: the GON controls up to the main canal、B: the government controls both the main and the secondary canals. *2: The Number is estimated based on the response to the questionnaire and data shared by individual households. Source：Responses to the Questionnaire applied to the JMISs

The number of beneficiary households of each JMIS is obtained from the responses to the questionnaire

applied to the JMISs or estimated based on the average farmland area per household, so that it should be

considered just as a reference. Regarding the WUAs participation into the establishment of the JMISs,

many of them seems to have participated into the planning phase, but not in the designing and actual

construction works. How the WUAs have participated in the establishment process, and what of the

distribution of roles in the management of JMISs, the WUAs have understood may be confirmed at a later

stage.

A WUA committee is set up at each level of canals: main, secondary and tertiary. WUAs usually have a

discussion with FIMD in charge about irrigation schedule. Each committee is composed of president,

vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and representatives from lower-level canal WUA committees. At least,

33% women participation are required as well as proper representation from Dalit, Downtrodden,

Backward ethnic communities. Committee members are elected every two years; their term is stipulated

in the constitutions of the committee. The upper-level canal WUAs inform the committees’ decisions and

reports to the lower-level canal WUAs.


DOI, MOI 4-4

Table 4-2-3 Status of the WUAs Irrigation System

Status Problems

Kankai There is a main canal committee, secondary canal committees and tertiary canal committees.

n.a.

Kamala There is a main committee, secondary canal level committees and tertiary canal level committees for each of east and west main canals.

There are inactive WUAs due to no development of the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the WUA’s management.

Hardinath There is a main committee, secondary canal level committees and tertiary canal level committees for each of east and west main canals.

n.a.

Narayani The main committee has been not functioning for last 10 years. The IMD is now re-organizing the main committee. Secondary committees at Blocks 2 and 8 are acting at present.

There are inactive WUAs due to no development of command areas (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the WUA’s management.

Banganga There is a main committee, secondary canal level committees and tertiary canal level committees.

WUA has been refusing the IMT due to deteriorated/ malfunctioning/ disabled infrastructure in the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the WUA’s management.

Machawar There is a main committee and secondary canal level committees.

The ISF is high because of pumping irrigation system, and its collection rate is low.

Praganna Kulo

There are 3 main canals and 3 WUA main committees on the right bank of the river. There is a coordination committee for these 3 WUA main committees.

Since DOI developed the area where conventional FMISs were concentrated in order to establish the JMIS, the WUGs of original FMISs were transformed into the WUA. The WUA has adopted the WUGs’ traditional rules to manage the JMIS.

Bagmati (GAR2WUA)#1

Tertiary canal level committees are established and secondary canal level committees are under the formation at present for where the tertiary canals were established in the command areas under the WUA’s management.

The WUA main committee has not yet organized.

Chandra Nahar

There is a main committee, secondary canal level committees and tertiary (village channel) level committees. The WUA is well-functioning.

The entire irrigation system is deteriorated, but the deterioration within the command area under the WUA’s management is worse and not working. Due to the situation, the WUA has not agreed with the IMT.

#1 IMT has been implemented and the WUA at the main canal level has not been yet organized. So far, tertiary canal level committees have been established for the developed command area, and the preparation for the establishment of secondary canal level committees is underway. The GAR2WUA, one of the tertiary canal level committees was studied in particular (GAR2 stands for the second tertiary canal in the right bank of the Gadhaiya secondary canal which is a branch canal of the east main canal.). Since each WUA in the Bagmati irrigation system is independently operated, the current situation and challenges of the WUAs within the same irrigation system may vary from WUA to WUA. To understand the situation and challenges faced by other WUAs, further studies will be required. Source: WUA and FIMD

The irrigation facilities of the Bnganga system are extensively destroyed. The Chandra Nahar system

becomes malfunctioning due to aging. Under such circumstances, any transfer of the management to the

WUAs has not taken place in these two irrigation systems. In the Chandra Nahar system, actually, the


4-5 JICA

WUAs are well-organized and active at the secondary and tertiary canals, although these WUAs have not

agreed with the implementation of IMT. These WUAs are not able to afford the costs for the rehabilitation

of their irrigation facilities, and a prompt rehabilitation by GON of the irrigation facilities is awaited. .

The WUAs of Kankai, Praganna Kulo, Bagmati (GAR2) and Chandra Nahar are evaluated as well

organized by DOI, since the WUAs of these irrigation systems have followed the instructions provided by

DOI. Meanwhile, the WUAs of the Banganga and Kamala Irrigation Systems are evaluated as not well

organized. The WUAs of these irrigation systems do not seem to trust DOI, since the water is not

distributed to the WUA members. Their irrigation systems have not yet had the tertiary canals and are not

functioning due to severe deterioration.

Those highly evaluated WUAs are the ones which have a long history (e.g. Chandra Nahar), whose

on-farm facilities are either functioning well or under development (e.g. Kankai and Bagmati), or which

are closely united as organization (e.g. Praganna Kulo). In any case, whether water is distributed or not

affect the results of evaluation and actual conditions of each of the WUAs.

(2) Registration

All the WUA main committees are registered by application to the irrigation office in charge: FIMD or

IDD. The secondary canal level committees are registered to the main committee, and the tertiary canal

level committees are registered to the respective secondary canal level committees. The WUA main

committee has to submit the audit report to the irrigation office so as to renew the registration. The WUAs

of all the surveyed irrigation systems have already completed their registration.

(3) Constitution

All the registered WUAs, including the secondary and tertiary level ones, have the written constitutions

since it is a prerequisite for the registration. Thus, prior to the registration, a WUA has to make a

constitution by its own members under the guidance of FIMD or IDD. The association organizer (AO) is

in charge of such activities. The contents of the Constitution vary from WUA to WUA, as it is tailored for

each of the WUAs considering the respective circumstances.

(4) Board Members

WUA board members are selected through election. The election may be carried out indirectly by

representatives from the systems when there are a number of WUA members.

(5) General Assembly

General assembly is held once a year. It can be also held when necessary, such as an emergency case.

(6) Financial

The treasurer is in charge of finance. The collected ISF is first shared between the WUA and the GON.

Then, the WUA portion is further shared between the WUA main committee and the lower level WUA

committees. The WUA main committee has to prepare an audit report and submit it to the irrigation office

(FIMD or IDD) for the registration renewal. The financial status shall be also reported to the WUA

members at the annual general assembly meeting.

Regarding the ISF, beneficiaries sometimes do not pay the charged fines or do not follow the constitution,


DOI, MOI 4-6

and the management around ISF should be improved. Deteriorated and malfunctioning irrigation facilities

in the Banganga System discourage some beneficiaries to pay ISF, and the collection rate of ISF remained

to 30%. In the Chandra Nahar System, the WUA has not collected the ISF for the last three years. This is

because farmers are still struggling to recover from the damages and losses caused by the flood which

occurred three years ago.

The Machawar Irrigation System is a pumping irrigation system, and it is a heavy burden for the WUA to

pay the expensive electric bills. The amount of ISF has to be high, and as a consequence, the ISF

collection rate declines. Only four pumps out of the ten in the irrigation system are currently working for

only 12 hours per day due to blackouts. The pumping capacity has been reduced since those pumps have

already 35 years and are deteriorated. All these conditions have affected negatively the ISF collection rate

of the Machawar System. Meanwhile, in the Banganga Irrigation system, the irrigation facilities except

headworks had been impaired and the WUA refused the IMT, and the ISF collection rate remains low.

In contrast, the ISF collection rate of the Kankai, Hardinath and Bagmati WUAs is 70%. Despite water

shortage together with inadequate water management, the ISF collection rate remains high in the

Hardinath Irrigation System. This may be attributed to the fact that the irrigated area of the Irrigation

System is relatively small and farmers can practice three cropping seasons per year. 2,000ha of paddy in

the rainy, winter and spring seasons, respectively. The WUA members desilt sediments from the irrigation

facilities with a help from FIMD and this contributes to avoid malfunctioning of the irrigation system, and

hence: a high collection rate of ISF.

Table 4-2-4 ISF: Collection Rates and Distribution between WUAs and the GON

Irrigation System

Amount Collection Period

Collection Rate

Penalty Share WUA GON

Kankai 300 Rs./0.66ha/crop Jun – Jul 70% No water delivery 90% 10%Kamala 150 Rs./ha/crop Dec – Jun 40% double payment 80% 20%Hardinath 150 Rs./ha/crop Dec – Jun 60 - 70% double payment 80% 20%Narayani (Block 2)

300 Rs./ha/crop Aug – Oct 60% No penalty 80% 20%

Banganga 150 Rs./ha/crop After

winter/summer crop harvest

30% Ban on participation in elections

90% 10%

Machawar 750 Rs./ha/yr - 10 - 20% 25% increased payment 90% 10%Praganna Kulo

600 Rs./ha/yr Crop season

end 50%

- 100% 0%

Bagmati (GAR2)

600 Rs./ha/yr - 60 - 70% - 100%#1 0%

Chandra Nahar

60 Rs./ha/crop (until 3 years ago)

None for the last 3 years - n.a.

No penalty n.a. n.a.

#1: The information source was the GAR2 WUA. Meanwhile, according to the FIMD in charge of the Bagmati Irrigation System, the share rates of the collected ISF between the WUA and GON are 70% and 30%, respectively.

Source：WUAs

(7) Means of information transfer from the WUA main committee to its members

The means below are used for information transfer from the WUA main committee to its members.

Verbal message from main committee members to lower level canal WUAs, including cell phone


4-7 JICA

in Kamala, Narayani and Banganga

Announcing with microphones and speakers in Kamala and Hardinath

FM radio (local announcement in FMISs and JMISs in Kankai and Bagmati)

Putting an article on newspaper in Chandra Nahar

Posting on a WUA notice board in Machawar

Announcing with speakers on a bicycle in Bagmati

4-2-3 Irrigation Facilities

(1) Condition of Irrigation Facilities

All the irrigation systems have hardware problems. Causes of the deterioration are mostly aging and

budget shortage for the rehabilitation. The GON cannot afford the rehabilitation of all the JMISs and

therefore, multi-/bi-lateral assistance, such as the Saudi Fund for Development, is indispensable.

The following table summarizes the current condition of irrigation facilities of the respective irrigation

systems, including canals and the other hydraulic structures. The headworks and the main canals, which

are maintained by the GON, are functioning in most of the irrigation systems. The repair of the headwork

of the Kankai Irrigation System is scheduled for the spring season of 2017, the rehabilitation of the entire

system will be completed at the same time.

Compared to the headwork and the main canal, the secondary and tertiary canals are not maintained well.

WUAs are in charge of the maintenance of these canals, however, they are not able to keep them in a

good condition, due to inadequate budget and technology for the maintenance. It seems that there are a

few irrigation systems, which require a major rehabilitation to their principal structures, although a

functional diagnosis of the irrigation structures has not been carried out to each of the structures.

Table 4-2-5 Condition of Irrigation Facilities in Each Irrigation System Reviewed by the Interview Survey

Irrigation System Condition of Irrigation Facilities

Headwork/Water Source Main Canal Secondary Canal Tertiary Canal

Kankai C B C C Kamala - B C D Hardinath - B C - Narayani - C C - Banganga B C C C Machawar - C D D Praganna Kulo - B B B Bagmati A B B C Chandra Nahar B C C D

A = Maintenance and repair are done and functioning properly B = Warning signs are found but functioning during the next crop season C = Partly malfunctioning D = Dilapidated and malfunctioning in whole E = Partly disabled

Source：Interview with JMIS based on questionnaires


DOI, MOI 4-8

Table 4-2-6 Condition of Irrigation Facilities Irrigation System

Condition Problem

Kankai The facilities are rehabilitated by IWRMP and the headwork, main, secondary and tertiary canals are in good condition.

Embankment portions of the secondary and tertiary canals are preferentially lined. The headwork is to be rehabilitated in the spring of 2017

Kamala The system has aged as a whole though the headwork is maintained in a good condition. The main and secondary canals have significant sediments. Unlined portion of the canals are soured and needs reshaping. The command area at the tertiary and lower level canals under the WUA’s management has not been developed.

The FIMD in charge is not able to desilt the extensive sediments due to budget shortage.

The FIMD in charge does not have enough capacity to develop the irrigation system within the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the management of WUA.

The FIMD has not been able to develop the command area.

The WUAs cannot manage water in the command area at the tertiary and lower level canals under the management of WUAs due to non-existence of water control facilities.

Hardinath The system has dilapidated as a whole though the headwork is maintained in a good condition. Main and secondary canals have significant sediments. Unlined portion of canals are soured and needs reshaping. Tertiary and field canals are underdeveloped.

Seepage loss from unlined canals is significant.

Some sluice gates are broken. Canal reshaping is needed. The FIMD is not able to solve the above

problems due to budget shortage. Narayani The system has dilapidated as a whole, and

canal capacity has decreased due to sediments. There are no tertiary systems developed.

Desilting and reshaping are needed to recover the canal capacity,

The WUAs cannot manage water in the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) due to non-existence of tertiary systems.

The FIMD is not able to solve the above problems due to budget shortage.

Banganga The system has dilapidated as a whole though the headwork is maintained in a good condition. The unlined portion of the main canal is scoured significantly. There are 2 reservoirs for the dry season irrigation in the system, but both of them are filled with sediments. The tertiary systems are malfunctioning and some structures are disabled.

Desilting and reshaping are needed to recover the canal and the reservoir capacities,

The WUAs cannot manage water in the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) due to non-existence of water control facilities.

The FIMD is not able to solve the above problems due to budget shortage.


4-9 JICA

Irrigation System

Condition Problem

Machawar Only 4 pumps out of 10 are workable due to aging. In addition, those 4 pumps are aging (35 years old) and the pumping capacity has decreased. Moreover, the brick-lined canals are partly broken due to the insufficient compaction of backfilled soils.

Irrigation is not feasible during approximately 12-hours blackouts per day.

ISF is not sufficiently collected for brick-lining repair; ISF mainly used for pump operators’ salary.

Governmental financial support (3,000,000Rs/yr) is not enough: electricity costs 2,200,000Rs/yr; grease costs 800,000Rs/yr; and the remaining is used for the canal maintenance.

IDD Rupandehi does not have budget to replace the pumps and/or rehabilitate the canals.

Praganna Kulo

Since the system has started its operation in 2005 and is still new, it is maintained in a good condition. The system does not have headwork because it will be buried with sediments within one year. There are 3 side intakes and temporary canals channeled in the riverbed by the DOI guiding water from a river to the intake.

The DOI should always be prepared for excavation of temporary canals

Because of uncontrollable intake, water supply is unstable.

Bagmati The barrage is in good condition, and there is a generator in case of blackout. The sluice gates are rehabilitated and well-functioning. These rehabilitations are owing to the Saudi Fund for Development.

The command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) has been partially developed with tertiary systems. But there still remain areas where not yet developed.

Chandra Nahar

The system was established in 1927, almost 90 years ago. The facilities are malfunctioning. The tertiary systems (village channels) are also malfunctioning.

The whole systems need rehabilitation since it has never had major rehabilitation for nearly 90 years.

Source：WUAs and FIMDs

The following table summarizes above identified problems:

Table 4-2-7 Summary of Malfunctioning of Irrigation Facilities Problems Keyword Example of the systems

Problems caused by natural conditions

Sediments, insufficient cross section, desilting, command area (the tertiary and lower level canals) (irrigated farmland)

Kamala、Narayani, Banganga

Problems caused by water shielding of structures

Water leakage Hardinath

Problems caused by control accuracy of the facilities

Water control facilities, sluice gate Kamala, Hardinath, Banganga

Problems caused by aging of the facilities

Deterioration, aging Kamala, Hardinath, Narayani, Banganga, Machawar, Chandra Nahar

Problems caused by the operation of the facilities

Pump Machawar

Problems caused by efficient water use and equity

Rotation at the main and tertiary canals

Kamala, Hardinath, Narayani, Banganga, Chandra Nahar

Source：WUAs and FIMDs

Since IWRMP funded by the WB (refer to 3-4-1) has just rehabilitated the irrigation system in Kankai,

(Figure 4-2-1) further large scale rehabilitation is unnecessary except for the planned repair works of the


DOI, MOI 4-10

headwork next spring. FIMD gate operator keeps a record of the operation including cross-regulator,

opening of head-regulator, flow rate and water depth. A main committee, secondary canal level

committees and tertiary level committees are also organized by IWRMP and they are actively involved in

the activities. Meanwhile, sufficient water is not supplied to the downstream of the command area due to

excess water use at the upper stream. Additionally, plot to plot irrigation is common in the Kankai system

and therefore water use efficiency should be improved by enhancing on-farm distribution systems.

The problem caused by the natural conditions is inevitable. The river flow brings soils derived from weak

stratum in the upper stream of Terai region. The Kankai irrigation system has a settling basin which

facilitates removal of suspended soils before such soils enter into the canals, and this helps to reduce the

sediment load in the irrigation system. Such a facility is necessary for other irrigation systems and the

GON is expected to support them in the installation of such a facility.

Soil derived from the areas vulnerable to rainfall is likely to enter large scale irrigation systems, which

taking water from large rivers with the high volume of water flow. Such a large scale irrigation system is

assumed to have more sediment load to be removed than small scale irrigation systems. Large scale

irrigation facilities require not only advanced operation but also intensive desilting works and therefore

the GON and donors supports would be necessary.

A problem with water tightness of structures is mainly attributed to defective lining of canals in the

irrigation systems. Lining is particularly necessary for canals constructed in the foundation mainly

consisting of sand and gravel. Once lining is damaged and irrigation water seeps underground, shortage of

water in an irrigation system would be caused. Besides sluice gates would be collapsed, if water leakage

is caused around the gate and the leaked water washes out surrounding foundation.

Inaccurate operation of the facilities causes problems on the water allocation; especially on the equity of

water delivery in the command area (the tertiary and lower level canals). Other problems are usually

prioritized to be solved to ensure the water is reaching to facilities.

In order to address properly those problems arising from the aging of the irrigation facilities, the decisions

on the rehabilitation or updating should be made based on adequate technical knowledge and experiences.

Given that the facilities are still functioning despite aging, other more urgent issues can be prioritized to

the rehabilitation of such facilities.

The Machawar irrigation system is the only system which has difficulties in its operation of the facilities.

In case of pump irrigation, feasibility of projects should be examined in advance. Providing that the

situation has significantly changed since the pump irrigation is constructed, alternative plans should be

assessed for the irrigation system and/or selection of crops to be irrigated should be reviewed.

Problems on efficient water use can be divided into two major issues. One is that the downstream blocks

where water supply is often trouble are to be prioritized for water supply at the main canal level; the

upstream blocks should be received water later. This arrangement can secure equity of water allocation

within the irrigation system. Though the system in Chandra Nahar adopts this measure and distributes

water at the main canal level and each irrigation block, it does not fully implement due to malfunctioning

of irrigation facilities. The other irrigation systems are not implementing the above measure; thus, it

should be prioritized in such irrigation systems immediately. Another problem is inefficient use of


4-11 JICA

supplied water which relates to the accurate operation of the facilities aiming at equity of water

distribution among the beneficiaries in the irrigation blocks. This issue will remain behind because there

would be other issues to be prioritized.

As mentioned above, an issue of irrigation systems in Terai region is how to improve function of overall

irrigation facilities but their bottlenecks differ individually. Thus, an operation and management plan for

the whole irrigation system should be developed firstly. The plan is expected to design with experts

having substantial experiences and sufficient knowledge and this enables the plan to assure its feasibility

and efficiency.

4-2-4 Maintenance

(1) Inspection and Maintenance

Periodical inspection is a basic requirement for the maintenance work for irrigation systems followed by

cleaning and repair. It is confirmed that inspection on headworks and pumps in the JMISs is usually

conducted after finishing irrigation period in spring, implementation of inspection on other facilities is not

recognized. This is mainly because cleaning is considered to be the most effective avoiding

malfunctioning of irrigation facilities due to circumstances of heavy sediments. Besides, other case shows

that maintenance works of aging irrigation pumps require much budget and workloads and therefore

would be bottlenecks of irrigation in such system.

Effective and equal water supply requires proper operation and control of irrigation facilities including

sluice gates. In fact, sediments in the canals are the biggest challenge for each irrigation system and the

cleaning of the canals would be fundamental for the operation and management as explained below:

(2) Cleaning

The major maintenance works undertaken by WUAs is the cleaning of canals. As part of their

responsibility, WUAs clean the canals whose management was handed over by the GON. In principle,

FIMD cleans the main canal and FIMD and WUAs jointly clean the secondary canals. Table below

illustrates the current status of cleaning of canals, which are carried out as part of the maintenance works,

in the JMISs

Table 4-2-8 Frequency of Canal Cleaning and its Record

Irrigation System

Main Canal Secondary Canal Tertiary CanalOrganization

in charge Frequency Record Organization in charge Frequency Record Organization

in charge Frequency Record

Kankai GON 1/year Yes GON 1/year Yes WUA 1-2/year Yes Kamala GON 1/year Yes GON 1/year Yes WUA 2/year Yes Hardinath GON 1/year Yes GON 1/year Yes WUA 2/year - Narayani GON 1/year Yes GON - - WUA - - Banganga GON - Yes GON - Yes WUA 2/year Yes Machawar WUA 1/year No WUA 1/year Yes WUA 1/year - Praganna Kulo

GON & WUA 2/year No WUA 2/year No WUA - No

Bagmati GON - Yes GON - Yes WUA - Yes Chandra Nahar

GON 1/year Yes GON 1/year Yes WUA - No

Source：Interview with JMIS based on questionnaire

The GON controls main and secondary canal level water use facilities and canals in Kamala, Bagmati and

Chandra Nahar and is also in charge of cleaning of those canals. While only the main canal is managed by


DOI, MOI 4-12

the GON in Kankai, Hardinath, Narayani and Banganga, it implements the cleaning of both the main and

secondary canals.

On the other hand, the WUAs in Machawar and Praganna Kulo implements cleaning of the main canals

which the GON is responsible for. Although details of responsibilities for management of the facilities

and cleaning of the canals are not studied, they should be clarified in advance for the smooth joint

operation. Actual responsibilities of the GON and WUAs should be identified for the further development

of JMIS. The following table summarizes a situation of the canal cleaning and its related problems.

Table 4-2-9 Status of Canal Cleaning Irrigation System

Current Status Problems

Kankai The main canal is cleaned (desilted and mowed) by the FIMD once a year but not in all the parts in accordance with a schedule. Work record is also taken. The secondary canals are cleaned by the FIMD once a year. The tertiary canals are cleaned by the respective WUAs (tertiary canal level WUAs) once or twice a year.

The WUAs do not have annual plan of cleaning. No record of cleaning has been taken, but it could be confirmed through the revision of the expenditure record.

Kamala Main works are desilting for the main, secondary and tertiary canals. The FIMD cleans the main and secondary canals timely once a year based on its observation. The WUAs contribute to the FIMD maintenance works of the secondary canals in kind. There are work records.

Extent of sedimentation is significant, and the amount of sediments is beyond the capacity of manual desilting, that is mechanical dredging is necessary. Various sizes of excavators are necessary in accordance with size of the canals.

Hardinath Main works are desilting. The FIMD implements desilting of the main canals once a year. The FIMD also clean the secondary canals once a year and the WUAs contribute to it in kind. Meanwhile, the WUAs implements desilting of the tertiary canals twice a year. Since the desilting by the FIMD is once a year, the WUAs have to desilt the main and secondary canals by themselves when the amount of sediments is large.

The desilting budget of the FIMD is not sufficient since extent of sedimentation is significant.

The WUAs need excavators due to large volume of sediments.

Narayani Main canal is not cleaned by the FIMD. Secondary canals are also not cleaned by WUAs.

Maintenance budget of the FIMD is not sufficient.

WUAs are inactive except for Blocks 2 and 8. Thus, the amount of ISF collected is little except for Blocks 2 and 8.

Banganga Main works are desilting. The cleaning is under the responsibility of the FIMD because no facilities are handed over to the WUAs. The main and secondary canals are cleaned by the FIMD. Some records are kept. However, the FIMD is not able to dredge 2 reservoirs filled with sediments. The tertiary canals are cleaned by the WUAs where the WUAs are active twice a year.

The FIMD does not have enough budget to clean up the tertiary canals.

Amount of collected ISF is not enough for cleaning the tertiary canals.

Machawar The pumps are maintained frequently by 4 operators, who were subject to trainings for pump maintenance: greasing, simple replacement of parts and fuses, etc. The pump operators get paid 50% from IDD and the other 50% from the WUA main committee. The main and secondary canals are cleaned by the WUA once a year before the monsoon season, and the tertiary canals twice a year before the monsoon and winter crop seasons

Maintenance costs of the pumps are high due to costs of grease and spare parts.

It is difficult to clean the brick-lined canal, which is not so strong and the surface is not smooth due to joints; excavators cannot be used unlike concrete-lining.


4-13 JICA

Irrigation System

Current Status Problems

Praganna Kulo

The main canals are cleaned by the FIMD and the WUA twice a year before the monsoon season and winter crop seasons. The secondary canals are cleaned by the WUA twice a year before the monsoon and winter crop season. The WUA sometimes cleans the tertiary canals.

The system was developed by integrating various FMISs and the rain-fed farmlands which had existed in the area. The JMIS has been managed by adopting the traditional rules which the FMISs had established and applied. Under such rules, regular cleaning of canals is undertaken. When flooding, the FIMD closes intakes and prevents soil intrusion into the facilities, and this practice makes the cleaning easier.

Bagmati The main and secondary canals are cleaned by the FIMD once a year before the monsoon season. Tertiary canals are cleaned by the WUA where the WUAs are established twice a year in the case of GAR2.

The system is on the way of IMT process. The WUA main committee is not yet established. The secondary and tertiary level WUA committees are still under capacity building by the FIMD.

Chandra Nahar

The main and secondary canals are cleaned by the FIMD once a year. There are records. The tertiary canals (village channel) are cleaned by the WUAs.

The irrigation facilities need repair/rehabilitation rather than maintenance.

Source：WUA and FIMD

Due to heavy sediments, the desilting is beyond capacity of the WUAs in Kamala and Hardinath. As

aforementioned, the systems require facilities such as settling basin that removes suspended soil particles

before entering into the canals or introduction of excavators as the WUAs expect. Regarding the use of

excavators, the case in Machawar pointed out a difficulty in mechanical dredging due to the difference of

lining materials.

The Narayani case indicates a difficulty in collecting ISF from the areas where WUAs are inactive.

Though the facilities are deteriorated and their rehabilitation and maintenance are necessary, the WUA in

Banganga is well-functioning and implement the cleaning of the tertiary canals twice a year. This implies

that capacity development of WUAs is important to improve the performance of irrigation systems.

(3) Repair

According to JMIS, heavy desilting/dredging by excavators is often regarded as repair in Nepal, but there

is no clear definition. Repair works that WUAs can conduct by themselves are limited to DIY level. Such

repair works are small canal reshaping (small amount of earthwork). At the Machawar Lift Irrigation

System, there are pump operators who were trained for pump maintenance, but they are not able to repair

or replace the pumps. The WUA members are able to carry out repair works, but it must be done under

the instructions of the DOI technical staffs.

There are two funding sources to endure the rehabilitation costs. First, WUAs can outsource the

rehabilitation works with the disbursement from the collected ISF. Secondly, WUAs can request financial

support to DOI, especially when the rehabilitation works are too costly for them. However, it takes

usually a long time to go through the required procedure to receive the requested support, the use of the

ISF is more common on the ground.

4-2-5 Water Allocation

(1) Water Distribution Plan

Water distribution planning, irrigation schedule with rotation plans, are made by WUAs. However, WUAs


DOI, MOI 4-14

have expertise neither on crop water requirement nor water use efficiency although they are the decision

maker. Accordingly, FIMD supports WUAs to make irrigation schedules through advises and discussions

with them from technical point of view. In Chandra Nahar, the FIMD advises the WUA to preferentially

allocate water to downstream beneficiaries as aforementioned. Due to the dilapidated facilities, an overall

irrigation distribution system is not functional.

On the other hand, the irrigation schedule of the Machawar Lift Irrigation System is solely decided by the

WUA based on the discussion by respective representatives from 9 branches canals, because they know

discharge rates and conditions of the pumps. However, the schedule is only designed for equal water

distribution plan among the branches canals and the plans of individual branch canals within each WUA

are undeveloped.

Equitable water distribution results in increased collection of ISF and expansion of irrigated areas. Thus,

the DOI expects technical support for the preparation of an irrigation plan.

(2) Water Delivery

In JMIS, the government gate operators deliver water in accordance with the schedule by operating canal

structures in the portion under the FIMD’s responsibility, while WUA members operates the systems in

the portion under WUA’s responsibility. The government operators adjust the gate opening by calibrations

or counting the thread ridge of the spindle of sluice gate or by observing the water level gauge for the

rating curve or the depth of water flowing through the Partial flumes.

Figure 4-2-1 Sluice Gates of the Tertiary Canals in Kankai Source: Survey Team

On the other hand, there are usually no proper flow control structures, i.e. on-farm systems, in the

command area and WUA members are not able to manage water. Further, they operate sluice gates

without measuring the water discharge even if there are flow control structures. That is, water is not

delivered efficiently in the command area.

Figure 4-2-1 shows water intakes of the tertiary canals of the Kankai irrigation system. Thanks to

sedimentation basin at the beginning of the main canal, sand entering the irrigation facilities is limited and

therefore water is smoothly delivered to the main canal. Meanwhile, plans for operation of sluice gates at

the secondary and the tertiary canals are undeveloped and the water discharge is also not controlled.

4-2-6 Farming

The key for farmers to have motivation in agriculture is profitability. The farmers in Terai region is not

able to compete against Indian farmers who get subsidized plentifully by the government (Table 4-2-10).


4-15 JICA

Fertilizer costs 1,000NPR/50kg in Nepal, while 384NPR/50kg in India. Diammonium phosphate (DAP)

costs 2,350NPR/50kg in Nepal, while 1,280 NPR/50kg in India. Tractor-plowing costs 1,600NPR/ha in

Nepal, while 1,000NPR/ha in India. Moreover, there is crop insurance in India but not in Nepal.

Table 4-2-10 Examples of Subsidy Comparisons between Nepal and India Item Nepal India

Fertilizer 1,000 NRs/50kg 384 NRs/50kg DAP 2,350 NRs/50kg 1,280 NRs/50kg Tractor-plowing 1,600 NRs/ha 1,000 NRs/ha Crop Insurance No Yes

Source：WUAs and DADO

Since the rice farming is not so profitable, most of households cultivate vegetables, maize, wheat, pulses,

sugarcane, oil seeds, aquaculture, etc. in winter and/or in spring. Rice is mainly for self-consumption in

such households. Most of households also have non-farm income by retail business, self-employment

(carpenter, plasterer, etc.), manual labor (construction, agriculture), working abroad (Middle East, India,

etc.).

Therefore, it is necessary to improve profitability of agriculture so that farmers are motivated to do

farming. In order to increase farm income, what is necessary are improvements of yield, cropping

intensity, product quality, marketing to sell higher price and/or cost reduction in farming. Two cropping is

very common in Terai region: monsoon rice and winter upland crops. But three cropping is not so

practiced, that is, the extension of year-round irrigation will enable three cropping so that farmers earn

more farm income.

Expansion of cultivated areas in winter and spring, particularly cultivation of cash crops, would directly

increase farmers’ income and generate a positive impact. Provided WUAs’ activities and proper water

distribution, irrigation water for the farming are available, capacity development of WUAs would

motivate farmers.

As Chapter 3 described, technical support for farming is also implemented by irrigation projects such as

IWRMP-AF (2013 to 2014) funded by WB and CMIASP-AF (2013 to 2018) funded by ADB and should

further approached in the context of water management and agriculture. MOAD and DOA administrate

agriculture projects. A trouble between officers of the DOI and the DOA is not reported in the project

areas of WB and ADB.

4-2-7 Identified Challenges

DOI engineers tend to focus more on main and secondary canals so as to improve irrigation efficiency.

This is because they recognize the main and secondary canals as fundamental facilities for O&M. The

larger irrigation systems are, the more important the canals are because more sediment from upper stream

of a river is entering into the facilities. In addition to operation of whole irrigation facilities, a problem

with desilting of heavy sediments makes the IMT difficult. This would be a main factor that JMIS as large

scale irrigation system is less successful while operation of the FMIS as small scale one goes smoothly

(Identified Challenge: Measures for Sediments).

The collection rate of ISF largely depends on the condition of facilities in the irrigation systems. There are

two most commonly observed cases as follows: 1) The maintenance of irrigation facilities is lagged


DOI, MOI 4-16

behind in the schedule, so that farmers cannot irrigate their farmland, when necessary. This results in

non-payment of ISF by farmers, and then the work again delays due to a shortage in the maintenance

budget. Thus, the irrigation system management falls into the vicious cycle; and 2) The preset ISF rate

may not be enough to cover the necessary maintenance costs, although the irrigation facilities are

well-maintained and the ISF collection rate remains high (Table 5-4-1). Regarding the former case, only

those farmers who have benefitted from enough irrigation water tend to pay ISF, but the overall ISF

collection in the JMIS is not working well. As for the latter case, the amount of ISF should be reviewed

by the WUAs for the sustainable irrigation management (Identified Challenge: ISF Collection).

Capacity development of the WUA members in the planning of O&M is necessary. There are too many

problems to be solved, and no one is able to prioritize all of them to address. Even the problems are

prioritized, they are not addressed in the priority order. For example, though WUA members should

appreciate the importance of the cleaning, it may be difficult for them to do so, due to the fact that

irrigation facilities are disabled and not functioning. Therefore, the rehabilitation of facilities by the GON

is necessary in order to promote members’ better understanding of O&M. In this regard, technical support

may be more feasible in the Kankai Irrigation System than any other irrigation systems, because their

facilities are functioning (Identified Challenge: O&M Planning).

The water management system which can improve on efficiency in water use and equity in water

distribution among the beneficiaries within the command areas (the tertiary and lower level canals) of

WUAs has not been established in many of the JMISs. In some JMISs where such a water management

system has been developed and applied, the system often does not work properly. Although farmers

understand the importance of on-farm irrigation systems in the command areas (the tertiary and lower

level canals), they often lack know-how of the water distribution based on the measurement of water

volume. Technical supports by DOI engineers are necessary for the establishment of irrigation system in

the command areas (the tertiary and lower level canals), although such supports are not available at

present (Identified Challenge: Equitable water distribution within the command areas of WUA).

Not all the DOI engineers acknowledge properly the importance of irrigation system within the command

area (the tertiary and lower level canals), although such terminal facilities are equally important as the

main and secondary canals are. They tend to focus only on the main and secondary canals. This implies

that an interface, connecting the main and secondary canals with on-farm irrigation systems, or with the

irrigation systems within the command areas (the tertiary and lower level canals) under the WUA’s

management is likely to have problems which disturb the efficient use of overall irrigation systems

(Identified Challenge: Technical assistance in the water management within the command areas of

WUA).

What improves farmers’ motivation on agriculture is an improvement on the profitability of farming, and

an improvement on productivity, cropping intensity and crop quality is part of the challenges identified to

this end. Besides, the collection of market information is necessary since it enables farmers to buy

agricultural inputs at lower prices and sell their produces at higher prices. The availability of year-round

irrigation may also work as one of the incentives for farmers to produce more. Thus, those interventions

for the irrigation sector shall ideally go in tandem with interventions for the agriculture sector (Identified

Challenge: Agricultural Development).


4-17 JICA

An improvement on the efficiency of the entire irrigation systems may keep the current water delivery

systems efficient. If the systems are further developed and year-round irrigation becomes feasible, the

conditions for agricultural in Terai region would be improved significantly. The introduction of cash crops

could increase farmers’ household income, while the profitability of rice in the region is not high, because

of the low competency in the prices compared to the same commodity of the neighboring country, India.

Furthermore, the year-round irrigation would contribute to the DOI’s promotion of IMT (Identified

Challenge: Year-round irrigation).

4-3 FMIS

4-3-1 WUA

(1) Organization

In case of the FMIS, there is a WUA main committee but no lower level committees, because the system

is small. The WUA main committee is composed of representatives from areas instead of representatives

from lower level canals.

(2) Registration

All the WUA main committees are registered by application to the IDD. The WUA main committee has to

submit an audit report to an irrigation office so as to renew the registration.

(3) Constitution

All the registered WUAs have a written constitution. Since the FMISs are small community-based

irrigation system which have been managed by water users since before the government intervention. The

governing rules are still based on the traditional rules.

(4) Board Members

The board members (president, vice president, secretary and treasurer) are selected through election once

every two years but it is often vote of confidence.

(5) General Assembly

A general assembly is held once a year. In this regard, it will be held when needed, such as for emergency.

(6) Finance

Table 4-3-1 ISF and Its Collection Rate Irrigation System Amount Collection Rate

Buwa Gramin#1 3,000 Rs./ha/crop 90% Kalikoshi Collected only when necessary n.a.

Dudhmati Not yet collected. To be collected once the headwork upgrading is finished

n.a.

Jhimjhime #2 Not collected (Penalty charges only) n.a. Tamsariya (DTW conjunctive use) 200Rs./hour (No Pay, No Water) 100% #1 When a member attends a WUA activity such as canal cleaning, she or he gets paid 500 Rs. as daily pay. This is one of the

refund systems of ISF. #2 If a member does not attend to WUA activities such as canal cleaning, the person pay a fine of 6,000 Rs./ha. Some members

with small holdings do not attend to WUA activities intentionally and pay fine, which is small amount. Source: Interview to WUAs

The treasurer is in charge of finance. Collected ISF is kept by the WUAs because the system is fully


DOI, MOI 4-18

transferred to it. The WUA main committee has to prepare an audit report and submit it to the irrigation

office (FIMD or IDD) for the registration renewal. Financial status is also reported to its members at the

general assembly.

Table 4-3-1 above shows the amounts of ISF and the ISF collection rates of the studied FMISs. In some

systems the ISF collected at a fixed amount and the collection rates are as high as 90 or 100%, while in

other systems, the ISF is collected only when necessary. Thus, the collection rates of FMISs significantly

differ from the ones of JMISs.

(7) Information transfer from the WUA main committee to its members

The following means are used for information transfer from the WUA main committee to its members:

Verbal messages, including the conversation on cell phones, from the main committee members to the lower level canal WUAs; and

FM radio.

4-3-2 Irrigation Facilities

(1) Conditions of the Irrigation Facilities

Conditions of the irrigation facilities are summarized in the table below. The construction firstly targets

on headwork, followed by a main canal (Table 4-3-2). On-farm irrigation systems are not targeted for

infrastructure improvement.

Table 4-3-2 Irrigation Facilities of FMISs Visited Irrigation System Status

Buwa Gramin Main canal is kept in good condition. There is neither headwork nor secondary canals. Kalikoshi The WUA is building facilities by little and little, getting technical assistance from the IDD.Dudhmati The headwork is under construction by CMIASP-AF. The earthen weir is upgraded to

concrete one. The main canal is not upgraded because the benefit-cost ratio is lower than other candidate systems.

Itiyakulo The headwork is relocated to upstream by 150m because the riverbed is eroded and river water level lowered.

Jhimjhime The headwork is under upgrading. The main canal in the upstream portion is flume. Tamsariya (DTW conjunctive use)

There are 4 DTWs in 6 areas. The systems are handed over to the WUA just 3 months ago. It is a conjunctive use system where groundwater is used supplementary, except for Area 6. The surface water irrigation systems mainly used is a traditional one.

Source：WUA

4-3-3 Maintenance

(1) Cleaning

The WUAs of FMISs traditionally know the importance of facilities and share a common understanding

of operation and management in the systems. In this regard, the WUAs in the JMIS should start from the

planning and is behind in the irrigation management (Table 4-3-3).


4-19 JICA

Table 4-3-3 Canal Cleaning Irrigation System Status

Buwa Gramin The WUA assigns cleaning works of the main canal to groups (villages) in the system. No record is taken.

Kalikoshi The WUA cleans canals twice a year before monsoon and winter crop seasons. No record is taken.

Dudhmati The WUA has not yet started activities. After completion of the headwork construction, it will join IDD’s trainings and then begin activities.

Jhimjhime The WUA cleans three times a year before monsoon, winter and spring crop seasons. The cleaning takes 2 to 3 days by 3 groups of the WUA members.

Tamsariya (DTW conjunctive use)

Since water is clean and it flows in the pipelines from DTWs, no cleaning is needed.

Source：WUA

(2) Repair

As for repair works that need cement, unlike routine maintenance, the WUAs implement them under

technical and financial supports of IDD/IDSD. General cleaning of the canals is done by the WUAs.

4-3-4 Water Allocation

(1) Water Distribution Plan

1) Surface Water Irrigation System

The WUA main committee makes an allocation plan and an irrigation schedule. The committee

members take the plan and the schedule back to her/his area and report to the members.

2) Groundwater Irrigation System in Tamsariya

The users make a phone call to the pump operator in charge and order the timing and the duration of

water delivery. The ISF is not collected on a basis of area but on a basis of time. The WUA members

strictly follow the no-payment-no-water rule.

(2) Water Delivery

The WUA members operate the irrigation facilities by themselves. Even the DTWs are operated by the

farmers trained by GWID staffs in Tamsariya.

4-3-5 Identified Challenges

Compared to the WUAs of JMIS, the WUAs of FMIS are working smoothly with less strict rules. They

collect ISF by following their traditional rules, and they do not need more strict rules. The FMISs have

been managed by their water users before the GON started the management of irrigation systems, and

therefore, the GON does not see the necessity to strengthen the management of FMISs although it

provides FMISs with the initial training and the government portion of the rehabilitation costs. DOI does

not recognize so far any challenge of the management of FMISs to be addressed.


5-1 JICA

Chapter 5 Problems of Irrigation Development and Challenges Extracted through the Survey

This chapter presents considerations regarding problems, challenges and orientation of improvement of

irrigation development by GON, on the basis of results of the workshop on 14 August 2016, in which DOI

staff participated, and results of existing irrigation facilities and other donors’ assistance programs

considered in the antecedent chapters. Then, it considers relevance of the GON’s application for JICA-TCP,

in terms of its objectives, contents and inputs, from the viewpoint how the JICA-TCP contributes to solving

problems and challenges on irrigation development of Nepal.

5-1 Challenges Identified in the Field

As mentioned in Chapter 4, challenges identified through field visits of JMISs are as follows:

Challenge #1: Countermeasures against sediments;

Challenge #2: ISF collection;

Challenge #3: Formulation of maintenance plan;

Challenge #4: Equitable water distribution within the on-farm area;

Challenge #5: Technical assistance for on-farm water management;

Challenge #6: Improvement of farming; and

Challenge #7: Year-round irrigation.

5-2 Problem and Objective Analyses in the Workshop

As the preparatory works for the workshop on 14 August, the Survey team narrowed challenges identified

through the report of “Preparatory Survey on JICA’s Cooperation Program for Agriculture and Rural

Development in Nepal -Food Production and Agriculture in Terai- (2013)” down to those related to O&M

of irrigation facilities, water management and capacity strengthening of DOI staff and WUA members. In

the workshop, DOI staff analyzed causes of irrigation development problems (Problem Analysis). In

addition, the Survey team pointed out problems of irrigation in the on-farm area where WUA is responsible

for water management, as well as problems regarding major facilities. The summary is as follows.

1) Water is not available enough for winter and spring cultivation from seasonal rivers. In addition,

Narayani Irrigation System does not receive water from the perennial river, which is its water source,

because India does not have to give water to Nepal based on the international treaty24 between Nepal

and India.

2) There are irrigation systems that are not able to convey designed discharge due to

disabled/malfunctioning canal structures (e.g. cross- and head-regulators), or canal cross-section

reduced by erosion/scouring/collapse of side slope or sediments.

3) Seepage loss of water from unlined canals is larger in the dry season (winter and spring) than in the

rainy season (monsoon) because soils are drier.

4) Water is not distributed equitably among water users in the on-farm area. Allocated water is limited

and water users in the upstream zone over-irrigate. Consequently, water shortage occurs in the

downstream zone.

24 Water rights of India and Nepal are 90% and 10% respectively, in accordance with the international treaty.


DOI, MOI 5-2

5) Water is not efficiently delivered and/or utilized even if water is available. Since the plot-to-plot

irrigation is widely practiced in the on-farm area, the application efficiency is low.

6) There are no drainage systems in the on-farm area, or they are malfunctioning even if they exist.

The workshop participants arranged the narrowed-down challenges and the above causes in a problem

diagram. Then, they re-arranged the problem diagram to an objective diagram which shows possible

countermeasures to solve the problems. The proposed core objective of the objective diagram was

“Maximize irrigated area through the optimization of irrigation water distribution based on agreement and

mutual understanding among stakeholders”, but the workshop participants changed the core objective to

“Optimize water use for reliable year-round irrigation”. That is to say, the orientation to improve the

current irrigation state in Terai region has been changed from “expansion of irrigated area” to “reliable

year-round irrigation”.

Figure 5-2-1 is the objective diagram formulated through discussion by the participants. The figure shows

the overall goal on the leftmost side, and means to attain it are developed to the right-hand side. In

addition, it shows the applicability to FMIS and JMIS as well as possibility of implementation/assistance

by GON, WUAs, donors and NGOs as a matrix: the code “Y” indicates “applicable”.

In order to optimize water use for reliable year-round irrigation, the participants pointed out the necessity

of capacity building of DOI staff and beneficiary farmers, improvement of O&M and construction

including rehabilitation of existing facilities. Since the construction most likely becomes out of scope of

the JICA-TCP, the following explains the other two necessities.

Capacity Building: it is necessary to strengthen the functions and roles of IMD, inclusive of its

review, so that IMD is able to give technical assistance and advices to DOI field staff and farmers

and also to make stronger cooperative relationship with them25.

O&M26: possible activities are the calculation of crop water requirements as well as irrigation

requirements based on such crop water requirements, the formulation of water allocation plan

based on available water volume and an improvement of water management by both GON and

WUAs27.

5-3 Challenges and Countermeasures Based on Field Survey and Workshop

Challenges recognized through field surveys and pointed out in the workshop are tabulated in Table 5-3-1

item by item. There are 9 items and they are: (a) Implementation of O&M; (b) Diversification of water

sources; (c) Construction of irrigation facilities; (d) ISF Collection; (e) Maintenance Plan; (f)

Organizational management; (g) Technical assistance in water management; (h) Agriculture; and (i)

25 Trainings that IMD conducts for WUA members are demand-basis, that is, DOI gives them trainings that they request. Training that they

request are supposed to be on-farm water distribution, water distribution in the farm plot including crop water management, ISF collection

method, etc. 26 The O&M here means not only the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities but also the water management in the Irrigation

Systems. 27 In a JMIS, FIMD (DOI) estimates the crop water requirement and the demand of irrigation water and explains them to the WUAs, so that the

WUAs and FIMD can reach an agreement through discussion. In accordance with the agreement, FIMD should deliver the water to the WUAs. In

the areas managed by the WUAs, the water is distributed in accordance with the estimate made by FIMD, due to the technical constraints of the

WUAs. For the Kankai Irrigation System, the IWRMP consultants employed by WB developed a computer program to calculate water

requirement for each crop and the demand of irrigation water. FIMD in charge of the Irrigation System calculates the water requirement by

utilizing the computer program.


5-3 JICA

Expansion of irrigation services. As for the first 3 items ((a), (b) and (c)), it is assumed that GON will take

care of them, while for the remaining 6 items ((d), (e), (f), (g), (h) and (i)), there is a possibility to be

addressed through the implementation of the JICA-TCP.

The primordial precondition for the target areas for the JICA-TCP is that the irrigate facilities are

functioning and to make this precondition meets, whether the amount of ISF is appropriate or not would

be a possible challenge. It is confirmed that in those irrigation systems where the facilities are constructed

and maintained, the ISF collection rates are high, yet the amount of ISF is still lower (0.2 to 0.6%. Refer

to 5-4-2 Pilot Project Site of JICA-TCP) than the cases in other countries as a fact (3 to 4% in the

Philippines and Myanmar). It is recommended to set an appropriate amount so as to put a sustainable

maintenance mechanism of the irrigation system in place.

The development of a maintenance plan is necessary to take stock of all the facilities, including those at

the plot level, within the command areas of WUAs, and may be in a high priority for WUAs, although its

priority cannot be high for individual water users. On the other hand, those individual water users put a

high priority in the technical assistance in the water management, since techniques to make water reach

each beneficiary will be acquired by addressing this item. The organizational management and agriculture

are the items prioritized following to the technical assistance in the water management.


DOI, MOI 5-4

Figure 5-2-1 Objective Analysis and Countermeasures & Activities for Irrigation Improvement Source: Survey team

(5) Capacity enhancement of

IMD staff and other DOI staff

through workshops and field

training.

Y N

(12) Construction of drainage

facilities

(33) Establishment/improvement of drainage

systems for the medium/large scale projects in

plain area.

Y Y Y Y Y Y

N

N

N

(27) Introduction of new technology for

increasing irrigation efficiencyY Y Y Y Y Y N

(10) Enhancement of technical

support to DOI field staff and

WUAs for water management

(26) Improvement of on-farm irrigation system

(34) Enhancement of construction of on-farm

irrigation and drainage systemY Y Y Y Y Y Y

Y Y Y Y

N

Y Y N

STW： Shallow Tube Well

IMD：Irrigation management Division

ISF:： Irrigation Service Fee

DTW： Deep Tube Well

Y

(32) Construction of water-regulating structures Y Y Y Y Y

YY

Y N

(31) Introduction of new technology for

increasing irrigation efficiencyY Y Y Y Y Y

(30) Construction of on-farm irrigation system

Construction (4) Construction of irrigation and

drainage infrastructure

(11) Construction of irrigation

facilities

(29) Newly installation of tube-well as water

source.Y Y Y Y

(28) Maintenance of water-regulating structures Y Y Y Y

Y Y Y Y Y Y

(25) Change the mind set of farmers regarding

irrigation water as economic commodityY Y N Y N

(24) Establishment/update of asset management

of irrigation facilities.Y Y Y Y Y Y N

N N

N N Y

(23) Enhancement of improvement of ISF

collection mechanism, including periodical

auditing system.

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

(17), (18) & (20): Utilization of

groundwater will be out of scope, if

surface water is sufficiently available. (9) Improvement of concept on

tariff management for ISF.

(22) Improvement of concept on application of

fine clauses to violators of WUA member.Y Y Y Y

[ NOTE ] (21) Maintenance (dredging) of existing

reservoirs as water sourceN Y Y Y

(20) Maintenance of existing DTWs & STWs Y Y Y Y Y Y N

Y Y N

Y Y Y N N

(1)Optimize water use for

reliable year-round irrigation. (19) Use of reservoirs Y Y Y Y Y N N

Operation and

Maintenance(3) Improvement/ preparation of

water management plan based

on crop water requirement,

irrigation demand and water

availability

(8) Enhancement of conjunctive

use with groundwater and

existing reservoirs/ponds.

(17) Use of dug wells & ponds Y N

Y Y

(16) Capacity enhancement of IMD and other

DOI field staff on technical support to WUAs for

on-farm irrigation water management through

workshops and field training.

Y Y Y N Y Y N

Y Y Y N N

(18) Use of STWs & DTWs Y Y

Y N Y N

Y Y Y

(7) Enhancement of on-farm

irrigation managemnet capability

(15) Enhancement of technical support for on-

farm irrigation water management to WUAs

through workshops and field training.

Y Y Y Y Y

(14) Capacity enhancement of water users for

organizational operation of WUA through

workshops and field training.

Y Y Y Y

Causes that year -round irrigation does not expand are:[1] Surface water is not available enough for cultivation in winter and spring → Possible solutions: (18) (29)[2] Inequity on water distribution amomg WUA members → Possible solutions: (12) (14)[3] Farmers make lands fallow → Possible solutions: n.a.[4] Water is available but its delivery and/or utilization are not efficient → Possible solutions: (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (19) (22) (23) (25)[5] Lack of water control facilities at the on-farm level → Possible solutions: (29) (30) (31) (32) (27)[6] Malfunctioning and/or disabled irrigation facilities → Possible solutions: (20) (21) (26) (27) (28) (31) (32)[7] Seepage loss from unlined canals → Possible solutions: canal lining

(6) Capacity building of

organizational operation for

WUAs

Construction/ rehabilitation to beout of scope of JICA'scooperation

NGO

Capacity Building (2) Improvement of roles and

functions of IMD to provide

technical support /advices and

strengthening of linkage among

all stakeholders

(12) Providing countermeasures through

identifying the reasons why the farmers do not

follow rules for regular monitoring plan on

irrigation system.

Y Y Y Y Y

FMIS JMISGON/DOI

WUADonor(Fin)

Donor(Tech)

N N

(13) Development/updating of Canal

Maintenance Plan & Canal Operation PlanY Y Y


5-5 JICA

Table 5-3-1 Challenges Identified through Field Visits, Challenges Recognized in the Workshop and Possible Countermeasures

Item Challenges identified through field visits

Challenges recognized in the workshop Possible countermeasures

(a) Implementation of O&M

1) Countermeasures against sediments

20) Maintenance of existing DTWs & STWs 21) Maintenance (dredging) of existing reservoirs as water source 28) Maintenance of water-regulating structures

Profound upgrading of water intake facilities of JMIS, including construction of settling basin, except for Kankai Irrigation System

(b) Diversification of water sources

17) Use of dug wells & ponds 18) Use of STWs & DTWs 19) Use of reservoirs 29) Newly installation of tube-well as water source.

Construction after investigating possibilities of new water sources

(c) Construction of irrigation facilities

30) Construction of on-farm irrigation system 31) Introduction of new technology for increasing irrigation efficiency 32) Construction of water-regulating structures 33) Establishment/improvement of drainage systems for the medium/large

scale projects 34) Enhancement of construction of on-farm irrigation and drainage system

Construction by GON and construction of some on-farm irrigation facilities by JICA-TCP

(d) ISF Collection

2) ISF Collection 22) Improvement of concept on application of fine clauses to violators of WUA member.

23) Enhancement of improvement of ISF collection mechanism, including periodical auditing system

25) Change the mind set of farmers regarding irrigation water as economic commodity

The implementation is possible within the framework of JICA-TCP. However, it may be difficult to get an agreement from those farmers who have never benefitted from the irrigation water. The proportion of ISF to the gross income per unit area is lower than that in similar cases in other countries.

(e) Maintenance Plan

3) Formulation of maintenance plan

12) Providing countermeasures through identifying the reasons why the farmers do not follow rules for regular monitoring plan on irrigation system.

13) Development/updating of Canal Maintenance Plan & Canal Operation Plan24) Establishment/update of asset management of irrigation facilities.

Implementation of Technical Cooperation

(f) Organizational management

14) Capacity enhancement of water users for organizational operation of WUA through workshops and field training.



DOI, MOI 5-6

Item Challenges identified through field visits

Challenges recognized in the workshop Possible countermeasures

(g) Technical assistance in water management

4) Equitable water distribution within the on-farm area, which is the area where WUA manages water

5) Technical assistance for water management within the on-farm area (on-farm water management)

15) Enhancement of technical support for on-farm irrigation water management to WUAs through workshops and field training.

16) Capacity enhancement of IMD and other DOI field staff on technical support to WUAs for on-farm irrigation water management through workshops and field training.

26) Improvement of on-farm irrigation system (facilities and water management)

27) Introduction of new technology for increasing irrigation efficiency


(h) Agriculture 6) Improvement of Farming Implementation of Technical Cooperation (i) Expansion of

the Irrigation Service

7) Year-round irrigation 1) Optimize water use for reliable year-round irrigation. This is the goal when all of the above countermeasures are completed.

Note: The numbers of item listed in the column of “Challenges identified through field visits” are consistent with those put to the challenges listed in Section 5-1 “Challenges Identified in the Field”. The numbers of item shown in the column of “Challenges recognized in the workshop” are consistent with those put to the countermeasures proposed in Figure 5-2-1 to each of the challenges identified in the workshop. Source: Survey team


5-7 JICA

5-4 Targets of Technical Cooperation and Possible Activities

As summarized in Table 5-3-1, the 5 items, which are ISF collection, maintenance plan, organizational

operation and technical assistance of maintenance, can be possible activities of JICA-TCP. Then, the

prerequisite to be candidate sites of the JICA-TCP is existence of irrigation systems where fundamental

canal structures and irrigation facilities are functioning. The examination and concrete challenges of

JICA-TCP candidate JMISs are presented below.

5-4-1 Candidate Irrigation Systems (JMISs)

The workshop participants have nominated the following 5 irrigation systems for the JICA-TCP pilot

project: Chandra Nahar, Bagmati, Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater, Praganna Kulo and Patharaiya.

Meanwhile, the irrigation system that IMD recommends is Kankai irrigation system.

Table 5-4-2 tabulates the current states of those 6 irrigation systems, including Kankai, in terms of

hardware and software. In addition, Table 5-4-3 summarizes history and challenges of each irrigation

system. Here, it is reasonable to remove Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater and Patharaiya from the

JICA-TCP candidate sites because of the following reasons.

1) Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater Irrigation System

This is the pumping irrigation system whose water source is DTWs. Some pumps are needed to be

replaced. JICA-TCP should target surface water irrigation systems that DOI puts higher priority than

groundwater ones.

2) Patharaiya Irrigation System

This requires a major rehabilitation/upgrade of the entire system, that is, irrigation facilities from the

headworks, through the main, secondary and tertiary canals to on-farm irrigation systems at the tail. It

would require a significant amount of finance and 3 -5 years for the construction works.

Now, there are 4 candidate sites remaining: Kankai, Chandra Nahar, Bagmati and Praganna Kulo. The

water sources of these 4 systems are perennial rivers. Namely, water is available even in the dry season. It

is reasonable to select the pilot project site from these 4 systems. As for these 4 systems, the Survey team

gave scores to those 4 systems in terms of necessity of rehabilitation, water source, possibility of

irrigation during the dry season, number of canals and ISF collection rate. As a result, Kankai and

Bagmati have got high scores followed by Chandra Nahar and Praganna Kulo (Table 5-4-4).

5-4-2 Pilot Project Site of JICA-TCP

Irrigation systems that JICA-TCP should target were identified to be Kankai, Chandra Nahar, Bagmati

and Praganna Kulo. In accordance with scoring shown in Table 5-4-4, Kankai and Bagmati have higher

priority than the other two systems. The table below shows outlines of these 4 systems. The command

areas of Kankai and Bagmati are 8,000ha and 45,600ha respectively, and the beneficiary households of

Kankai and Bagmati are approximately 11,000 and 32,600. In addition, the average farm-holding sizes of

Kankai and Bagmati are very different. Whereas the former is 0.73ha, the latter is 1.40ha.


DOI, MOI 5-8

Table 5-4-1 Specifications of Candidate Sites of Pilot Project

Item Irrigation System Kankai Chandra Nahar Bagmati Praganna Kulo

Main Canal Nos. 1 1 2 5#1 Length (km) 36 31 48.2 56

Secondary Canal Nos. 22 12 6 － Length (km) 74 43 112 150

Tertiary Canal Nos. 287 237 21 － Length (km) 110 31 122.4 71

Irrigation Area (ha) 7,000 Irrigable area (rainy season)

10,000 Irrigable area (rainy season)

37,600 Command

Area

5,800 Irrigable area (rainy season)

Beneficiary Households 11,000 30,000 27,000 3,900 Avg. Holding Size (ha) 0.64 0.33 1.40 1.50 ISF (a) Rs/ha/crop 300Rs/0.66ha n.a. n.a. n.a. Rs/ha/year (a) n.a. n.a. 600 600 Monsoon Paddy (MS)

Yield（t/ha） 3.8 3.6 4.5 3.4

Farm gate price (Rs/kg)

25 22 Self- consumption

20

Income (Rs) (b) 95,000 79,200 99,000 68,000 (a)/(b) for the MS % 0.3 0.2#2 0.6 0.49

#1 Including canals from seasonal rivers #2 Assuming 60 Rs./ha/crop (ISF of 3 years ago) Source: IMD and DOI

5-4-3 Current State of Candidate Irrigation Systems

Tables 5-4-5 and 5-4-6 show challenges and countermeasures of Kankai and Bagmati Irrigation Systems,

which are prioritized candidate sites. The targets of technical cooperation are 1) DOI engineers, including

FIMD staff and 2) WUA members. Meanwhile, the following are recognized as contents that should be

implemented in technical cooperation: efficient water management plan and implementation of on-farm

water management. Most farm plots are delivered water by plot-to-plot irrigation, but a watercourse was

found in Bagmati, where a pipe is installed between the tertiary canal and the watercourse so that water

flows into the watercourse (Figure 5-4-3). Since the watercourse enables water users to irrigate farm plots

respectively, the irrigation efficiency is improved. It is recommended that FIMD staff disseminates this

practice. In addition, it is confirmed that WUA members are willing to pay ISF.

Figure 5-4-1 Tertiary canal and PVC pipe to take water off to the watercourse (left) and watercourse (right) in Bagmati

Source: Survey team

PVC pipeTertiary canal

Watercourse


5-9 JICA

Table 5-4-2 Current States of Hardware and Software of Candidate Irrigation Systems

Candidate Irrigation System

Hardware (Y: Necessary, N: Not necessary) Necessity of Improvement

Software (Y: Necessary, N: Not necessary) Necessity of Improvement

Remarks Headworks &

Main Canals

Branch/ Secondary

Canals

Tertiary canals & On-farm Systems

Headworks &

Main Canals

Branch/ Secondary

Canals

Tertiary canals & On-farm Systems

Kankai N#1 N Y#2 Y Y Y #1: The Maintenance of weir has been already scheduled. #2: Field ditches are necessary to be made

Chandra Nahar N N Y Y Y Y GON shoulders the maintenance costs of main canals, branch canals and other hardware.

Bagmati N N Y Y Y Y GON shoulders the maintenance costs of main canals, branch canals and other hardware.

Praganna Kulo N N Y Y Y Y GON implements the maintenance of main canals, branch canals and other hardware.

Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater Y N N Y Y Y Some pumps need to be replaced.

Patharaiya Y Y Y Y Y Y GON shoulders the maintenance costs of main canals, branch canals and other hardware.

Source: IMD and field visit survey

Table 5-4-3 Outlines of Candidate Irrigation Systems Candidate

Irrigation System Outline

Kankai

It was designed by a Japanese consulting company in 1970s, and rehabilitated by IWRMP. There is a settling basin built between the diversion on Kankai river and the intake of the main canal. The length of the main canal is 36km, of which 11.5km is concrete-lined. The WUA has been reorganized by IWRMP. The crop water requirement is estimated by the Penman-Monteith method so as to decide the irrigation requirement. It is an irrigation system for spring rice cultivation. Therefore, Kankai-system farmers are not as active in vegetable cultivation as farmers of other irrigation systems.

Chandra Nahar

It was constructed nearly 100 years ago. Since then, no major rehabilitation was implemented. Some facilities are disabled and DOI is carrying on rehabilitation. WUAs have been established from the main-canal level to the tertiary-canal level. The WUA main committee has cadasters and design drawings. No irrigation facilities are handed over to WUA at present because the facilities are dilapidated and needs rehabilitation and WUA does not agree.

Bagmati

It is possible to operate the barrage during the blackout because there is a generator in case of emergency. Canal structures such as cross-regulators are under rehabilitation, supported by Saudi Funds for Development (SFD). FIMD is currently carrying on IMT while rehabilitating canal structures as well as developing its command areas. Tertiary-canal-level WUAs are established where the command area has been developed, and the establishment of secondary-canal-level WUAs is in progress.


DOI, MOI 5-10

Candidate Irrigation System Outline

Praganna Kulo

It is located on the right-bank side of Rapti river at the foot of the Hill area of Nepal. There are significant sediments on the river bed. The river is perennial and 300m wide at the location. Neither diversion dam nor barrage is built. There are 3 side intakes on the right riverbank, and each side intake has a main canal. The irrigable area is 5,800ha. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd intakes irrigate 500ha, 4,400ha and 900ha, respectively. In addition, there are 2 more main canals which take water at 2 weirs on 2 seasonal rivers in the command area. Each main canal of the aforementioned 3 main canals has WUA main committee, and there is a WUA joint committee in order to coordinate those 3 WUAs. DOI/FIMD is responsible for O&M of side intakes and main canals as well as channeling the riverbed by excavator so that river water flows to the side intakes. The system used to be 3 FMISs that are more than 100 years old, and DOI developed them to the larger irrigation systems. The joint management has begun since 2005. In this regard, the WUAs are still operated by their traditional rules. Actually, it is an aggregation of 3 different irrigation sub-systems. Therefore, JICA-TCP will have to pay attention to all of the 3 sub-systems so that economic disparity of farm households among the 3 sub-systems does not enlarge, if JICA-TCP targets Praganna Kulo Irrigation System. The WUA joint committee does not mean unification of the 3 WUAs.

Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater

It is a groundwater irrigation system in Rupandehi district. The 22-year construction works ends in 1999, and 181 DTWs are built. However, 12 DTWs out of 181 are now inactive. The remaining 169 DTWs irrigate 20,309ha, but some of them are necessary to be replaced. The groundwater-pumping irrigation is significant affected by electric supply: pumps do not work during blackout. Not only Rupandehi district but also nationwide districts are suffering from blackout of nearly 12 hours per day. Even if electricity is supplied, the voltage is lower than standard because demand is high and exceeds supply. Consequently, the operation efficiency of pumps is not good.

Patharaiya It is necessary to rehabilitate headworks, main canals, secondary canals, tertiary canals and lower level canals. Rehabilitation of these facilities must be finished till the soft component focusing on on-farm water management begins

Source: IMD and field visit surveys

Table 5-4-4 Scoring to Select Irrigation Systems for JICA-TCP

Irrigation System (See the figure below)

a. Necessity of rehabilitation b. Water source

c. Water intake during the dry

season

d. Number of main canals and WUAs

e. ISF collection state TOTAL

Kankai 5 5 5 5 5 25 Chandra Nahar 3 5 5 5 1 19 Bagmati 5 5 5 3 5 23 Praganna Kulo#2 5 5 3 2 3 18 Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater #1

0 0 5 0 5 10

Patharaiya#3 0 5 5 n.a. n.a. 10 Source: Survey team


5-11 JICA

Scoring a. Necessity of rehabilitation: Less (5 pts.) ↔More (0 pts.) b. Surface water (5 pts.), Groundwater (0 pts.) c. Groundwater (5 pts.), Perennial river (4 pts.), Reservoir (3

pts.), Seasonal river (0 pts.) d. 1 main canal & 1 WUA (5 pts.), 2 main canals and 2 WUAs,

each on the right and left bank sides (3 pts.), 3 main canals and 3 WUAs (2 pts.)

e. Collection rate: Higher (5 pts.) ↔Lower (0 pts.)

#1 There are 64 main canals. ISF collection rate is assumed very high because it is a pumping irrigation system.

#2 ISF collection rate is supposed around 50% based on interview to Chief Divisional Engineer of the system.

#3 Detailed information was not available.


DOI, MOI 5-12

Table 5-4-5 Challenges and Possible Activities in Kankai Irrigation Systems # Current Challenges Possible Activities in JICA-TCP Targets Expected Outcomes1 A There is no maintenance plan of

headworks, main canal and secondary canals

Support that FIMD formulates maintenance plan, rehabilitation plans (incl. periodic inspection) of water intake and conveyance facilities as well as budget plan to implement them.

FIMD staff Other DOI staff

It is able to know facilities to be managed, and Maintenance is carried out timely and properly, and it

is possible to avoid becoming malfunctioning due to lack of budget.

2 A There is no maintenance plan of

tertiary canals Support that WUAs formulate maintenance

plan, rehabilitation plans of on-farm irrigation facilities as well as budget plan to implement them

WUA members FIMD and other

DOI staff (Training of Trainers: ToT)

It is able to know facilities to be managed, and WUA becomes able to maintain on-farm facilities

timely and properly, without relying on GON.

3 A Tail-end farmers in the on-farm area

do not receive water because upstream farmers take water more than allocated volume.

Support irrigation practice by rotation such as irrigating from the tail-end plot towards upstream and cropping, and

Give guidance on reviewing proper irrigation requirement.


DOI staff (ToT)

Equitable irrigation is practiced in the on-farm area, The amount of ISF collected increases, and Irrigated area in the spring crop season increases.

4 B Since the farm plot surface is uneven.

Such plot needs extra water. Implement leveling of farm plots (implement

in demonstration plot.) WUA members DADO and DOA

staff (ToT)

Water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved, and then irrigated area increases particularly in the spring crop season.

5 B Since the plot-to-plot irrigation is the

dominant practice, extra irrigation water is needed and, at the same time, drainage problems take place.

Develop watercourses and farm ditches in the on-farm area so that each plot receives water from watercourses/farm ditches.


DOI staff (ToT)

Water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved, and then irrigated area increases particularly in the spring crop season, and

Farm plots with drainage problems decease. 6 C WUA members hope for technical

trainings of rice cultivation, but DOA has not yet tackled it.

Demonstrate paddy cultivation, Give training of fertilizer application level and

methods, and Give training of seed production.

WUA members DADO and DOA

staffs(ToT)

Water use for low-land paddy cultivation is improved, Since fertilizer is costly, farmers can reduce the

production costs by learning how to use fertilizer properly, and

It is expected that quality seeds make yields increase.

7 C The ISF collection rate is 70% at

present, and the WUA seek to raise the collection rate and the fee. However, the decrease of the collection rate is feared due to raise in fee.

Give guidance on proper ISF (money amount), how to calculate it and how to charge it, and

Support formulation of a reporting system of maintenance plan, the amount of ISF collected and expense to WUA members.


DOI staff (ToT）

WUAs stop relying on GON for costs of WUA activities (operation, maintenance and management) and,

The revenue of WUA becomes stable because the feeling of unfairness on charging ISF decreases within WUA.

#) A: Most Important, B: Important, C: As necessary

Source: Survey team


5-13 JICA

Table 5-4-6 Challenges and Possible Activities in Bagmati Irrigation Systems (Hearing from the GAR2 Tertiary-canal-level WUA) # Current Challenges Possible Activities in JICA-TCP Targets Expected Outcomes1 A There is neither maintenance plan nor

rehabilitation plan of on-farm irrigation facilities.

Support that WUAs formulate maintenance plan, rehabilitation plans of on-farm irrigation facilities,

Support financial resource planning to implement the above plans, and

Support formulation of recording system of implementation and reporting system.

WUA members DOI officers

including the FIMD officers (TOT)

WUA becomes able to maintain on-farm facilities timely and properly, without relying on GON, and

The reliability of irrigation becomes better.

2 A Peon (employee of WUA), who distribute

water in the on-farm area, measures nothing on water delivery, and also takes no record of water delivery.

Give guidance to Peon so that he is able to give proper amount of water to each plot, and

Support that farmers gain knowledge about proper amount of irrigation water so that they do not instruct Peon to over-irrigate.


DOI staff (ToT）

Water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved and,

Thereby, system-wide water use efficiency is improved.

3 B Irrigation facilities are not developed in

the on-farm area. (Water distribution is not efficient because water is controlled by embanking and cutting soil banks, which needs excessive works.)

Give technical guidance of how to build division boxes by a participatory way; division boxes are placed in the on-farm area.


DOI staff (ToT）

The accuracy of water diversion is improved. Thereby water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved.

The workload of Peon is reduced. Subsequently the efficiency of water distribution is improved.

4 B Since the farm plot surface is uneven.

Such plot needs extra water. Implement leveling of farm plots (implement in

demonstration plot.) WUA members DADO and DOA

staff (ToT）

Water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved, and then irrigated area increases particularly in the spring crop season.

5 C Since the plot-to-plot irrigation is the

dominant practice, extra irrigation water is needed.

Develop watercourses and farm ditches in the on-farm area so that each plot receives water from watercourses/farm ditches directly.


DOI staff (ToT）

The loss of water due to deep percolation decreases during water distribution. Thereby, water use efficiency in the on-farm area is improved, and then irrigated area increases particularly in the spring crop season.

6 C There is no repair record of the tertiary

canals. (FIMD has a record if it supported WUA to repair the tertiary canal.)

Give guidance to WUAs so that they make records of repair.


DOI staff (ToT）

It becomes possible to identify spots where repair works implemented frequently from the repair records and to select spots where radical countermeasures (upgrade) should be implemented.

7 C The ISF collection rate is 60-70% at

present, and the WUA seek to raise the collection rate and the fee. However, the decrease of the collection rate is feared due to raise in fee.

Give guidance on proper ISF (money amount) , how to calculate it and how to charge it, and

Support formulation of a reporting system of maintenance plan, the amount of ISF collected and expense to WUA members.


DOI staff (ToT）

WUAs stop relying on GON for costs of WUA activities (operation, maintenance and management) and,

The revenue of WUA becomes stable because the feeling of unfairness on charging ISF decreases within WUA.

8 C FIMD is working on WUA establishment

at the secondary-canal and tertiary-canal levels in Bagmati Irrigation System, but it is not getting along.

Support farmers so as to establish WUAs together with Bagmati IMD staff.

FIMD and other DOI staff (ToT）

Establishment of WUAs makes the management of Bagmati Irrigation System smoother.

#) A: Most Important, B: Important, C: As necessary

Source: Survey team


DOI, MOI 5-14

Figure 5-4-2 Layout of Kankai Irrigation System Source: Survey team

Canals with red color are secondary canals;

to be controlled by WUAs, to be cleaned by

GON with participation of WUAs’

The intakes connecting to the secondary canals are operated and maintained by WUAs.

The tertiary canals are

: Irrigation Rotation Boundary for Every Other Year


5-15 JICA

Figure 5-4-3 Layout of Bagmati Irrigation System Source: Survey team

WUAs for the secondary and tertiary canals have not yet been set up; under the process of establishment as of August 2016. The Main and secondary canals are operated, maintained, and cleaned by GON.


DOI, MOI 5-16

The outline of the Kankai Irrigation System can be summarized as follows:

Table 5-4-7 Reaches of the Kankai Irrigation System Construction Year Reach Secondary Canal Remarks

1971 – 1981 (Phase I)

I S0 – S1 A = 4,000 ha Main Canal L = 22.5km (All are Lining Canal)

II S3 – S5 III S6 – S8 IV S9 – S12

1980 – 1990 (Phase II)

V S13 – S21 A = 3,000 ha Main Canal L = 13.6 km

(Lining length: 700m) Source: KIMD and the WUA of the Kankai Irrigation System

There are 190 WUAs at the tertiary canal level, 22 at the secondary canal level and 5 block WUAs

established in the Kankai Irrigation System. Each block WUA consists of two representatives (one female

and one male) and therefore there are 10 representatives in total. At the top of the hierarchy of WUAs, a

main canal WUA is established with a total of 15 members, consisting of a president, a vice-president, a

secretary, a treasurer and the former president in addition to the 10 representatives from the block WUAs.

The president, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer are elected from the members of 190

tertiary canal level WUAs. Concerning the relation between the blocks and the reaches, the block 1 has

the reach I, the block 2 has the reaches II and III, the block 3 has the reach IV, and the block 4 plus the

block 5 constitute the command area of the reach V.

It is said that the total command area of the Kankai Irrigation System is 8,000ha. However, the irrigable

area is up to 7,000ha, and the current irrigated area is 5,500ha. The main crop to be irrigated during the

rainy season is paddy rice, and usually there is sufficient volume of water available. The maximum

discharge of the river in the rainy season is considered as 5,200m3/s., based on the record marked in 2011.

The delivery capacity of the main canal is 10.15m3/s, and all the command area of 7,000ha can be

irrigated in the rainy season. For the winter and spring seasons, the annual rotation method is applied

between the Reaches I, II, III, IV and the Reach V. The minimum discharge of the river in winter is

7.74m3/s, and it is seen as technically feasible that 50% of such a minimum discharge, namely 3.87m3/s of

water can be off-taken by the Kankai Irrigation System to irrigate up to 4,000ha.

Table 5-4-8 Actual irrigable areas and the targets of irrigated areas of the Kankai Irrigation System

Source: KIMD and WUA in the Kankai Irrigation System

According to the hearing from 14 out of the 15 representatives to the WUA at the main canal, the farmers

are used to produce paddy rice in the rainy and spring seasons, and leave the plots fallow in the winter

season. However, in recent years, DADO has been promoting the wheat production in the winter season

through the provision of a 50% of subsidy to seeds and fertilizers (including limes) to individual farmers.

Irrigation system Water source Means of water intake

Area (ha)

Command Area

Irrigable Area Rainy

season Winter Spring

Kankai Perennial River Diversion Weir 8,000 (1) Actual Irrigated Area 5,500 3,000 2,500

(2) Irrigable Area 7,000 4,000 4,000(3) Target Increased Area (= (2) - (1))

1,500

(+27%)1,000

(+33%) 1,100

(+44%)(4) Target Crop Rice Wheat Rice, Vegetables


5-17 JICA

This has contributed to an increase of the number of farmers who are engaged to the wheat production.

This DADO’s wheat promotion program has paid 5,000Rs./ha in cash to the farmers of model farm as an

incentive measure28. The model farm system was started with 50ha in 2015 and the area will be expanded

to 100 ha in the winter season of 2016/2017. Moreover, marketing support to match the farmers with

traders is planned to be commenced. The WUA is willing to expand the wheat production areas up to

1,000 -1,500ha with the understanding that the volume of irrigation water of their Irrigation System is

enough to do so.

The Constitution of the WUAs in the Kankai Irrigation System was developed for the first time 23 years

ago, and it has been revised six times so far. The latest amendment was given in September 2016 and

through which, it is stipulated that 40% of the representatives and especially the Treasurer of the WUA at

the main canal should be female. It was also added to the Constitution that 33% of the representatives and

members to the WUAs at the secondary and tertiary canals should be also female. Besides, to improve the

transparency in the accounting, the number of signers to deposit to and to withdraw from the bank

accounts is increased to two, so

that either the Secretary or the

Treasurer should also sign

checks or slips together with the

President. The amendment also

requires the disclosure of all

cash transactions and the

establishment of the audit

mechanisms. The consultation

and approval on the amendment

is carried out by 225

representatives, which are

consisting of the 181 existing

representatives and 2 more

ad-hoc representatives from

each of the WUAs at the

secondary canal.

Meanwhile, the Kankai Irrigation Management Division

(KIMD), an office of DOI, which is in charge of the

Kankai Irrigation System, has a total of eleven (11) staffs,

consisting of: two civil engineers (full-time and part-time),

two agriculture engineers (full- and part-time), one

assistant engineer (full-time), two administrative officers

and others three staffs.

In 2015, 1.4 million Rs. is collected annually as ISF in the

Kankai Irrigation System. The members should pay

28 According to the interviews with farmers, 5,000 Rs. per ha worked effectively as incentive and they were motivated to produce wheat.

Backhoe owned by the WUAs of the Kankai Irrigation System

251,000

386,201291,200

656,543

169,999

436,663373,500

675,000724,000

1,152,000

1,342,687

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

Irrigation ServiceFee (Rps)

Figure 5-4-4 ISF Revenue of Kankai WUA (2005/06-2015/16) Source: Kankai WUA


DOI, MOI 5-18

200Rs. per 0.66ha twice a year after each harvest. In other words, the ISF rate of this Irrigation System

was 400Rs./0.66ha/year. Since 2016, the rate was raised to cover the costs of O&M, and the members

now should pay 300/0.66ha/six months. ISF revenue has been increasing in recent years shown in Figure

5-4-4; it is reported that percentage of collected amount is 64% for whole WUA and that of irrigated area

reaches 90% or more. The share rates of the collected ISF between the WUAs and the GON are 90% and

10%, respectively. The share for the WUAs is again distributed among the WUAs at the different levels:

40% to the main canal level WUA, 20% to the secondary canal level WUAs, and the remaining 40% to

the tertiary canal level WUAs. When the collected ISF is insufficient for the implementation of activities,

the WUA can ask for support from KIMD. In 2015, KIMD disbursed 0.6 million Rs. for the maintenance

of the main canal of the Kankai Irrigation System.

Table 5-4-9 shows the distribution of roles between GON (DOI/IMD) and the WUAs in O&M and the

management of the Kankai Irrigation System. While Table 3-2-3 describes that DOI is responsible for

O&M of branch or secondary canals with the participation of WUAs as general rules, this rule does not fit

to the reality of the Kankai Irrigation System, where the O&M of the secondary canals are left to the

WUAs, while DOI takes care of O&M of only the main canal.

Table 5-4-9 Distribution of Roles in the maintenance works for the Kankai JMIS Canal Operated, Maintained and Managed by

Main Canals DOI (IMD) Secondary Canals

WUA Distributaries or Sub-Secondary Canals Tertiary Canals

WUA On-farm canals

GON provided one tractor, one backhoe and one threshing machine to the WUAs of the Kankai Irrigation

System in 2015 and the WUAs are responsible for the O&M of those machineries. The WUAs construct

the tertiary canals by using the backhoe and the construction budget disbursed by KIMD from the budget

allocated to the implementation of IWRMP, in order to cover the costs of earth work, fuel, labor,

transportation and wage for backhoe operators (500Rs./day) and watchmen. Regarding the establishment

of the tertiary canals from S17 to S21 of the Reach V, only 10% of the construction works has been

completed so far, which comprises the connections with the secondary canal and the water diversion gates.

The works of the Reach V shall be finished by 2018 and therefore, all the planned construction works for

the Kankai Irrigation System would be completed, though some of the tertiary canals from S0 to S16 may

remain incomplete. A comprehensive IMT of the Kankai Irrigation System is planned to be also

undertaken, once physical works are completed. Meanwhile, GON continues taking care of the water

management and cleaning of the main canal. The average height of sediment through the year is about

30cm.

Although most of the construction works of the tertiary canals from S0 to S16 have been finished, some

works still remain. KIMD has no plan to construct new tertiary canals, and has budgeted 0.6 million Rs.

for 2016 only to undertake maintenance works. KIMD will support the WUA in the maintenance works

by clarifying the priority among the secondary and tertiary canals. The structure of the tertiary canals is

simple enough so that they can be established manually.


5-19 JICA

KIMD employs gate keepers for operating the gates of

the secondary canals and measuring water discharge at

S0 – S16 and she/he measures the discharge three

times a day. A total of sixteen gate keepers engage the

works in the canals between S0 and S16 and earn 500

Rs. per day per person. One of the sixteen keepers

operates 2 gates. While the hired gate keepers operate

the gates which divert water to the secondary canals

from the main, the WUA members operates the lower

level canals by themselves.

The WUA affirmed that the canal S1 is always

recommended for a pilot project of any technical

cooperation. However, the canal S1 is already well maintained. Therefore, the WUA proposes other

canals which are not yet well maintained, such as S8, S17 and S18, whose maintenance is smoothly

managed, yet it would be better option that secondary, tertiary and on-farm canals are constructed in

poorly managed areas such as S8, S17 and S18, and then such models are disseminated to the other areas.

This needs further investigation.

5-5 Importance of System-wide Water Management

A series of activities aforementioned will contribute to “Optimize water use for reliable year-round

irrigation”. However, the perspective of the system-wide improvement of water management seems to be

a little bit missing in accordance with participants’ statements during the workshop. That may be because

that it was a workshop that targeted DOI staff, that is, they paid particular attention to capacity

strengthening on water management, organizational operation and crop water management by WUA.

However, it is essential to improve the system-wide irrigation efficiency so as to optimize water use.

The ADS aims at transferring the responsibility for O&M of principal facilities such as headworks and

main canals to WUAs in future. Of course, it depends on the size of irrigation systems, but it is obviously

infeasible in near future when

one thinks about the capability

of WUAs. As a result, the joint

management is the basic and

dominant management form,

which GON (DOI) takes

responsibility for O&M of

headworks, main canals and

large secondary canals (red

parts in the figure below) and

WUA manages smaller canals,

usually the tertiary and lower

level canals , down to the

farmland (blue parts in the

A tertiary canal in the Kankai Irrigation System

Figure 5-5-1 Conceptual Diagram of Joint Management Source: Survey team


DOI, MOI 5-20

figure below).

The joint management requires clear hydraulic borders between the government-managing area and the

WUA-managing area in the same irrigation system. Usually, the borders are drawn at the starting points

of tertiary canals. It is easy to make the hydraulic borders, because the head-regulators are installed in

the gates at the starting points of the tertiary canals. Accordingly, the GON’s role is to deliver the amount

of water agreed with WUA to the management interface, and WUA pays some money to GON in

exchange for the delivery service from ISF collected from the WUA members. Then, it is the WUA or/and

WUG that are in charge of water distribution amongst lower-level canals and on-farm water management

below the interface.

GON (DOI) has to distribute water to all the tertiary canals which are offtaking from the main canal, since

the WUAs are basically established at such level. The water should be distributed in accordance with the

areas to be irrigated and the cropping plans in an equitable manner. During the dry season when water is

not available enough, DOI has to distribute water in a volume reduced by a certain rate to all the canals

(to all the WUAs), in conformity with areas to be irrigated with the available volume of water.

In some cases, it may be necessary to impose a water distribution method that enhances the system-wide

irrigation efficiency. For example, first, water shall be delivered to the areas (the WUAs) at the tail of the

canal systems where tend to be suffered from water shortage. Once the ploughing and seeding are done,

water should be delivered to the next areas along with the tertiary canals. Thus the water is distributed

gradually by zoning starting from the farthest areas in the canal systems until all the areas are irrigated.

Based on the premise that irrigation facilities are in a condition to perform their minimum functions as

hardware, in order to improve the system-wise efficiency, it is necessary to support both GON and WUA

in their capacity development. It is indispensable for DOI to enhance the capability to manage water at

the headworks and main canals, because DOI has to deliver water equitably to every WUA, and it forms

the base for WUAs to develop their capacity to manage the command areas (the tertiary and lower level

canals) under their management. Thus, it is expected that the JICA-TCP implements activities concerning

the importance and improvement of the system-wide water management by GON, referring to the priority

activities identified in the workshop in which DOI staff participated.

5-6 Relevance of Contents Applied from GON

5-6-1 Background of the Application

GON has been implementing large scale irrigation development and irrigation system management for the

last several decades. At present, GON is trying to transfer the 25 main irrigation systems in Terai region to

WUA in accordance with the IMT policy. Once the IMT is completed, WUA takes responsibility for the

on-farm area below a branch canal in the irrigation system. Meanwhile, GON takes responsibility for

delivering irrigation water equitably to the most upstream point of the on-farm area that each WUA

manages.

However, such joint management is not functioning well so far. Accordingly, water is not necessarily

utilized efficiently. Even if water sources of some irrigation systems are perennial rivers and water is

available through the year, their irrigated area in the dry season (winter and spring) is limited to less than

half of the command area, or it is very little.


5-21 JICA

Under such circumstances, GON is intensively carrying on rehabilitation/upgrade of headworks and

conveyance systems (main canals, large branch canals) of the main irrigation systems, so as to improve

irrigation efficiency and expand the year-round irrigated area of the existing irrigation systems. Moreover,

GON (DOI) has acknowledged the importance of facility rehabilitation and water management in the

on-farm area, in order to improve water utilization within the existing irrigation system. Whereat, DOI

has applied for JICA-TCP, which contributes to the expansion of year-round irrigated area, focusing on

improvement of improvement of O&M and water management in the on-farm area.

5-6-2 Relevance of Objectives of the GON’s Application

The irrigation efficiency of the irrigation system consists of two efficiencies: conveyance efficiency and

application efficiency. The former is the efficiency of water conveyance from the water intake facilities to

the point where WUA starts water management with responsibility, and the latter is the efficiency of

applying water to farm plots. The former can be improved greatly by structural rehabilitation of canals

and/or by building water-control structures. On the other hand, what is important to improve the latter is

to supply the right amount of water to the effective root zone29 of crops in the right manner, taking crop

water requirement and loss of water into consideration. In other words, farmers need to learn so-called

“on-farm water management30”, which is the water management technologies in the on-farm area.

From the above viewpoints, the improvement of on-farm water management is a reasonable approach so

as to improve the application efficiency and expand the year-round irrigated area. However, the on-farm

water management has a limitation, which is that it does not necessarily improve the system-wide water

management or water use although it improves the irrigation efficiency within respective farm plots. It is

essential to involve water management including the water-conveyance process in order to enhance the

system-wide irrigation efficiency and increase year-round irrigated area.

Therefore, the improvement of on-farm water management is just the prerequisite to increase the

year-round irrigated area, but it cannot be the sufficient condition. The increase of the year-round irrigated

area requires the system-wide optimization of water management. That is, the optimization needs not only

WUA’s improving on-farm water management but also DOI’s improving water management on the

water-conveyance facilities and delivering water to WUAs equitably and timely.

29 This is a range of depth of soil where the plant roots can uptake soil moisture most effectively. 30 This means the distribution and utilization of water on crops within each of the farming plots in an effective and efficient way.

Figure 5-6-1 Image of the water management area at the on-farm canal level Source: Survey team

2ndary Canal

Tertiary Canal

On-farm Canals: appropriate management for proper irrigation water distribution is required.

Main Canal

The Management Area for Tertiary Canal Level WUA


DOI, MOI 5-22

5-6-3 Target Area

The irrigated farmlands in Terai region occupy 72.6% of the nationwide irrigated area. The production

amounts of paddy, wheat, pulses and vegetables in Terai region account for 78.6%, 64.1%, 76.6% and

58.1% of the nationwide production amounts, respectively. There are numerous FMISs (small and

medium scale irrigation systems) and 25 JMISs (large scale irrigation systems). Irrigated agriculture in

those FMISs and JMISs in Terai region is important from the viewpoint of the food security, and GON

has proposed Terai region as the target are of JICA-TCP. Thus, it is concluded that the JICA-TCP targets

irrigation systems scattered in Terai region.


5-23 JICA

5-6-4 Joint Management in the IMT Process

ADS aims at implementing the full IMT of less-than-10000ha JMISs (13 out of the 25 main systems in

Terai region). However, large facilities of those systems such as headworks, main canals and large branch

canals are currently under management of DOI. Accordingly, they are now jointly-managed by DOI and

WUA.

Irrigation systems under JMIS are large scale ones with large catchment area. Hence, it is difficult for

WUA to operate and maintain large facilities alone by WUA’s own funds and technologies. Then, it is

recommended that the joint management go on as a superior way of managing large scale irrigation

systems from now on, and that JICA-TCP does not implement the full IMT but the partial IMT for joint

management. As for more-than-10000ha irrigation systems, in addition, ADS intends to transfer more

reasonability to WUA than the present reasonability, in terms of facilities to be handed over. However,

what is of paramount importance is to establish a sustainable joint management at each system

corresponding to the capability of WUA, taking the sediment state into account.

Joint management firstly enables DOI to reduce the maintenance costs of irrigation systems, because

WUA takes responsibility of O&M in the on-farm area, including financial responsibility. As a result,

DOI becomes able to allocate budgets for O&M of principal facilities, rehabilitation necessary or new

projects. Moreover, it will be possible to improve the management system of the government responsible

portion of the JMIS, since FIMDs become able to employ more gate operators and/or other staff for the

O&M of main canals.

On the other hand, IMT imposes WUA to take heavier reasonability and more burdens of O&M.

Therefore, there must be benefits for WUA more than the burdens, or it is necessary that the feeling of

fairness, if any, must dissolve, so that WUA to agree to IMT. In fact, famers had not been satisfied with

irrigation services and the government had not been able to provide better irrigation services to farmers,

in many instances such as Mexico where IMT was implemented relatively smoothly.

As a result, IMT is likely to go successfully in many cases where WUAs are organized in an evolutional

manner by phasing, starting from the management at the farmland level, through that at the turn-out level

(by water users’ groups), and that at the tertiary canal. Such IMT is established based on the farmers’

initiative of doing by themselves because the government cannot do it. Besides, the organization of

WUAs can give peer pressure to upstream farmers’ groups, which take more water than they need, so as

to attain more equitable distribution of water within an irrigation system. .

There are many case studies of IMT, and the following is an example of such studies. The basic is to

make a win-win relationship between the government and farmers. At the first sight, it seems that the

government gains more profits than farmers do, e.g. maintenance cost reduction. But the WUA officially

established as an organization becomes able to demand water on an equal footing. The WUA becomes

able to duly complain to other WUAs in the same system, which takes excessive water, through the

government as mediator. Meanwhile, the government becomes able to concentrate on equitable water

distribution among all the WUAs (among all the tertiary canals) through enhanced gate operation on the

main canal.


DOI, MOI 5-24

Case study of IMT: FAO Water Reports No.32 Irrigation Management Transfer - Worldwide efforts and results (2007)

1) The table on the right-hand

side (Table 5-6-1) is a

series of IMT cases

investigated. The table

shows that IMT was

implemented at the field

canal level in 25 cases and

that it was implemented at

the distributary canal level

in 23 cases. That is, principal facilities such as headworks and main canals are under management

of the government in all of 48 cases. In other words, all cases are joint management. In accordance

with the case study, it is concluded that “WUAs have the potential to perform their basic functions

but that they need sustained training, consultation, support services and a proper legal basis in

order to enable them to function effectively”. It is also concluded from Figure 5-6-1 that “Right

IMT makes a reduction in the government O&M cost, but the farmers’ financial burden for O&M

does not necessarily increase after IMT.”

2) It was only 4 cases out of

the 43 cases that the

quality of maintenance has

deteriorated after IMT. All

of those 4 cases are

African countries, and the

government reduced the

financial contribution to

O&M drastically while

farmers could not

compensate the amount

reduced for O&M by the

self-pay burden. Thus, IMT was

not successful in those 4

countries.

3) The ISF collection rate went up

after IMT at 75% of irrigation

systems studied. This fact

implies that IMT has improved

the quality of irrigation water

delivery service. Figure 5-6-2

shows the transition of the ISF

Table 5-6-1 Area Where WUA is Responsible after IMT

Figure 5-6-1 Change of Expense for O&M after IMT

76%

43%

20%

37%

15% 11%

Figure 5-6-2 Transition of the Average IMT Collection Rate (Mexico, 2006)


5-25 JICA

collection rate of a successful case in Mexico, which is often cited as a successful one. The ISF

collection rate had kept declining before IMT, but it turned to go up after IMT.

4) The timeliness of irrigation

was obviously improved at 30

out of 39 cases studied (Figure

5-6-3). Farmers receive water

more timely after IMT, that is,

at the time closer to when they

want to irrigate before IMT.

Further, the equity of water

distribution was obviously

improved, too. In other words,

over-irrigation by upstream

farmers has decreased and tail-end farmers receive more water than before IMT.

5) The improvement of irrigation

water distribution normally

results in increased cropping

intensity and/or extended

irrigated area. The extension

of irrigated area has been

reported at 25 out of 39 cases

studied (Figure 5-6-4). In this

regard, it is very difficult to

identify causes of increased

crop yield because there are

many elements that have

influences on crop yield other

than water use improvement. For instance, sudden changes of crop yields can be caused by

elements related to neither cultivation technologies nor water use: e.g. political decisions. However,

crop yield increases after IMT have been reported at 21 out of 33 cases studied (Figure 5-6-4).

This result indicates the possibility that irrigation water delivery of the right amount at the right

time enhances crop yields. Then, enhanced crop yields have potential to increase farm income per

unit area and subsequently to improve the ISF collection rate.

5-6-5 Involvement of JICA-TCP in Future IMT Implementation by GON

Many IMT cases studied in the above have proved the possibility that IMT has effects on making water

distribution more proper, crop yield increase, farm income increase and enabling the government to

reduce the maintenance cost. In this regard, it should be noted that all of the cases were so-called “Partial

IMT” which transfers on-farm facilities only (e.g. tertiary canals, watercourses) to WUA, that is,

irrigation systems are under joint management after IMT.

Irrigation management is being transferred from DOI to WUA in accordance with the IMT policy that

Figure 5-6-4 Changes of Irrigated Area, Crop Yield and Farm Income through IMT

Figure 5-6-3 Changes of Timeliness and Equity of Water Distribution through IMT


DOI, MOI 5-26

GON has adopted as an irrigation management policy. In JMISs, watercourses and farm ditches have been

transferred to WUAs. The tertiary canals, sub-secondary canals and/or secondary canals have been also

transferred to WUA, although the situation varies from system to system.

In order to implement irrigation with a high system-wide efficiency while improving on-farm water

management requested by IMD of DOI, it is necessary to implement joint management at a high level,

which is established through partial IMT tailored to the size of the irrigation system. Consequently,

JICA-TCP needs to work on both DOI and WUA in order to implement joint management at a high level.

5-6-6 Target Irrigation Systems for the IMT Approach

The IMT policy was formulated in 1992, and it has been consistently a major policy of DOI since then

(Irrigation Policy 1992, 1997, 2003, 2013). Further, ADS intends to attain more efficient use of water in

both FMISs and JMISs, including the 25 main systems in Terai region, by 2035.

The total command area of 25 main irrigation systems accounts for 34.8% (331,644ha) of the total

irrigated area in Terai region. The average command area of the 25 main systems is 13,000ha, and the

remaining 65.2% (622,096ha) is the area irrigated by numerous FMISs scattered in Terai region. The

exact number of FMISs is unknown, but it is supposed that there are 3,000-6,000 FMISs, assuming the

average command area of FMISs is 100-200ha.

Partial IMT is in progress at the 25 JMISs. On the other hand, many FMISs have been originally

constructed by Farmers themselves. Accordingly, it is farmers who have the ownership of the irrigation

system and its O&M responsibility from the beginning. Thus, FMISs cannot be the target of IMT, and it is

reasonable that irrigation systems for the pilot project of JICA-TCP are selected from the 25 JMISs.

However, FMISs are supposed to have something to study in terms of cohesion, rules and organizational

operation of WUA.

According to DOI, the O&M of FMIS is good in many cases, compared to JMIS. That is probably

because (a) the irrigation facilities and WUA are much smaller scale compared to JMIS, (b) beneficiaries

live in the same village or in some nearby villages, that is, peer-pressure functions under such

circumstances, and it is easier to manage the irrigation system and operate WUA owing to the above (a)

and (b). Therefore, the O&M of FMISs are implemented more smoothly than those of JMISs.

However, assuming one of WUAs in a JMIS is equivalent to the WUA of a FMIS, the same

organizational rules as those of FMIS is applicable to WUAs in JMIS. Then, from this aspect, the idea of

study tour as a part of training occurs. Which to say, WUA members of the JMIS that JICA-TCP targets

visit a FMIS and learn organizational operation, etc. from the WUA of the FMIS. There are a number of

WUAs in a single JMIS. Coordination among WUAs should be eventually the responsibility of DOI,

which manages the main canal delivering water to those WUAs in the downstream31.

31 The tertiary-canal-level WUA registers to the secondary-canal-level WUA of the secondary canal that supplies water to the tertiary canal.

Likewise, the secondary-canal-level WUA registers to the main-canal-level WUA of the main canal that supplies water to the secondary canal.

Then, the main-canal-level WUA registers to GON (FIMD). The coordination among WUAs should be under the responsibility of the upper-level

WUA to which they register, and eventually it should be the responsibility of GON to which the main-canal-level WUA registers.


5-27 JICA

5-6-7 Contents of Technical Transfer that IMD-DOI Expects

The “Y” in the column of the “Donor (Tech)” column in Figure 5-2-1 indicates the necessity of technical

assistance by donor organizations, which DOI expects. JICA-TCP is able to cooperate in these technical

fields: (13), (14), (15), (16), (20), (21), (23), (24), (26) and (27) (highlighted in yellow). These technical

contents will contribute to the improvement of the system-wide O&M as well as on-farm water

management.

It is the prerequisite that GON implements rehabilitation/upgrade of facilities by its own funds if

necessary for JICA-TCP. Therefore, the JICA-TCP does not include the component of facility

rehabilitation/upgrade. JICA-TCP aims to increase the year-round irrigated area by capacity strengthening

of both DOI staff and WUAs and improvement of water management from the conveyance system to the

on-farm level.

5-6-8 Relevance of Applied Contents for JICA-TCP from GON

The table below summarizes what discussed in the workshop and contents of high priority found out

through interviews to IMD. Then, the relevance was examined, based on the above discussion, in terms of

objectives, approach, contents of technical transfer, etc. As a result, each of applied contents from GON is

necessary to increase year-round irrigated area through the improvement of the system-wide irrigation

efficiency. However, in addition to improvement of on-farm water management, it is desired to target the

entire system and strengthen the capability of FIMD/DOI staff working for irrigation system

management.

Table 5-6-2 Relevance of Contents that DOI Staff Applied for Cooperation Item Proposed Contents Relevance

Objective/ Challenge

Improvement of on-farm water management Improvement of the system-wide water management is necessary, too.

Yes, but not enough

Target Area Terai Region Yes Approach IMT

Improvement of a resultant joint management after IMT. Yes, but not enough

Target of IMT Primarily 25 JMISs followed by FMISs The target is the 25 JMISs, and FMISs are candidates of study tour as

a part of training.

Be modified

Method Pilot project and its dissemination Yes

Contents of Technical Transfer

On-farm water management improvement through capacity building and O&M improvement Improvement of the system-wide water management is necessary, too.

Yes, but not enough

Source: Survey team


6-1 JICA

Chapter 6 Proposed Approach of JICA’s Cooperation

6-1 Policies and Needs in the Irrigation Sector

The Irrigation Policy 2013, which forms the base for development policies for the irrigation sector of

Nepal, provides a vision for the implementation of year-round irrigation services and also highlights the

sustainable development of irrigation sector through effective water management and empowerment of

human resources. Meanwhile, ADS, the base for development policies for the agriculture sector,

illustrates the strategies for irrigation development with a comprehensive package of infrastructure and

capacity development for “Irrigation Area expanded equitably and viably, and improved Irrigation

Efficiency and Management”. One of such strategies aims at implementing IMT from GON to the WUAs

of the 32 government irrigation systems, including the JMISs in Terai region.

The Survey confirmed six measures to be taken to improve the functions of the JMISs in Terai region, as

follows: 1) an improvement on the ISF collection; 2) the formulation of an O&M plan of irrigation

facilities; 3) the equitable water distribution; 4) an enhancement of water management skills; 5) an

improvement of agriculture components; and 6) an expansion of year-round irrigated areas. Besides, a

core problem/objective of irrigation development in Terai region, which was identified in the workshop

held at the central-level, is stable year-round irrigation. It was also proposed in the same workshop to

achieve this through an improvement on the ISF collection, the formulation and implementation of an

O&M plan, the institutional development of WUAs, an enhancement of water management skills, etc.

These issues are acknowledged as needs of local communities and national policy.

Though both the Irrigation Policy 2013 and ADS aim at improving agricultural productivity and

production, the potential for an expansion of farmland in Nepal is low. Therefore, an increase of crop

productivity in the existing land areas would be necessary. To achieve it, an expansion of the irrigated

areas is considered as effective approach. According to ADS, the beneficiary areas of year-round

irrigation are estimated to occupy about 18% of the total irrigated area in Nepal as of 2016, while the

irrigated areas in Terai region cover 73% of the total irrigated areas of the county in 2011/2012. Thus, it is

obvious that a promotion of year-round irrigation in Terai region would lead to an improvement of the

productivity of farmlands at the national level. Thus, the need

for such a project is high.

On the other hand, the “Country Assistance Policy for Nepal”

formulated by GOJ in April 2012 targets “Poverty alleviation

in rural areas” as one of the priority areas of its assistance to

Nepal, and states that “Japan intends to increase the

agricultural productivity and farmers’ income by disseminating

agricultural technology and fostering farmers’ organizations”.

The Promotion of irrigated agriculture would contribute to an

increase of agricultural productivity and hence, farmers’

income. Thus, a JICA-TCP for the irrigation sector would be in

line with the aforementioned priority area of Japan’s assistance

policy.

Structure of the main irrigation systems in Nepal

The structure of irrigation systems in Terai region, Nepal, is similar to that in other countries. There are secondary and tertiary canals under the main canal, and the water is delivered to each farmland through turn-outs established on the tertiary canals. Usually, therefore, a WUA is established for each turn-out. In some cases, the secondary canals are not established and turn-outs are established directly on the main canal.


DOI, MOI 6-2

Under the above circumstances, DOI has applied for a technical assistance to Japan in May 2016, so as to

improve O&M of irrigation systems. The Survey team has confirmed with IMD through an interview that

the application prioritizes O&M, including the water management, at the on-farm32 level. In addition, in

the workshop held on 14 August 2016 at the DOI central office, the participating DOI staffs have also

prioritized the capacity development of WUAs, including the capacity development in the water

management at the on-farm level, so that beneficiary areas of year-round irrigation could be expanded.

DOI has been implementing IMT of 25 main irrigation systems in Terai region for years and applied for a

technical cooperation in form of JICA-TCP under such circumstances. As mentioned above, the priority is

put on the on-farm water management in accordance with the contents of the application and confirmation

through interviews. However, the system-wide approach is essential in order to improve water

management of the irrigation system as a whole and expand the year-round irrigated area. Therefore, the

technical cooperation through JICA-TCP has a large significance.

6-2 Proposed Cooperation Approach for an Improvement on the Irrigation O&M in Terai Region

It is proposed that the JICA-TCP which will be developed in response to the request from GON will adopt

the pilot approach which is illustrated in the aforementioned section “5-4 Targets of Technical

Cooperation and Possible Activities“. Relevant knowledge and technologies will be transferred to

stakeholders of the irrigation systems previously selected, and utilize such selected systems as models of

future dissemination. Based on lessons learnt drawn from the process and results of the technical transfer,

the knowledge and technology will be widely disseminated to stakeholders of other irrigation systems.

Through the workshop DOI gave a higher priority to the 25 main irrigation systems (JMISs) than to small

and medium scale irrigation systems (FMISs): the weighing given by the participants was JMIS : FMIS =

70% : 30%. Such a prioritization is actually reasonable because the FMISs are not the target of IMT, since

they are originally farmers’ property. Besides, the IMT of JMISs is more difficult due to the larger scale

of their facilities.

The IMT of Irrigation systems in Nepal is in progress, and that the existing JMISs are currently

jointly-managed by GON and WUAs. In order to “increase the year-round irrigated areas”, it is

indispensable to address the entire irrigation systems, by targeting both the GON staff who manage the

major facilities, such as the main canal, and the WUAs that manage the command areas (the tertiary and

lower level canals) by and large (See Table 3-2-3 Distribution of roles in JMIS and Table 5-4-9

Distribution of Roles in the Maintenance works in the Kankai JMIS)..

Based on all mentioned above, it can be proposed that the JICA-TCP will select JMISs and subsequently,

pilot areas from the selected JMISs, taking into account the criteria proposed in section “5-4 Targets of

Technical Cooperation and Possible Activities” and other factors, so that outputs of the JICA-TCP can be

disseminated to other irrigation blocks within the same selected JMISs.

32 The word “on-farm” means the area where WUA members manage irrigation water by themselves, including the inside of

respective farm plots where they grow crops,


6-3 JICA

The pilot areas of the JICA-TCP will be

visited by representatives from other

irrigation blocks and concerned

government officers at a later

dissemination phase. The WUAs and the

DOI officers (especially, community

organizers) whose capacity is developed

through the implementation of the

JICA-TCP are supposed to be in charge

of dissemination of the JICA-TCP

outputs to other blocks, by utilizing the

products of the same JICA-TCP: the

Joint Management Guidelines/Manual

for JMISs and the methodology to

replicate the joint-management system

in other places.

Table below shows possible contents of the JICA-TCP: objectives, outcomes, activities, external

conditions, etc. The project objective is proposed as that the year-round irrigated area of the targeted

irrigation system increases, which was indicated as the priority challenge by the workshop participants.

Under this objective, the project outcomes are classified into three categories: (a) outputs that GON staff

should accomplish; (b) outputs that WUAs should accomplish; and (c) outputs that both GON staff and

WUAs should accomplish, respectively, as table below shows.

Table below also shows the draft activities required to produce the outputs. . The activities are mainly

trainings. In this regard, it is not the JICA-TCP but GON staffs who give trainings to WUAs. The

JICA-TCP gives TOT (Training of Trainers) to GON staff so that they are able to give trainings to WUAs.

Namely, GON staff of the JICA-TCP pilot areas has to participate in the TOT for WUAs, in addition to

the trainings to improve on the water management at the principal facilities which should be under the

GON management.

Table 6-2-1 Outline of JIC-TCP (Irrigation Part Only)

Overall

Goal

Agricultural production increases in the target area.

Project

Goal

The year-round irrigated area of the targeted irrigation system increases

Outcomes GON (Managing entity of principal facilities) 1. DOI staff capacity on water management and facility maintenance are improved in the

GON-responsible portion where are principal irrigation facilities. 1.1 Facilities are sufficiently maintained in the GON-responsible portion where are principal irrigation

facilities, 1.2 Water is properly and equitably delivered to the command areas (the tertiary and lower level

canals) under the WUA’s management , and 1.3 The amount of money and its percentage that the WUA pays to GON out of ISF collected

increase.

Figure 6-2-1 Procedures of the pilot project approach Source: Survey team

JICA-TCP（Pilot

Project）

To select pilot areas (WUAs) from the JMISs selected from Terai region

Disseminationof outputs of the JICA-TCP

Dissemination by phasing to other areas within the same JMISs selected for the JICA-TCP

WUAs and DOI officers who have acquired therelevant knowledge and experience on the Joint Management of JMISs

Joint Managemnet Guidelines/Manual for JMISs

Methodology of dissemination ofoutputs of the JICA-TCP to other areas


DOI, MOI 6-4

WUA (Managing entity of the on-farm area) 2. WUA’s capacity on water management and facility maintenance are improved in the

on-farm area where WUAs manage water. 2.1 Facilities are sufficiently maintained in the on-farm area where WUAs manage water, 2.2 Water is properly and equitably distributed to lower-level WUGs within the command areas under

the WUA’s management (equitable distribution through main canal → secondary canals → tertiary canals →turn-outs),

2.3 The ISF is properly collected in accordance with the O&M plan, 2.4 On-farm canals including tertiary canals are developed, and 2.5 The application efficiency of the on-farm irrigation is improved. GON and WUA 3. A model site of joint-management is established 3.1 The Cooperation between GON and the WUAs is strengthened, 3.2 Irrigation water is delivered to the entire irrigation system as planned, and 3.3 A methodology to replicate the joint-management system in other places is established.

Activities FOR GON Staffs Who Manage Principal Facilities 1.1 Training on O&M of principal facilities, e.g. headworks and main canal, (lectures and practices), 1.2 Technical training on calculation of irrigation water requirement based on annual cropping plan#1,1.3 Technical training on water allocation planning at the main canal level in consideration of annual

water demand and available water amount at the water source#2, 1.4 Lectures and practices on rotational irrigation during drought period and for low-volume

irrigation#3, and 1.5 Lectures on the budgeting based on the facility maintenance plan #4. #1 It is important to calculate the irrigation water requirement based on the water requirement in depth when one calculates the irrigation water requirement of paddies. The Penman method (Penman-Monteith method) is not as accurate as the water-requirement-in-depth method, in order to calculate the irrigation water requirement of paddies, because the Penman method was originally established to calculate crop water requirement of upland crops.

#2 Prospective contents are technical trainings and practices of the gate operation to deliver required volume of water by season.

#3 In case where an irrigation system is operated with less volume of water than that originally designed at an early stage of crop growth, it is necessary to raise the canal water level by operating the cross-regulator and to provide the training on the application of rotational irrigation by grouping tertiary canals. On the other hand, in case of water shortage, such as drought, the prioritization in water delivery to seeding and planting in downstream areas shall be examined.

#4 Trainings are regarding estimation of annual costs necessary for maintenance, formulation of a realistic facility maintenance plan based on the amount of ISF collected in past years, considering possibility to raise ISF to compensate deficit, introduction of government subsidies, and so forth.

For WUA Members Who Manage the Command Area at the Tertiary and Lower level Canals 2.1 Training on the O&M Planning of part of the irrigation systems under the management of WUAs

(lectures and practices) 2.2 Workshops, lectures and practices to calculate a proper amount of ISF based on the O&M plan 2.3 Training to farmers on the planning of tertiary and on-farm canals (lectures and practices) 2.4 Training to farmers on the construction of tertiary and on-farm canals (lectures and practices) 2.5 Training in the water management for rice paddy fields through equitable water distribution

(rotation) within the areas under the management of WUAs (lectures and practices) #1. #1 Mutual agreement among the members of the WUAs should be supported on rotation of water for rice paddy so that the water can be first supplied to downstream areas where water shortage frequently occurs. NOTE: The JICA-TCP team does not directly give the above trainings, etc. to WUA members, but GON staff gives them to WUA members. Accordingly, GON staff needs to gain TOT trainings for WUA strengthening in addition to trainings and lectures concerning principal facilities.


6-5 JICA

For GON and WUA 3.1 GON and the WUAs together develop and share the O&M plan and the financing for the

implementation of the same plan 3.2 GON and the WUAs together develop the irrigation plan of the entire irrigation system including the

tertiary and on-farm canals 3.3 GON and the WUAs together develop guidelines and manuals for the joint management by IMT

through the implementation of pilot projects.

External Conditions

N/A

Source: Survey team

The farmers who are members of the WUAs for the selected pilot areas are required to contribute to the

JICA-TCP in forms of the payment of ISF, labor and time. The farmers’ contributions are actually

indispensable for O&M and the water management of the concerned JMISs, and are required even after

the termination of the JICA-TCP. It is, therefore, important that an incentive mechanism for farmers to

continuously make contributions in forms of the payment of ISF, labor and time, is institutionalized into

the JICA-TCP framework. The figure below shows the incentive mechanism which the JICA-TCP may

aim at.

The knowledge and skills on the water management and O&M which will be transferred to the WUA

members through the implementation of the JICA-TCP will surely work as incentive for farmers.

However, in order to ensure continuous contributions from farmers, improved and stable agricultural

income should be sought. The objective of the JICA-TCP, expanded year-round irrigated areas would

directly lead to an increase of agricultural income, first of all, it is important to attain the project objective

through the implementation of the JICA-TCP.

Project objective

Incentive for farmers

Increase in the year-round irrigated areas

Improved and stable agricultural income/ Increased number of farmers whose agricultural income has been improved

Acquitance of relevant knowledge and skilss on cultivation and agricultural business

Optimization of the collection and management of ISF

Improvement on themaintenance of facilities and the water management

Contents of the capacity development for WUAs ● knowledge and skills required for the water managment and the maintenance of facilities wihtin the command areas under the WUA's management● knowledge and skilss to improve the organizational managment of the WUAs● knowledge and skills to enhance the coordination and cooperation among related organizations and institutions

Contents of the capacity development for government officers● knowledge and skills required for the water managment and the maintenance of facilities wihtin the command areas under the GON's management● knowledge and skilss to improve the organizational managment of the WUAs● knowledge and skills to enhance the coordination and cooperation among related organizations and institutions

factors which work as incentive for farmers

Figure 6-2-2 Approach of the JICA-TCP: Incentive mechanism for farmers Source: Survey team


DOI, MOI 6-6

The implementation of the agricultural component to be described later, has not been included into Table

6-2-1, since it is understood that further discussion will be required to determine whether such a

component should be included into the JICA-TCP framework. Nonetheless, if the knowledge and skills of

cultivation and agricultural business can be disseminated to farmers simultaneously with the

implementation of the JICA-TCP, the possibility to attain improved and stable agricultural income will be

elevated, and the number of farmers who can benefit from both the components. Therefore, positive

results of the feasibility analysis of the agricultural component are expected.

Figure 6-2-3 shows the possible JICA-TCP framework developed based on the request from GON. An

improvement on O&M, especially, an improvement on the water management in the command area under

the WUA’s management, in addition to the measures against the central problems identified in the

workshop: the year-round irrigated areas have not been expanded. The figure shows the principal

challenges, solutions to the identified challenges, possible technical assistance to be provided and possible

outputs through the implementation of the JICA-TCP.


6-7 JICA

Agricultural Development Strategy 2015-2035: O&M Activities in the Irrigation Sub-sector IMT promotion of main irrigation systems, Improvement of irrigation efficiency, Capacity strengthening of IMD, Expansion of year-round irrigated

areas of the existing irrigation systems, Capacity development of WUA on on-farm water management, Improvement of ISF collection for O&M

Year-round irrigated area does not increase. (Irrigation water is not available enough for winter and spring cultivation.)

Possible

Solutions

Possible

Technical

Cooperation

Software

Problems

Background

Infrastructure GON implements

improvements/ rehabilitations of irrigation

systems.

Hardware

Challenges Irrigation facilities are malfunctioning, disabled or non-existent

between water intake facilities and the tail-end plot

Mutual Influence Water is available, but its distribution

JICA&

IMD Staff

IMD Field Office

& DOI Staff

WUA of

JMIS

JICA-TCP

Outcomes Increased year-round irrigated area of existing irrigation systems

The system-wide irrigation efficiency is improved.

A model site of joint- management is established.

Increased ISF and Improved O&M

1) Training on O&M of irrigation facilities in on-farm area 2) Technical training on equitable water distribution in the on-farm area 3) Technical training to improve irrigation in the farm plot 4) Workshops and lectures to improve ISF collection system 5) Workshops and lectures for financial management of WUA 6) Workshops, lectures and study tours on organizational operation

1) Training on O&M of principal facilities (lectures & practices) 2) Technical training on calculation of irrigation water requirement based on

annual cropping plan 3) Technical training on water allocation planning at the main canal level, which

includes annual water demand and available water amount at the water source 4) Trainings on rotational irrigation for drought period and low-volume irrigation 5) Formulation of maintenance plan premised on ISF to be financial source

IMD Staff IMD Field Office

& DOI Staff

WUA of JMIS &

FMIS

Dissemination (GON)

Improvement of O&M of Principal Facilities Equitable and timely distribution of proper amount of water

to branch canals, and capacity enhancement of IMD for such distribution

Improvement of O&M in the On-farm Area

Equitable water distribution within the on-farm area, improvement of irrigation in the farm plot and capacity

enhancement of WUA for such improvements

WUA Side GON Side

Figure 6-2-3 Proposed Framework of JICA Technical Cooperation Project Source: Survey team


DOI, MOI 6-8

6-3 Suggestion to Introduce the Agricultural Component

The application from GON does not mention about agricultural component at all. The government

officers who attended the workshop did not indicate the necessity for assistance to the agricultural

component, either. However, the IMT process usually involves assistance in agricultural component33, in

order to achieve not only an increase in agricultural income through year-round irrigation, but also the

proper collection of ISF. Moreover, assistance in agricultural components may work as incentive for

farmers to take the increased burden due to IMT, including the maintenance of the irrigation facilities in

the command areas of WUAs, the ISF collection from the WUA members, etc.

In order to assure the self-sustainability of the transferred irrigation systems, it is important for WUAs to

collect ISF after seeing an improvement on agricultural profit of the members, and to save part of the

collected ISF for periodical and future large scale rehabilitations as well as for emergency rehabilitations,

and for other WUA activities. In other words, it is important that each of the WUA members improves

his/her own economic situation by increasing the production of current crops or by cultivating and

marketing more cash crops, and as a result, he or she can remain capable to pay proper ISF. In

consideration of all this above mentioned, the Survey

team proposes the incorporation of the agricultural

component into the prospective JICA-TCP, although it

has not been included in the requests from GON so far.

For instance, the need for technical support in the rice

cultivation would be increased in the Kankai Irrigation

System, shortly after the construction of on-farm

canals by farmers, as the rice production is popular

among them. Farmers grow different varieties of

paddy rice by season: a variety called Sanamonsuli

which takes 100 to 120 days to grow in the rainy

season, and another variety which takes 90 days to

grow in spring. The yield of those varieties are about

4.8ton/ha. Since it is said that farmers show less interest

in the production of spring rice, technical support for the

cultivation of spring rice as incentive for farmers may be

considered.

The introduction of young seedlings in rice cultivation

(to be implemented as a pilot project): Rice seedlings of

more than 30 days old are transplanted to paddy fields in

in Terai region. Such old seedlings have a reduced

potential for tillering, which may bring about a reduced

yield. In order to increase the yield per unit area, the

33 Agricultural component includes cultivation technology including water-saving cultivation, soil diagnosis & management, cropping,

introduction of quality seeds, mechanization, post-harvest processing and marketing, etc.

Seedling transplanted is 30-45 days old.

Source: Survey team

Example of farm ditches built by farmers (Terai region) Source: Survey team


6-9 JICA

introduction of younger seedlings (seedlings of 21 to 24 days old) together with paddy-field leveling,

and the introduction of the technique to transplant a fewer seedlings per planting spot may work. In this

regard, the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which promotes the transplantation of only one seedling

per spot, is not recommendable in those paddies where the surface is not leveled and drainage capacity is

not high.

6-4 JICA-TCP Pilot Projects and Dissemination

The JICA-TCP implements pilot projects in a few irrigation blocks under the WUA’s management in

selected JMIS(s) (Actually, most of them are on the tertiary canals). Since the entire JMIS is too big to be

a pilot project site, it is reasonable that the JICA-TCP implements the pilot project at an irrigation block

which is the area irrigated by a branch canal in a JMIS. It is desired that three WUAs are selected in the

upstream, mid-stream and downstream zones respectively in a single JMIS.

The upstream WUA tends to over-irrigate by taking water more than requisite amount. The downstream

WUA has water shortage frequently compared to the up- and mid-stream WUAs. The mid-stream WUA is

located between them. Accordingly, selecting theses 3 WUAs gives GON the opportunity to enhance its

coordination capability. Respective WUAs distribute water within their own responsible areas after

receiving water from DOI at the most upstream point, which is the management interface between WUA

and DOI. However, what is very important to improve the system-wide irrigation efficiency is that the

JICA-TCP targets WUAs from the upstream to the downstream.

The JICA-TCP conducts workshops and trainings at its project sites. Then, DOI field staff in other

irrigation systems/districts visits the pilot project sites, and learns how to manage principal facilities so as

to make equitable water distribution as well as know-how of on-farm water management that is equitable

water distribution amongst WUGs in a WUA. After that, they go back to irrigation systems/districts and

disseminate what they learned.

6-5 Possibility for the Distribution of Roles and Collaboration among the JICA-TCP and Other

Donors’ Projects

6-5-1 Sharing Roles

As mentioned in the Chapter 3, CMIASP-AF and IWRMP-AF has divided Nepal into 2 zones and been

implementing sub-projects targeting FMIS. The IWRMP-AF is conducting IMT at three main irrigation

systems in Terai region: Sunsari-Morang, Narayani and Mahakali. The JICA-TCP targets Terai region,

which is the major food-producing area of Nepal, because GON has requested the area through the

application to Japan. Consequently, it is possible to avoid overlapping if JICA-TCP targets irrigation

systems that are neither CMIASP-AF sub-projects nor IWRMP-AF sub-projects.

6-5-2 Collaboration Possibility

The Survey team discussed the possibility of collaboration between JICA-TCP and CMIASP-AF and also

between JICA-TCP and IWRMP-AF with concerned parties during the Survey period. As a result, the

following items are listed as possible collaboration.


DOI, MOI 6-10

Sharing training contents for strengthening capacity of WUA and DOI staff,

Sharing training contents regarding on-farm water management for WUA and DOI staff,

Sharing information on the ISF collection,

Sharing methodologies for improving the ISF collection rate, and

Sharing information collected regarding irrigation facilities and WUAs in Terai.

6-6 Considerations for Future Surveys and Implementation of the JICA-TCP

6-6-1 Recommendations on Land Ownership issues

As seen in Section 3-1-3, there are by and large three challenges for farmers of Terai region regarding the

land ownership as follows:

1. Continuous and frequent amendment to the Land Related Act and weak enforcement of the same act

2. Inadequate diffusion of the information on the land registration and the land ownership (a low level

of recognition and understanding of the land registration system)

3. A significant proportion of the rented land area to the cultivated land area (approximately 25%); that

of the farmers farming by renting land in Terai region to all the farmers of the country

(approximately 36%); and, that of the farmers who do not have their own land to cultivate to all the

farmers in Eastern and Central Development Regions (approximately 10%).

A summary of possible impact of these challenges on the prospective JICA-TCP, together with possible

measures to be taken in future surveys and in the implementation of the JICA-TCP project in order to cope

with or mitigate such an impact are compiled in the following table.

Table 6-6-1 Challenges around the land ownership and their possible impact and mitigation measures No. Challenge Possible impact on the

prospective JICA-TCP Possible measures to be taken

In future surveys In the implementation of the prospective

JICA-TCP 1. Frequent

amendment to the Land Related Act and weak enforcement of the current act

If the current act is actually enforced on the ground, the farming land will be fragmented. This could cause confusion among the WUA members and could result in changes of the membership of WUAs.

To confirm progress and perspective of the land reform

To conduct a sample survey on the current situation of land registration in the selected irrigation blocks to understand the situation

To keep following the land reform process and direction and when necessary, to share the information with the WUA members

To facilitate the WUAs to include rules of member change into their constitutions or regulations through discussion and agreement among the members


6-11 JICA

No. Challenge Possible impact on the prospective JICA-TCP

Possible measures to be taken In future surveys In the implementation of

the prospective JICA-TCP

2. Inadequate diffusion of the information on the land registration and the land ownership (a low level of recognition and understanding of the land registration system)

(1) In some cases of land dispute, farmers who actually cultivate such land should leave from the land as results of the mediation process. If there is land which is not registered properly within the targeted irrigation systems, there remains a risk of changes of the WUA members during or after the implementation of the JICA-TCP.

(2) When the irrigated area is expanded due to improved O&M and on-farm water management, new land dispute could arise on the area to be newly irrigated.

To conduct a sample survey on the current situation of land registration in the selected irrigation blocks to understand the situation

To understand the customary and legal process of mediation of land dispute cases.

To provide the counterpart officials and WUA members with access to the information on the land registration system and merits of the registration.


DOI, MOI 6-12

No. Challenge Possible impact on the prospective JICA-TCP

Possible measures to be taken In future surveys In the implementation of

the prospective JICA-TCP

3. A significant proportion of the rented land area to the cultivated land area

(1) When there is no agreement between the landowner and tenants on the cost sharing and decision-making for the O&M activities, it may cause a delay in the O&M activities.

(2) If all the landowners are not involved in the WUAs, necessary decision-making by the landowners on the O&M activities cannot be made timely.

To conduct a sample survey on the current situation of rented land in the selected irrigation blocks to understand the situation.

To understand the distribution of roles between a landowner and a tenant on a rehabilitation/improvement of facilities on the rented land, stipulated by laws and customary laws.

To confirm what tells the existing WUA constitutions or regulations on the distribution of power and responsibilities between landowners and tenants for a rehabilitation and/or improvement of the facilities on the rented land.

To facilitate the WUA members to reach an agreement with their landowners regarding the cost sharing and decision-making responsibility on the O&M activities.

To facilitate the WUA members in the establishment of communication channels with landowners regarding the O&M activities

Source: Survey team

6-6-2 Recommendations on Ethnic issues

1) Recommendations for future surveys

In future surveys, it would be important to confirm whether different ethnic and social groups, such as

Madhesi and Tharu, among others, can have an equal access to benefits from the prospective JICA-TCP

or not, as well as whether there is an enabling environment for different ethnic and social groups to work

together and to share necessary costs and burdens, including the payment of ISF. For this purpose, it is

recommended to include the following issues in surveys.

(1) WUAs

There are 25 JMISs in Terai region and the information on the location and irrigated area for each of

them is available. However, there is no information on the total number of the FMISs with their

respective locations. Therefore, as part of the coming survey, a sample study on the FMISs would be

conducted in conjunction with IDD officers in charge. The WUA or representatives from the

beneficiary farmers of each of the FMISs, whose existence is registered to the IDD, would be

interviewed to collect relevant information on FMISs. It is important to bear in mind that there are

two types of the FMISs: some FMISs managed by the officially registered WUAs and others


6-13 JICA

managed by the beneficiary groups which have not been registered.

Table 6-6-2 (1) Possible items to be studied with JMISs to address ethnic issues

No. Possible Items to be studied Possible information Source

1 The proportion of the ethnicities/castes of the WUA members of the 25 JMISs in Terai region

Officials of the FIMD / IDD

2 A comparison of the proportion of the ethnicities/castes in the WUA executive committee with that in the entire WUA members

Officials of the FIMD / IDD

3 Relationship between each ethnic and social group and the FIMD/IDD Officials of the FIMD / IDD

Representatives from each of the WUAs

4 Positive or negative impact of having different ethnic and social groups within the same WUA , and possible measures to be taken to mitigate or reduce negative impact, if any


5 The existence and application of the constitution/regulations of WUA, and conditions for the membership stipulated in the WUA constitution/regulations


6 Relationship among the WUAs of other FMISs/JMIS which share the same main canal or water source


7 Challenges of the management of the WUA and needs for capacity development


Source: Survey team

Table 6-6-2 (2) Possible items to be studied with FMISs to address ethnic issues No. Possible Items to be studied Possible

information Source

1 Details of the FMIS（Canal network, Irrigated area, Cropping practices, Availability of delivered water through the year, Existence of rules for water distribution and irrigation system maintenance, etc.)

Representatives from each WUA or alternative organization with similar functions

2 Roles played by the WUA or alternative organizations, Existence of the constitution and/or regulations, organizational structure, the number of the WUA members (beneficiary farmers), conditions for the membership, the proportions of ethnicities /castes in the members

3 A comparison of the proportion of the ethnicities / castes in the WUA executive committee with that in the entire WUA members

4 Reasons for not having registered officially as WUA, if it is the case, and whether they are interested in the registration

5 Relationship with the FIMD/IDD in charge or any other public entities (including local governments)

6 Relationship among the WUAs of other FMISs/JMIS which share the same main canal or water source

7 Challenges in the management by the WUA or alternative organizations and needs for capacity development

Source: Survey team

(2) Lessons from previous projects

The Ministry of Internal Affairs of the GON and the United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) have been jointly implementing a project to strengthen security at the community level,

called“Armed Violence Reduction and Strengthening Community Security (AVRSCS)” from 2014

to 2016 in the nine districts of Terai region: Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardiya, Banke, Parsa, Bara,


DOI, MOI 6-14

Dhanusha, Saptari, and Morang. The major activity of the project is to strengthen the functions to

maintain security of the National Police, and the emergence of trust between community people and

the police through the implementation of the project has been confirmed.

If there is a case where trust has been built between the protest groups and the police, as part of

results of this project, it would be worthy to analyze the case in order to identify contributing factors

for such a result. Moreover, it would be possible to draw lessons for the prospective JICA-TCP to

enhance the participation of different ethnic and social groups in the project. In the forthcoming

survey, the AVRSCS’s results and approach could be confirmed with officials of the Ministry of

Internal Affairs and UNDP, as well as community people and the police at the project sites, in order

to draw lessons.

(3) Relationship among residents

The information on the relationship, conflict and power balance among different ethnic and social

groups in Terai region should be also collected. If there is an imbalance of powers among residents,

it would be important to take necessary measures on the ground to prevent decision-makings only by

powerful people for the implementation of the prospective JICA-TCP.

2) Recommendations for the implementation of Prospective JICA-TCP

It would be important to assure that there is equity among beneficiary farmers from different ethnic

groups with regard to the benefits and costs (burden) of the O&M of irrigation facilities.

2.1) Selection of the project sites

In order to assure equity in benefits and burden among different ethnic and social groups, the

proportion of ethnic groups in possible project sites should be confirmed prior to the selection of

project sites (irrigation systems). The concentration of benefits only on one specific group should be

avoided. If the situation allows, the project will consider the selection of a location (irrigation

system) where different ethnic and social groups would work in collaboration to achieve common

goals.

If there is an irrigation system in those places where the emergence of trust between communities

and the police is confirmed through the implementation of the aforementioned AVRSCS, it can be

considered to include such a system in the project sites.

On the other hand, those locations where conflicts are on-going or most likely conflicts will occur

near future, the timing of the commencement of project activities needs to be examined. It is

necessary to analyze the updated information on security which is collected from the implementing

agencies, local governments of possible project sites, police, JICA Nepal Office, Japanese Embassy

in Nepal, etc. to select the project sites.

2.2) Selection of beneficiaries

It is important to make a balance in the distribution of benefits among different ethnic and social

groups and avoiding a concentration of benefits only on a specific group, as proposed earlier. When

there are seen internal separations and conflicts within a group, it is also important to take it into

account to select beneficiaries in order not to exacerbate the situation.


6-15 JICA

2.3) Reduction of negative impact

A delay in the implementation of a project or any changes in the contents of project activities could

deepen mistrust of people in Terai region against the GON. Such mistrust could cause a delay or

suspension of a part or the entire project activities.

It is important for both the implementing agencies and JICA to make the project operation plan

realistic, and take necessary measures to assure the allocation of budget and human resources for the

implementation of the project, so that the project can be implemented smoothly as planned.

2.4) Observations for the implementation of the prospective project

Taking into account that Nepal is one of the conflict affected countries, a PNA for the targeted area

or a PNA for the project should be conducted at the project formulation, so that the project can be

designed not to worsen instability factors and to utilize or enhance stability factors. During the

implementation period, the PNA should be updated periodically, and the project should be allowed to

be flexible to modify its contents, including the re-location of the project sites, when necessary. It is

also important for all the institutions involved in the project implementation to agree that the security

of beneficiaries and of people who are engaged in the project implementation should be prioritized at

any time, as well as measures to be taken in case of emergency.

DOI is the government agency in charge of the development and O&M of irrigation systems, and the

majority of its officers are engineers. However, they are also socially sensitive by facilitating the

participation of oppressed people in the decision-making process of WUAs in accordance with a

statement in the Irrigation Policy 2013: “there shall be proper representation of Dalit, Downtrodden,

and Backward ethnic communities is such association”. DOI is working with all farmers in an

equitable manner, since they should be equal, having the same rights as WUA member. In addition,

DOI is promoting the democratic management of WUAs.

In the existing JMISs in Terai region, the WUA members are beneficiary farmers, although WUAs

are under the establishment process in some JMISs. Both those farmers who have the ownership of

agricultural land and practice agriculture, and others who are renting the agricultural land in a legally

or customarily effective manner and practice agriculture can be members of a WUA. Those irrigation

systems with WUAs composed only of large scale farmers cannot be selected as project sites, but the

proportion of socially oppressed people of the target WUAs may not be fully controlled by the

project, since it depends on the situation of land ownership, and the scales of farmers who are renting

the farming land within the project sites.

References: Category Author Year Title Source

General European Parliament 2014 "At a glance: Nepal's political parties and the difficult road towards a new Constitution "November 2014

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2014/542165/EPRS_ATA(2014)542165_REV1_EN.pdf

General Informal Sector Service Center

2015 Human Rights Year Book 2015 http://www.insec.org.np/pics/publication/1429808399.pdf

General KARKI, Budhi & EDRISHINHA, Rohan

2014 The FEDERALISM debate in Nepal: Post Peace Agreement, Constitution Making in Nepal Volume II

http://www.np.undp.org/content/dam/nepal/docs/projects/UNDP_NP_SPCBN_the-federalism-debate-in-nepal.pdf

General Ministry of Environment 2010 Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Nepal

http://www.nccsp.gov.np/publication/2010ClimateChangeVulnerabilityMappingforNepal.pdf

General JICA Nepal Office 2011 Nepal NGO Handbook (Japanese) https://www.jica.go.jp/nepal/office/about/ngodesk/materials/ku57pq00000qgi4x-att/NGO_Handbook01.pdf

Administrative System

Asia Foundation 2012 A Guide to Government in Nepal: Structures, Functions, and Practices

http://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/AGuidetoGovernmentinNepal.pdf


DEVKOTA, K. L. (International Center for Public Policy)

2014 "Impact of Fiscal Decentralization on Economic Growth in the Districts of Nepal"

http://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=icepp


Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

2010 Agricultural Extension Services Delivery System in Nepal

ftp://ftp.fao.org/OSD/CPF/Country%20NMTPF/Nepal/AgExtServDelSysNepal.pdf


PANDEY, ReshmiRaj (Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development of Nepal)

N/A Decentralization, Devolution and Local Governance in Nepal (Presentation)

http://dms.nasc.org.np/sites/default/files/documents/Decentralization,%20Devolution%20and%20Local%20Governance%20in%20Nepal.pdf


PAUDEL, Laxmi Kant 2011 "Governance of Agriculture Service Delivery in Nepal: Status, Issues, and Challenges"

http://sjpg.pactu.edu.np/system/files/journal/articles/6__laxmi_kant_paudel__governance_of_agriculture_service_delivery_in_nepal__status_issues_and_challenges.pdf


SIJAPATI, Suman and PRASAD, Krishna Chandra

N/A "IMPROVING GOVERNANCE IN NEPAL’S WATER RESOURCES SECTOR THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES"

file:///C:/Users/hiro-yashiki/Downloads/IMPROVING_GOVERNANCE_IN_NEPAL'S_WATER_RESOURCES_SE.pdf


Rie Yasuda 2004 Assistance for Democratic Governance and Decentralization by UNDP : A Case of Decentralization in Nepal

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110004628078


Rie Yasuda 2005 Local Governance Structure in Nepal : Where is Local Self-Governance Act (1999) going?

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110004628081


作増良介 2010 ”ネパールの地方行政システムの現状

と課題 ―シャンジャ郡自治体の予

算執行分析を通して―”

http://www.idcj.or.jp/pdf/idcjr200901.pdf

Finance Financial Comptroller General Office

2015 Consolidated Financial Statement Fiscal Year 2013/14

http://www.fcgo.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/book-mater-1.pdf

Finance Ministry of Finance N/A Red Book FY 2014/15 http://www.mof.gov.np/uploads/document/file/Red%20Book%20FY%202014-15_20140917050612.pdf

Policies/ Plans

Council of Ministers N/A Irrigation Policy, 2060 http://doi.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/IrrigationPolicy2060-EnglishFinal.pdf

Policies/ Plans

Ministry of Agriculture Development

2015 Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) 2015-2035

http://www.moad.gov.np/downloadfile/final%20ADS%20report_1440476970.pdf

Policies/ Plans

Ministry of Agriculture Development

2016 Nepal: Zero Hunger Challenge National Action Plan (2016 - 2025)

http://www.npc.gov.np/images/download/ZHC_NAP_(2016_-_2025).pdf

Policies/ Plans

National Planning Commission

1995 Nepal Agriculture Perspective Plan 1995/96-2014/15 A.D. (Final Report) Summary Document

http://lib.icimod.org/record/4168/files/APROSC%20Nepalagricultureperspectiveplan630AGN.pdf

Policies/ Plans


2013 AN APPROACH PAPER TO THE THIRTEENTH PLAN (FY 2013/14 – 2015/16)

http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/nep150783.pdf

Policies/ Plans


2015 Sustainable Development Goals 2016-2030 National (Preliminary) Report

http://www.np.undp.org/content/dam/nepal/docs/reports/SDG%20final%20report-nepal.pdf

Category Author Year Title Source Policies/ Plans

National Planning Commission & Asia Development Bank

2015 Envisioning Nepal 2030 - Proceedings of the International Seminar -

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/185557/envisioning-nepal-2030.pdf

Policies/ Plans


2010 The Food Security Atlas of Nepal http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp223377.pdf?_ga=1.128096972.1357272805.1475940085

Policies/ Plans

Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

2015 Policies and Programmes of the Government of Nepal for Fiscal Year 2072-73 (2015-16)

http://www.nra.gov.np/uploads/brochure/uR3txdcPfC160114062655.pdf

Policies/ Plans

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

2002 "Executive Summary: Water Resources Strategy - Nepal -"

http://www.wecs.gov.np/uploaded/water-resources-strategy.pdf

Policies/ Plans

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

2005 National Water Plan http://www.moen.gov.np/pdf_files/national_water_plan.pdf

Statistics Central Bureau of Statistics

2011 NEPAL LIVING STANDARDS SURVEY 2010/11: STATISTICAL REPORT VOLUME ONE

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLSMS/Resources/3358986-1181743055198/3877319-1329489437402/Statistical_Report_Vol1.pdf


2011 NEPAL LIVING STANDARDS SURVEY 2010/11: STATISTICAL REPORT VOLUME TWO

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLSMS/Resources/3358986-1181743055198/3877319-1329489437402/Statistical_Report_Vol2.pdf


2012 National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report) Volume 01

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/wphc/Nepal/Nepal-Census-2011-Vol1.pdf


2013 STATISTICAL YEAR BOOK OF NEPAL 2013

http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Publication/Statistical%20Year%20book%202013_SS/Statistical-Year-book-2013_SS.pdf


2014 POPULATION ATLAS OF NEPAL 2014

http://cbs.gov.np/atlas/


2014 STATISTICAL POCKET BOOK OF NEPAL 2014

http://cbs.gov.np/image/data/Publication/Statistical%20Pocket%20Book%202014.pdf


2015 Nepal - National Sample Census of Agriculture 2011-2012

file:///C:/Users/hiro-yashiki/Downloads/ddi-documentation-english-53.pdf

Statistics Department of Roads N/A ROAD NETWORK DATA http://www.dor.gov.np/documents/5.%20Road%20Network%20Data.pdf

Statistics International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development and Central Bureau of Statistics

2003 Mapping Nepal Census Indicators 2001 and Trends

http://lib.icimod.org/record/21217/files/MappingNepalCensus2001.pdf

Statistics National Planning Commission & United Nations Development Programme Nepal Office

2014 Nepal Human Development Report 2014: Beyond Geography: Unlocking Human Potential

http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/nepal_nhdr_2014-final.pdf

Statistics United Nations Development Programme

2015 Human Development Report 2015: Work for Human Development

http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2015_human_development_report.pdf

Statistics World Bank 2016 Global Economic Prospects: Divergences and Risks

http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/842861463605615468/Global-Economic-Prospects-June-2016-Divergences-and-risks.pdf

Land Ownership

Community Self Reliance Centre (CSRC), Land Watch Asia, Asian NGO Collation for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (ANGOC)

2009 Land and Land Tenure Security in Nepal (Country Study: Nepal)

http://csrcnepal.org/uploads/publication/y6nhKRaVwrhsbVf2AeClUdDUkcd-M7F8.pdf

Land Ownership

STEIN, Danielle and SUYKENS, Bert

2014 LAND DISPUTES AND SETTLEMENT MECHANISMS IN NEPAL’S TERAI

http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/56348/1/JSRP_Paper12a_Land_disputes_and_settlement_mechanisms_Suykens_and_Stein_2014.pdf

Land Ownership

SUBEDI, Bhishma P., DAS, Chintamani L. and MESSERSCHMIDT, Donald A.

N/A Tree and Land Tenure in the Eastern Terai, Nepal: A Case Study from the Siraha and Saptari Districts, Nepal

http://www.fao.org/docrep/v2670e/v2670e02.htm

Land Ownership

United States Agency for International Development

N/A USAID COUNTRY PROFILE: PROPERTY RIGHTS AND RESOURCE GOVERNANCE - NEPAL -

http://www.usaidlandtenure.net/sites/default/files/country-profiles/full-reports/USAID_Land_Tenure_Nepal_Profile.pdf

Category Author Year Title Source Land Ownership

WILY, Liz Alden with CHAPAGAIN, Devendra & SHARMA, Shiva

2008 Land Reform in Nepal: Where is it coming from and where is it going?

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270956263_Land_Reform_in_Nepal_Where_is_it_Coming_from_and_Where_is_it_Going

Land Ownership

Konomi SAITO,Katsuhiro SAITO and Damaru Ballabha Paudel

2015 A Simulation Analysis on Land Reform in Nepal

http://libir.soka.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10911/4473/1/%E9%BD%8B%E8%97%A4%E4%B9%8B%E7%BE%8E%E3%83%BB%E9%BD%8B%E8%97%A4%E5%8B%9D%E5%AE%8F%E3%83%BB%E3%83%91%E3%82%A6%E3%83%87%E3%83%AB%20%E3%83%80%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AB_%E5%89%B5%E4%BE%A1%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E8%AB%96%E9%9B%8644%E5%B7%BB.pdf

Japanese Government’s Policy

株式会社国際開発センター 2013 ネパール国別評価（第三者評価）報

告書 http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/shiryo/hyouka/kunibetu/gai/nepal/kn12_01_index.html

Japanese Government’s Policy

外務省 2012 対ネパール連邦民主共和国国別援

助方針 http://www.np.emb-japan.go.jp/jp/pdf/odapolicy.pdf

Agriculture/ Irrigation

Asia Development Bank N/A "SECTOR ASSESSMENT (SUMMARY): AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES"

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/cps-nep-2013-2017-ssa-04.pdf


Asia Development Bank N/A "SECTOR ASSESSMENT (SUMMARY): IRRIGATION - Nepal: Community Irrigation Project-"

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/38417-02-nep-ssa.pdf


DARBAS, Toni; SULAIMAN, Rasheed; MITTAL, Nimisha; DAVKOTA, Kamal and BROWN, Peter R.

2015 Institutional Analysis for Agricultural Innovation: Synthesis

http://www.sias-southasia.org/new/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Darbas-et-al_Institutional-Analysis-Synthesis_Technical-Report.pdf


Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha (JVS)

2015 Integrity Mapping in Irrigation Projects Final Report (JVS)/GWP Nepal November

http://www.gwp.org/Global/ToolBox/Case%20Studies/Asia%20and%20Caucasus/CS_480_Nepal_WIN%20mapping%20report%202015.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

ARYAL, Ravi Sharma 2011 THE LAW ON OWNERSHIP AND RIGHT TO WATER IN NEPAL

http://www.jvs-nwp.org.np/sites/default/files/Water%20Right%20and%20Ownership%20in%20Nepal.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

International Foundation for Electoral Systems

2016 Factsheet on Electoral Provisions in Nepal’s New Constitution

https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/2016_ifes_nepal_electoral_provisions_constitution_factsheet_final.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

KANSAKAR, Dibya Ratna 2011 REGULATING COMMON POOL GROUNDWATER UNDER FUGITIVE SURFACE WATER LAW: LIMITATIONS IN LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN NEPAL

http://www.jvs-nwp.org.np/sites/default/files/Water%20Laws%20and%20Regulations%20in%20Nepal.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

WaterAid Nepal 2005 Water Laws in Nepal: Laws Relating to Drinking Water, Sanitation, Irrigation, Hydropower and Water Pollution

file:///C:/Users/hiro-yashiki/Downloads/water%20laws%20in%20nepal%20(1).pdf

Laws/ Regulations

1964 The Lands Act, 2021(1964) http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/nep6239.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

1992 WATER RESOURES ACT, 2049 (1992)

http://www.wecs.gov.np/uploaded/Water-Resources-Act-2049-english.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

1999 Local Self Governance Regulation, 2056 (1999)

http://www.mofald.gov.np/sites/default/files/Resources/docs_25.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

1999 LOCAL SELF-GOVERNANCE ACT, 2055 (1999): AN ACT MADE TO RPOVIDE FOR LOCAL SELF-GOVERNANCE

http://www.undp.org/content/dam/nepal/docs/reports/governance/UNDP_NP_Local%20Self-Governance%20Act%201999,%20MoLJ,HMG.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

2000 Irrigation Rules, 2056 (2000) http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/nep27488.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

2008 Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act, 2064 (2008)

http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/nep137755.pdf

Laws/ Regulations

2015 The Constitution of Nepal http://www.nepalembassy-germany.com/pdfs/Constitution_full_english.pdf

*The date of the last access to all the references was October 9, 2016.

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