fender team design manual

FENDER DESIGN MANUAL

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>> FENDER TEAMA team of experts, all dedicated to providing the best performing and most reliable fender systems and accessories. Headquartered in Germany and with local offices in France and the USA plus a net-work of well established local representatives, Fend-erTeam has earned a reputation as a reliable partner in the international port, harbour and waterways markets.

Fender: we are specialists in the design, manufac-ture and sale of fenders and fender systems.Team: our team of partners, employees, reputable and approved suppliers all share one ethos a pas-sion for fenders and to serve the port industry.

Collectively we have decades of experience and specialized knowledge in this niche market which is highly safety critical to people, ships and port in-frastructure. Our skills and know-how ensure well engineered fender solutions, high quality products and fair prices.

>> FENDER DESIGNWelcome to the FenderTeam Fender Design Manual.

Fenders are the interface between ship and berth. They are first and foremost a safety barrier to pro-tect people, ships and structures. Most fender sys-tems use elastomeric (rubber) units, air or special foams which act as springs to absorb the ships ki-netic energy. As the spring compresses, rising forces are transmitted to other parts of the fender system panels, anchors and chains then via the selected load path into the supporting structures.

Good fender design encompasses many disciplines. Text book knowledge cannot replace experience of real world shipping operations and berthing ma-noeuvres. Most codes and standards assume the user has a good working knowledge of the subject. FenderTeam has long and diverse experience in all aspects of fender design.

This guide is intended to be a concise resource, help-ing designers and specifiers identify the key input criteria, to calculate berthing energies and select suitable fender types. FenderTeam specialists are always available to support in this process and pro-vide advice on details and specifications.

Exceptions: This manual is applicable to most con-ventional and commercial ships. Please speak to FenderTeam about special applications and require-ments for unusual ships such as catamarans, navy ships, oil rigs etc.

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CONTENTS

CONTENTS (Section 1 of 2)SECTION 1 : BERTHING ENERGY CALCULATIONSymbols & Information SourcesDesign ProcessShipsShip DimensionsShip TerminologyTankersBulk CarriersGas CarriersContainer ShipsGeneral Cargo (Freighter), RoRo & FerriesCar Transporters, Cruise Ships, Fast FerriesShip LimitsShip LoadsShip ApproachAdded Mass Factor (CM)Eccentricity Factor (CE)Berth Configuration (CC) & Softness Factor(CS)Berthing SpeedsBerthing Energy

SECTION 2 : FENDER SELECTION GUIDEThe full fender selection process, materials,testing and related information is coveredin PART .

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SymbolBCCBCCCECMCSDDBDLDSEAEFENERPDELETFFBFLFSHHPKKCLLLOALBPLSLWLMBMDPRRBRFRRPDRHETTvvBvLx

C

SW

Unitsmm

mmmm

kNm (kJ)kNm (kJ)kNm (kJ)kNm (kJ)kNm (kJ)

kNmmmm

mmmmmmm

tonnetonnemmmkNkNkNkNm/sm/sm/sm

degreedegreedegree

mdegree

tonne/m

DescriptionBeam (breadth) of vessel, excluding beltingClearance between ship hull and face of structureBlock coefficient of the vessel's hullBerth configuration coefficientEccentricity coefficientHydrodynamic (added) mass coefficientSoftness coefficientActual draft of shipBallast draft of shipLaden or summer draft of shipScantling (maximum) draft of shipAbnormal kinetic berthing energy of shipFender energy (corrected for angle, temperature etc)Normal kinetic berthing energy of shipFender energy (at rated performance datum)Fender energy at low end tolerance (at minimum manufacturing tolerance)Impact force applied to fender face or panel by ship hullBallast freeboard of ship to deck levelLaden or summer freeboard of ship to deck levelScantling (minimum) freeboard of ship to deck levelHeight of compressible fender excluding panel etcHull pressureRadius of gyration of shipUnder keel clearance to seabedOverall length of largest ship using the berthOverall length of shipLength of ship between perpendicularsOverall length of smallest ship using the berthLength of ship hull at waterline at laden draftDisplacement of ship in ballast conditionDisplacement of shipSpacing between fendersDistance from point of impact to ship's centre of massBow radiusFender reaction (corrected for angle, temperature etc)Fender reaction (at rated performance datum)Fender reaction at high end tolerance (at maximum manufacturing tolerance)Shear forceVelocity of shipVelocity of ship perpendicular to berthing lineVelocity of ship parallel to berthing lineDistance from bow to parallel mid-body (end of bow radius)Berthing angle (ship centre line to berthing line)Bow flare angle (vertical hull angle to fender panel face)Velocity vector angle (between R and VB)Deflection of compressible fenderHorizontal angle with fender (allowing for bow radius)Factor of safety for abnormal berthing energyFactor of safety for chainsFriction coefficientSeawater density

Codes & StandardsCode of Practice for Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems: BS 6349: Part 4 (1994)PIANC WG33 Guidelines for the Designof Fenders (2002)Recommendations of the Committee forWaterfront Structures, Harbours andWaterways (EAU 2004)PIANC Report of the International Commission for Improving the Design of Fender Systems: Supplement to Bulletin No.45 (1984)Actions in the Design of Maritime andHarbour Works: ROM 0.2-90 (1990)Recommendations for the Design ofthe Maritime Configuration of Ports,Approach Channels and Harbour Basins:ROM 3.1-99 (1999)Dock Fenders - Rosa 2000 Edition No.1Engineering and Design of Military Ports:Unified Facilities Criteria UFC 4-159-02 (2004)Design of Piers And Wharves: Unified Facilities Criteria UFC 4-152-01 (2005)Guidelines for the Design of MaritimeStructures Australia: AS4997 (2005)Technical Standards and Commentaries for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan (2009)Approach Channels A Guide to Design: PIANC Supplement to Bulletin No.95 (1997)Port Designers Handbook Recommendations and Guidelines:Carl Thoresen (2003) ISBN 9780727732886Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals: Edited by Hans Agerschou 2nd Edition (2004) ISBN 0727732242Significant Ships: Royal Institute of Naval Architects (1992-2010) www.rina.org.ukStandard Test Method for Determiningand Reporting the Berthing Energyand Reaction of Marine Fenders:ASTM F2192-05 (2005)Standard Classification System for Rubber Products In Automotive Applications:ASTM D2000 (2012)

>> SYMBOLS >> SOURCES

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DESIGN PROCESS

DESIGN PROCESSFender design brings together many skills anddisciplines. The engineer must consider allfactors that will determine the fender size, details of accessories, how reliably it will function in extreme marine conditions.

The optimum fender design will result in a safe, low-maintenance and long lasting structure which benefits port efficiency and provides lowest fulllife costs.

An important consideration is who takes responsi-bility for purchasing the fender system. A port will buy the system to suit their needs but a contractor will select the most economic fender that meetsthe specifications. This means the properties andperformance of the fender must be chosen very carefully or the consequences can be costly forthe operator.

STRUCTURESFenders are mounted onto berth structures sometimes newly built, sometimes upgraded or refurbished. Structures fall into two main categories: mass structures that can withstand high reaction forces from fenders and load critical structures which can resist limited fender forces.

Mass structures are usually of sheet pile, concrete block or caisson construction. These are all very solid but can be impractical to build in deep water and exposed locations so are mostly within harbours and waterways. Load critical structures include suspended deck designs and monopiles where fender and mooring loads are primary design forces.

Berths may be further divided into continuous wharves or quays, and individual (non-continuous) structures usually known as dolphins. Some dolphins are rigid designs, with inclined piles or other bracings. Monopiles are a special category of dolphin structure.

> Can resist large fender forces> Easy fitting to concrete cope> Sheet pile connection needs careful detailing> Avoid fixings that cross expansion joints

> Load sensistive structure> Limited footprint area for fixing fenders and chains> Deck usually concrete but sometimes steel

> Load sensistive structure> Monopile contributes to total energy> Limited footprint area for fixing fenders and chains

MASS STRUCTURES LOAD CRITICAL STRUCTURES DOLPHINS & MONOPILES

> Classes> Laden or ballast > Flares> Beltings> Hull pressure

> Service life> Loads > Construction> Connection> Frequency

> Wharf or dolphin> RoRo ramp > Lock or dry lock> Tug assistance

> Exposure> Tidal range > Currents & waves> Passing ships> Accessablility

> Temperatures> Corrosivity > Ice flows> Seismic events> Ozone & UV

> Durability> Testing > Coatings> Galling> Capital costs> Maintenance

SHIPS STRUCTURE APPROACH LOCATION ENVIRONMENT MATERIALS

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SHIPSShips come in every imaginable shape and size. Berths should accommodate the largest design ships, but they must also cater for small and intermediate ships, particularly if these represent the majority of berthings. On many export berths the ships might arrive in ballast condition with a reduced draft and displacement. If this is standard practice then the design should consider fenders for this situation, also assessing the risk that a loaded ship might need to return to the berth fully laden.

The features of a ship will affect the fender selection and design. For example, cruise ship operators do not like black marks caused by contacting cylindrical rubber fenders. Container ships and car carriers may have large bow flares so a fender must articulate to match the angle. Many ships have beltings (sometimes called belts or strakes) which may sit on or catch under fender panels, so larger bevels or chamfers may be needed. Double hulled tankers, gas carriers and other soft-hulled ships can only resist limited contact pressures which means a big contact area of fender panel is needed.

The hull form or curvature of the ship is important. The bow radius influences where a ship contacts the fender relative to its centre of mass, also the number of fenders compressed depending on their spacing.Bow flares may push the upper edges of the fender closer to the structure so upper edges of the panel,chain brackets etc need to be checked for clearance.

Below are the most common classes of commercial ship and the main features a designer should consider:> Hazardous cargo> Large change in draft > Low hull pressures> Tug assistance is standard

TANK

ERS > Small tankers can have beltings> Berthing is often at exposed sites

> Many terminals use laser DAS*

> Some vessels are multi-purpose (OBO oil/bulk/ore)> Cargoes might be hazardous> Large change in draft

BULK

> Low hull pressures> Tug assistance is standard> Berthing is often at exposed sites

> Very hazardous cargo> Single class of ships on dedicated terminals> Low hull pressures

GAS

> Tug assisted berthing is standard> Small tankers can have beltings> Berthing is often at exposed sites> Many terminals have laser DAS*

> Large bow flares pose risk to container cranes> Large beam limits fender size> Low hull pressuresC

ONTA

INER > Tug assisted berthing is standard

except on feeder routes> Small ships can have beltings> Stable fenders help productivity

> Passenger safety is critical> Many ship shapes and sizes> Berthing without pilots> Side and stern berthing

RORO

> Most ships have beltings> Fast turnaround times and intensive berth use> Tug assistance rarely used

> Many ship shapes and sizes> Smaller fenders preferred to reduce crane outreach> Larger ships may use tugsF

REIGH

TER

> Can occupy berths for long periods> Large change in draft > Many ship sizes use a berth> Tug assistance for larger ships only

> Manoeuvring difficult at low speeds due to high freeboard> Long flat side with large bow flare

CAR T

RANS

PORT

ER > May have beltings and side doors> Tug assisted berthing is common> Side and stern berthing

> Passenger safety is critical> Small changes in draft> Ship sizes getting larger for many ports

CRUIS

E

> Large bow flares common> Low hull pressure unless belted> Non-marking fenders preferred> Many ship sizes use a berth

*Docking Aid Systems

Below are the most common classes of commercial ship and the main features a designer should consider:

*Docking Aid Systems

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Cargo (DWT)

Ballast(water)

LOA

KC (laden)DLDLFL

KC (Ballast)

FBDB

LBP

R

vB Point of impactat fender level

RBRB

LOA2

Berthing line

Centre of mass

x

a

B

LOA2 - x

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SHIP DIMENSIONS

SHIP DIMENSIONSDesigners should consider the dimensions of a range of ships that will use the berth and fenders. The most important characteristics to define are described below:

Maximum length of ship which defines size of lock or dry dock needed.Sometimes referred to as L.Length between the rudder pivot and the bow intersection with waterline.This is not the same as length at waterline although the two are often confused.The width of the ship, usually at the centre of the ship. Beam dimensions from some sources may include beltings but this is not relevant to berthing energy calculations.Laden draft is usually the maximum summer draft for good operating conditions. Ships will operate at this draft or less depending on amount of cargo carried.The minimum sailing draft when ship is unloaded and sailing in ballast condition.Usually considered only for tankers, bulk carriers, freighter and container ships. Ballast draft for tankers, bulk carriers and container ships is estimated as DB 2 + 0.02LOA.The maximum permitted draft of a ship. Rarely used for fender design.The freeboard at midships corresponding to laden draft (DL).The freeboard at midships corresponding to ballast draft (DB).The depth of water under the ship's hull (keel). The effect of ballast or ladendisplacement, high or low tide should be considered to determine worst design cases.The notional radius of the ship bow on a horizontal plane approximately coincidingwith the fender level. The radius is often taken as a constant for fender design but in practice can vary according to ship draft.Often not well defined as may vary with ship profile, berthing angle etc. The distance is commonly referred to as quarter point (x = 0.25LOA), fifth point (x = 0.2LOA) etcmeasured from the bow (or stern). See Eccentricity coefficient for more details.This dimension is used when determining the Eccentricity coefficient (CE). By convention centre of mass is assumed to be at midships (LOA/2) but may actually be 5~10% aft ofmidships for oil, bulk and cargo ships in ballast and/or trimmed by stern.

Length overall

Length betweenperpendicularsBeam (or breadth)

Laden draft

Ballast draft

Scantling draft (not shown)Laden freeboardBallast freeboardUnder keel clearance

Bow radius

Distance bow to impact

Impact to centre of mass

LOA

LBP

B

DL

DB

DSFLFBKC

RB

x

R

Point of impactat fender level

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SHIP TERMINOLOGYThe weight of the ship, the same asthe weight of water displaced by thehull when loaded to the stated draft.

The weight a ship is designed to safelycarry, including cargo, fuel, fresh waterand ballast water.

The weight of a bare ship excludingcargo, fuel etc.

An obsolete measure of the shipsinternal volume where:1 GRT = 100 ft = 2.83 mGRT is not related to displacementand is irrelevant to fender design.

A unitless index of the ships internalvolume used by the IMO. Sometimes(and wrongly) called GRT which itreplaced in 1982. GT is not related todisplacement and is irrelevant tofender design.

The size of a single, standard 20 footlong container, used as an indicationof container ship size or capacity.

DisplacementMD

DeadweightDWT

LightweightLWT

Gross RegisteredTonnageGRT

Gross TonnageGT

TwentyfootEquavalent UnitsTEU

BLOCK COEFFICIENT (CB)The Block Coefficient (CB) is the ratio of the actual volume of the hull to the box volume of the hull usually expressed as:

CB = LBP . DL . B . SWMD

If known, CB can be used to estimate displacement:

MD = CB . LBP . DL . B . SWDesign codes and standards suggest some typical ranges of block coefficient for various ship classes:

For load conditions other than fully laden (i.e. D < DL) then the Block Coefficient can be estimated:

Hull form

CB (at DL) 0.75

CB (at DL)< 0.75

Actual draft, D

DB < D < DL0.6DL < D < DLDB < D < 0.6DL

CB (at D < DL)

ConstantConstant

0.9 x CB (at DL)

Ship ClassTankersBulk (OBO)GasContainerRoRoFreighterCar CarrierCruise/FerryFast MonohullCatamaran*

PIANC 20020.85

0.720.85

0.600.800.700.800.720.85

ROM 3.1-990.720.850.780.870.680.540.630.710.570.800.560.770.560.660.570.680.450.490.430.44

BS 63490.720.850.720.85

0.650.700.650.70

0.500.70

* Beam (B) is the total of the two individual hulls

As well as their berthing speed to the fenders, ships may have other motions caused by wind, waves and currents which cause angular or shear movements of the fender during initial contact and whilst moored. In particular:

SHIP MOTIONS

Passing ships: Surge, sway and yawWind: Roll, sway and yawTide, currents: Surge and heaveWaves, swell: Surge and pitch

Designers should consider these motions and the effect they have on fenders such as shear forces,fatigue, abrasion and vibration effects on fixings.

Pitch

Yaw

Surge

Sway

Heave

Roll

DLLBP

B Waterlineof ship

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100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000

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TANKER

DWT

500,000441,585400,000350,000300,000275,000250,000225,000200,000175,000150,000125,000100,00080,00070,00060,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,0005,0003,000

MD(tonne)590,000*528,460475,000420,000365,000335,000305,000277,000246,000217,000186,000156,000125,000102,00090,00078,00066,00054,00042,00029,00015,0008,0004,900

LOA(m)41538038036535034033032031030028527025023522521721020018817414511090

LBP(m)39235935834533032131230329428527025523622321320620019017816513710485

B(m)73.068.068.065.563.061.059.057.055.052.549.546.543.040.038.036.032.230.028.024.519.015.013.0

HM(m)30.528.929.228.027.026.325.524.824.023.022.021.019.818.718.217.016.415.414.212.610.08.67.2

DL(m)24.024.523.022.021.020.519.919.318.517.716.916.015.114.013.513.012.611.810.89.87.87.06.0

DB(m)10.39.69.69.39.08.88.68.48.28.07.77.47.06.76.56.36.26.05.85.54.94.23.8

CB

0.8380.8620.8280.8240.8160.8140.8120.8110.8020.7990.8030.8020.7960.7970.8040.7890.7940.7830.7610.7140.7210.7150.721

* V-plus class carriers (worlds largest in current service - TI Europa & TI Oceana). Ballast draft assumes Marpol Rules

TypeSmall

HandysizeHandymax

Panamax

Aframax

Suezmax

VLCC (VeryLargeCrudeCarrier)ULCC (UltraLargeCrudeCarrier)

Dimensions

DL10mLOA180mB32.3m

LOA289.6mDL12.04m41B44mDL21.3mB70m

LOA500mLOA300m

Shipsize10,000DWT

10,000~30,000DWT30,000~55,000DWT60,000~75,000DWT

80,000~120,000DWT125,000~170,000DWT

250,000~320,000DWT350,000DWT

TANKERSLeng

th be

tween P

erpe

ndicu

lars, L P

P (m)

Deadweight, DWT (tonne)

Small

Han

dysize

Han

dymax

Pana

max

Afram

ax

Suezmax

VLCC

ULCC

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0100

200

300

400

0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000

Small

Han

dysize

Han

dymax

Pana

max

Cape

size

VLBC

10 >

DWT

402,347400,000350,000300,000250,000200,000150,000125,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,00010,000

MD(tonne)*454,000464,000406,000350,000292,000236,000179,000150,000121,00098,00074,00050,00026,00013,000

LOA(m)362375362350335315290275255240220195160130

LBP(m)350356344333318300276262242228210185152124

B(m)65.062.559.056.052.548.544.041.539.036.533.529.023.518.0

HM(m)30.430.629.328.126.525.023.322.120.819.418.216.312.610.0

DL(m)23.024.023.021.820.519.017.516.515.314.012.811.59.37.5

DB(m)9.29.59.29.08.78.37.87.57.16.86.45.95.24.6

CB

0.8460.8480.8490.8400.8320.8330.8220.8160.8180.8210.8020.7910.7640.758

*MS Vale Brasil and 11 sister ships under construction.Ballast draft assumes Marpol Rules.

TypeSmall

HandysizeHandymax

Panamax

Capesize

ChinamaxVLBC (Very Large Bulk Carrier)

DimensionsLOA 115mDL 10m

LOA 190mB 32.3m

LOA 289.6mDL 12.04m41 B 44m

LOA 300m

Shipsize 10,000 DWT

10,000 ~ 35,000 DWT35,000 55,000 DWT

60,000 ~ 80,000 DWT

80,000 ~ 200,000 DWT90,000 ~ 180,000 DWT

300,000 DWT 200,000 DWT

BULK CARRIERSLeng

th be

tween P

erpe

ndicu

lars, L P

P (m)

Deadweight, DWT (tonne)

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050

100

150

200

250

300

350

0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000

Small

SmallConventional

LargeConventional

Q-flex

Q-max

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GAS CARRIERS

DWT

*125,000**97,00090,00080,00052,00027,000

75,00058,00051,000

60,00050,00040,00030,00020,00010,0005,0003,000

60,00040,00020,000

MD(tonne)

175,000141,000120,000100,00058,00040,000

117,00099,00071,000

95,00080,00065,00049,00033,00017,0008,8005,500

88,00059,00031,000

LOA(m)

345.0315.0298.0280.0247.3207.8

288.0274.0249.5

265.0248.0240.0226.0207.0160.0134.0116.0

290.0252.0209.0

LBP(m)

333.0303.0285.0268.8231.0196.0

274.0262.0237.0

245.0238.0230.0216.0197.0152.0126.0110.0

257.0237.0199.0

B(m)

53.850.046.043.434.829.3

49.042.040.0

42.239.035.232.426.821.116.013.3

44.538.230.0

HM(m)

26.227.626.224.520.617.3

24.723.721.7

23.723.020.819.918.415.212.510.1

26.122.317.8

DL(m)

12.012.011.811.49.59.2

11.511.310.6

13.512.912.311.210.69.38.17.0

11.310.59.7

DB(m)

8.98.38.07.66.96.2

7.87.57.0

7.37.06.86.56.15.24.74.3

7.87.06.2

CB

0.7940.7570.7570.7340.7410.739

0.7390.7770.689

0.6640.6520.6370.6100.5750.5560.5260.524

0.6640.6060.522

*Q-max and **Q-flex class gas carriers. Ballast draft assumes Marpol Rules.

Type

Small

Small Conventional

Large Conventional

Q-flex

Q-max

Med-maxAtlantic-max

DimensionsLOA 250 mB 40 m

LOA 270298 mB 4149 m

LOA 285295 mB 4346 mDL 12 mLOA 315 mB 50 mDL 12 mLOA 345 mB 5355 mDL 12 m

Shipsize 90,000 m

120,000150,000 m

150,000180,000 m

200,000220,000 m

260,000 m

Approx 75,000 mApprox 165,000 m

GAS CARRIERS

Capacity(m)

266,000210,000177,000140,00075,00040,000

145,000125,00090,000

131,000109,00088,00066,00044,00022,00011,0007,000

131,00088,00044,000

LNG CARRIER PRISMATIC

LNG CARRIER SPHERICAL, MOSS

LPG CARRIER

METHANE CARRIER

Leng

th be

tween P

erpe

ndicu

lars, L P

P (m)

LNG Capacity (m)

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050,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

0 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 18,0000

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

DisplacementDWT (Design)DWT (Scantling) Disp

lacemen

t

Scantling D

eadweight

Design Deadwe

ight

Small

Feed

er

Pana

max

Post-Pan

amax

New

Pan

amax

ULCV

12 >

TypeSmallFeeder

Panamax

Post-Panamax (existing)

New Panamax

ULCS (Ultra Large Container Ship)

DimensionsB 23.0m (approx)23.0m B > 30.2m

B 32.3mDL 12.04mLOA 294.1mB > 32.3m

39.8m B > 45.6mB 48.8mDL 15.2m

LOA 365.8mB > 48.8m

Shipsize< 1,000 teu

1,000~2,800 teu

2,800~5,100 teu

5,500~10,000 teu

12,000~14,000 teu

> 14,500 teu

CONTAINER SHIPS

DWT

*195,000**171,000157,000143,000101,00081,00067,00058,00054,00048,60043,20038,10030,800

30,80027,70022,40018,20013,80011,6009,3007,0004,800

MD(tonne)262,566228,603190,828171,745145,535120,894100,89385,56574,39970,54565,00654,88542,389

43,16637,87932,20826,76219,21915,71913,70210,3907,472

LOA(m)420397366366349323300276294286269246211

222209202182160150140122107

LBP(m)395375350350334308286263283271256232196

210197190170149140130115100

B(m)56.456.448.448.445.642.840.040.032.232.232.232.232.2

30.030.028.028.025.023.021.819.817.2

HM(m)26.725.324.824.523.622.721.720.920.419.819.018.217.0

17.016.415.314.413.412.912.311.711.1

DL(m)15.014.015.013.513.013.013.012.512.012.011.811.310.7

10.610.09.28.68.07.67.47.06.5

DB(m)9.99.59.09.08.78.27.77.37.77.47.16.65.9

6.25.95.85.45.04.84.64.34.0

CB

0.7670.7530.7330.7330.7170.6880.6620.6350.6640.6570.6520.6340.612

0.6310.6250.6420.6380.6290.6270.6370.6360.652

*Triple-E class 18,000 TEU due in service 2014 **E class (Emma Maersk, Estelle Maersk etc) eight vessels in the Maersk fleet. Capacities and dimensions are compiled from multiple sources including ROM, MAN and PIANC. Ballast draft is assumes using Marpol rules.

TEU

18,00015,50014,00012,50010,0008,0006,5005,5005,1004,5004,0003,5002,800

2,8002,5002,0001,6001,2001,000800600400

Panamax and sub-Panamax classes (B 32.2m)

Displac

emen

t, M

D (to

nne)

Maximum TEU capacity

Dead

weight, D

WT (tonn

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13>

GENERAL CARGO

DWT

40,00035,00030,00025,00020,00015,00010,0005,0002,500

MD(tonne)54,50048,00041,00034,50028,00021,50014,5007,5004,000

LOA(m)20919918817816615213310585

LBP(m)19918917916915814512710080

B(m)30.028.927.726.424.822.619.815.813.0

HM(m)18171615.413.812.811.28.56.8

DL(m)12.512.011.310.710.09.28.06.45.0

DB(m)6.185.985.765.565.325.044.664.103.70

CB

0.7130.7140.7140.7050.6970.6960.7030.7240.750

Ballast draft assumes Marpol rules.

GENERAL CARGO (FREIGHTER)

DWT

50,00045,00040,00035,00030,00025,00020,00015,00010,0005,000

MD(tonne)

87,50081,50072,00063,00054,00045,00036,00027,50018,4009,500

LOA(m)

287275260245231216197177153121

LBP(m)

273261247233219205187168145115

B(m)

32.232.232.232.232.031.028.626.223.419.3

HM(m)

28.527.626.224.823.522.021.019.217.013.8

DL(m)

12.412.011.410.810.29.69.18.47.46.0

CB

0.7830.7880.7750.7590.7370.7200.7220.7260.7150.696

RORO & FERRIES

FREIGHT RORO

RO-PAX (RORO FERRY)

DWT

15,00012,50011,50010,2009,0008,0006,500

MD(tonne)

25,00021,00019,00017,00015,00013,00010,500

LOA(m)

197187182175170164155

LBP(m)

183174169163158152144

B(m)

30.628.727.626.525.324.122.7

HM(m)

16.515.715.314.914.514.113.6

DL(m)

7.16.76.56.36.15.95.6

CB

0.6130.6120.6110.6090.6000.5870.560

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DWT

--------

GT

30,00025,00020,00015,000

MD(tonne)48,00042,00035,50028,500

LOA(m)220205198190

LBP(m)205189182175

B(m)32.232.232.232.2

HM(m)31.229.427.526.5

DL(m)11.710.910.09.0

CB

0.6060.6180.5910.548

CAR TRANSPORTER

DWT

225,282155,873148,528110,000102,58780,00070,00060,00050,00040,00035,000

MD(tonne)105,75074,12672,19350,25352,23944,00038,00034,00029,00024,00021,000

LOA(m)362329345291273272265252234212192

LPP(m)308280293247232231225214199180164

B(m)47.040.041.035.436.035.032.232.232.232.232.2

HM(m)22.522.122.720.419.720.019.318.818.017.317.0

DL(m)9.38.710.18.28.28.07.87.67.16.56.3

CB

0.7670.7420.5800.6840.7440.6640.6560.6330.6220.6220.616

SHIP NAME

Allure of the SeasNorwegian EpicQueen Mary 2

Carnival ConquestCosta Fortuna

Generic Post PanamaxGeneric PanamaxGeneric PanamaxGeneric PanamaxGeneric PanamaxGeneric Panamax

CRUISE SHIPS

DWT

--------

GT

20,00015,00010,0008,000

MD(tonne)3,2002,4001,6001,280

LOA(m)140128112102

LBP(m)13312010287.5

B(m)2119.216.915.4

HM(m)5.85.45.25.0

DL(m)2.92.72.52.5

CB

0.6060.6180.5910.548

Draft excludes hydroplanes and stabilisers which may add up to 80% to vessel draft if extended.Waterline breadth is 0.8~0.9 x beam at deck level.

FAST FERRIES MONOHULL

DWT

--------

GT

30,00025,00020,00015,000

MD(tonne)48,00042,00035,50028,500

LOA(m)220205198190

LBP(m)205189182175

B(m)32.232.232.232.2

HM(m)31.229.427.526.5

DL(m)11.710.910.09.0

CB

0.6060.6180.5910.548

Block coefficient is calculated using total width of both hulls, maximum waterline breadth of each hull is approximately25% of the beam at deck level (given).

FAST FERRIES - CATAMARAN

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Chinamax(unlimited air draft)

New Panamax

Panamax

Suezmax(unlimited length)

Q-max

Seawaymax

15>

SHIP LIMITS

SHIP LIMITSIn many parts of the world, ships sizes arelimited due to locks, channels and bridges.Common limiting dimensions are length, beam, draft and air draft.

LOA Length overall B Beam (or breadth) DL Laden Draft DA Air Draft

Chinamax relates to port capacity at multiple harbours in China. The maximum is 380,000400,000dwt but a restriction of 380,000dwtwas imposed on ships.

CHINAM

AXNE

W PA

NAMA

XPA

NAMA

XSU

EZMA

XQ-

MAX

SEAW

AYMA

X

The new (third) Panama Canal locks are scheduled to open in 2015. Some existing ships too large for the current locks(post-Panamax) and newpurpose designed ships will be able to transit.

The (second) Panama Canal locks were commissioned in1914 and have dictated thedesign of many shipsever since.

The Suez Canal allowspractically unrestrictedpassage, except for a fewfully laden oil tankers.

Q-max is a prismatic LNGcarrier of the largest size ableto dock at terminals in Qatar,in particular limited by draftin the region.

Seawaymax are the largestships which can transit lockson the St Lawrence Seawayinto Lake Ontario. Larger ships operate within the lakes but cannot pass the locks.

LOA 360 m

B 65 m

DL 24 m

DA No Limit

LOA 366 m

B 49 m

DL 15.2 m

DA 57.91 m

LOA 294.13 m

B 32.31 m

DL 12.04 m

DA 57.91 m

LOA No Limit

B 50 m

DL 20.1 m

DA 68 m

LOA 345 m

B 53.8 m

DL 12 m

DA 34.7 m

LOA 225.6 m

B 23.8 m

DL 7.92 m

DA 35.5 m

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DL

DB

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16 >

SHIP LOADSMost berths are designed to import or export cargo, sometimes both. The different draft and displacement of the ship in these cases can be important to the fender design.

Import berths

In case the fenders are designed for ships at ballast draft or partly loaded, care is needed in case the ship departsfully loaded but must return due to some technical problem. On import/export berths the ship should not beconsidered as light or unladen.

Tankers & Bulk Carriers

For import berths the ship will mostly arrive fully or partly loaded. Over-sized ships might use the berth but with a draft restriction.

Export berthsAt export berths ships usually arrive in ballastcondition, with water inside special tanks to make sure the ship is properly trimmed, propeller andrudder submerged and the ship stableand manoeuvrable. Ballast water isdischarged as the cargo is loaded. Passenger, Cruise & RoRo berthsSuch ships carry very little cargo so their draft changes only a small amount between loaded and unloaded condition. In these cases the ships should always be considered as fully loaded for calculating berthing energy. Minimum draft is usually at least 90% of fully laden draft.ShipyardsOnly when ships are under construction or being repaired is it feasible they could be in lightcondition without cargo or ballast. Special careis needed because hull features like beltings might sit over the fenders, or underwater protrusions might be at fender level.

BALLAST BLOCK COEFFICIENTFor full form ships, particularly tankers and bulk carriers, it is common to assume that Block Coefficient (CB) does not vary with actual draft (D) under any load condition. For other ship types the Block Coefficient will reduce slightly as draft reduces.

Other Ship types

DL D DU

DL D 0.6 DL

D < 0.6 DL

CB =MD

LBP . B . DL . SW

CB = 0.9 . MD

LBP . B . DL . SW

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vv

a bS/2 S/2

v

v

17>

SHIP APPROACH

SHIP APPROACHDepending on the ship and berth type, vessels can approach the structure in different ways. This type of ap-proach must be considered carefully to understand the true point of contact on the hull, the velocity direction (vector) and other factors which might cause the fender to compress at angles, shear under friction, cantilever etc. The most common cases are:

SIDE BERTHING

> Ship is parallel or at a small angle to the berthing line.> Velocity vector is approximately perpendicular to the berthing line.> Ship rotates about the point of contact with fender(s) which dissipates some kinetic energy.> Contact is typically between 20% and 35% from bow, depending on bow radius and geometry.> Ship may hit one, two, three or more fenders depending on their size and the bow radius of the ship.> If velocity is not exactly perpendicular to berthing line then there is some shear in the fenders due to friction.

DOLPHIN BERTHING> Ship is parallel or at a small angle to the berthing line.> Common method for oil/gas terminals where velocity vector is mostly perpendicular to the berthing line.> Also common for some RoRo berths where velocity vector may include a large forward/aft component (towards ramp) that can produce big shear forces.> Contact on oil/gas terminals is often between 30% and 40% of length from bow or stern, usually on the flat mid-section of the hull.> Contact on RoRo berths is usually 25% and 35% of length from bow, but often at midships on outer dolphins.> If velocity is not exactly perpendicular to berthing line then there is some shear in the fenders due to friction.

END BERTHING

> Ship is moving forward or aft towards the structure.> Common approach to RoRo ramps and pontoons, but sometimes applied to barges and heavy load ships.> Berthing angles usually small but could result in a single fender or very small area coming into contact with the ship bow or stern belting.> Berthing speeds can be high and there is little if any rotation of ship about point of contact, so fender must absorb all kinetic energy.> Virtual mass (added mass) of entrained water is quite low due to more streamlined profile of hull.

LOCK APPROACH

> Ship approach is usually coaxial with the lock centre-line.> If ship is off centre the bow can strike the berth corner so berthing line is a tangent to the ship hull.> Velocity vector has a large forward component, so will create big and sustained shear forces due to friction.> Point of contact can be far forward so large bow flares should be considered.> Point of contact can also be a long way aft, 30% of length or more from the bow so little rotation to dissipate berthing energy.

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DKc

VB

Kc/D

C M

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

18 >

ADDED MASS FACTOR (CM)When a ship moves sideways towards a berth it drags along a mass of water. As the ships motion is reduced by the fenders, the momentum of the wa-ter pushes it against the ship hull which increases the total kinetic energy to be absorbed. The added mass factor takes account of the actual mass (dis-placement) of the ship and the virtual mass of the water:

There are different estimates about the true virtual mass of water moving with the ship, but it is agreed that the effect is smaller in deep water and greater in shallow water. This is due to limited under keel clearance (KC) available for water that pushes the ship to escape. Some formulas for Added Mass Factor consider this, others account for it separately within the Berth Configuration Factor (CC). The common formulas for Added Mass Factor are:

PIANC Method (2002)PIANC amalgamated the methods below and the Berth Configuration Factor (CC) in their 2002 report, considering the effect of added mass and under-keel clearance within the same term. This method is now adopted by EAU-2004 and some other codes. With this method CC=1.

0.1 CM = 1.8DKC

> 0.5 CM = 1.875 0.75DKC0.1 > ( )DKC

0.5 CM = 1.5DKC

Vasco Costa Method (1964)First proposed in his publication The Berthing Ship (1964), this method remains the most commonly used by international standards including BS6349 and other codes.

Shigeru Ueda Method (1981)Based on model testing and field observations, this method is widely used in Japan and yields similaror slightly lower values compared to VascoCosta Method.

CM = 1+ B2 . D

CM = 1+ 2 . B . CB . D

where DB D DL

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Po

int

Distance from bow (x/LBP)

Eccentric

ity Fa

ctor (C

E)

0 deg5 deg10 deg15 deg20 deg

Po

int

Po

int

Po

int

Midsh

ips

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50LBP/2

LBP/2 - xx

vB

R

LBP/2

vB

LBP/2

0

LBP/2-x

vB

LBP/2

vSRv

Side Fenders

End F

ende

rs

x

19>

ECCENTRICITY FACTOR

ECCENTRICITY FACTOR (CE)If the ships velocity vector (v) does not pass through the point of contact with the fender then the ship rotates as well as compressing the fender. The rotation dissipates part of the ships kinetic energy and the remainder must be absorbed by the fender.

SIDE BERTHINGTypically: 0.4 CR 0.7 0 20 60 80

If the distance between the velocity vector and the fender contact point increases (i.e. is closer to the bow) then CE reduces, and vice versa. If the fender contact point is directly opposite the ships centre of mass during side or end berthing then the ship does not rotate (CE 1).

1Total kinetic energy of ship

Kinetic energy imparted to fenderCE =

MIDSHIPS CONTACTTypically: CE = 1.0 x = LBP/2

RORO BERTHSTypically: 0.4 CE 0.7 (Side) CE = 1.0 (End)

Example for a 100,000dwt fully laden oil tanker(see page 9), assuming a thirdpoint side berthingcontact (typical for dolphins) and 5 berthing angle:

The special caseof = 90should be usedwith care

Common approximations of Eccentricity Factor are made for quick energy calculations:

Fifthpoint berthing: CE 0.45 Quarterpoint berthing: CE 0.50 Thirdpoint berthing: CE 0.70 Midships berthing: CE 1.00 End berthing (RoRo): CE 1.00

CE =K + (R cos () )

K + R

K = (0.19 . CB + 0.11) . LBP

R = ( x) + ( )LBP2B2

= 90 asin( )B2R

MD = 125,000tLBP = 236m

CB =125000

1.025 . 236 . 43 . 15.1= 0.796

K = (0.19 . 0.796 + 0.11) . 236 = 61.7m

R = ( ) + ( )= 44.8m 2362432

2363

= 90 5 asin ( )= 56.3 432 . 44.8

B = 43.0mDL = 15.1m

CE =61.7 + (44.8 . cos (56.3) )

61.7 + 44.8 = 0.761

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DKc

vB

D

Kc

vB

D

Kc

vB

f

Rf vB

20 >

BERTH CONFIGURATION FACTOR (CC)During the final stage of berthing a ship pushes a volume of water towards the structure. Depending on the type of structure the water might flow freely through the piles or it may get trapped between the hull and the concrete. The cushioning effect of the water will also depend on the under keel clearance (KC) and the berthing angle of the ship (). A large space under the ship hull perhaps at high tide or when berthing in ballast condi-tion will allow water to escape under the ship. When the ship does not berth parallel then water may escape towards the bow or stern.

The PIANC method for Added Mass factor (CM) takes account of the under keel clearance so in this case CC=1.If the Vasco Costa or Shigeru Ueda methods are used for Added Mass then CC may be considered according toabove guidelines.

SOFTNESS FACTOR (CS)Hard fenders may cause the ship hull to deflect elastically which absorbs a small amount of energy. Modern fenders are mostly regarded as soft so this effect does not absorb energy.

Solid Structure

Partly Closed Structure

Open Pile Structure

~ 0.5 CC = 0.8 ( 5)KCD

~ > 0.5 CC = 0.9 ( 5)KCD

when > 5 CC = 1.0

~ 0.5 CC = 0.9 ( 5)KCD

~ > 0.5 CC = 1.0 ( 5)KCD

when > 5 CC = 1.0

CC = 1.0

f 0.15m CS 0.9

f 0.15m CS 1.0

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0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

10 10 10 10

d

e

c

a

b

21>

BERTHING SPEEDS

*Design berthing speeds below 0.08m/s are not recommended.**PIANC states curves d and e may be high and should be used with caution.

0.1790.1360.1170.0940.082

************

0.3430.2690.2360.1920.1690.1530.1330.1190.1100.0940.083******

0.5170.4040.3520.2870.2520.2280.1980.1780.1640.1410.1260.1070.0950.0860.080

**

0.6690.5240.4590.3770.3320.3030.2640.2390.2210.1900.1710.1460.1310.1200.1110.0990.090

0.8650.6490.5580.4480.3910.3550.3080.2790.2580.2230.2010.1740.1580.1460.1370.1240.115

DisplacementMD (tonne)

1,0003,0005,00010,00015,00020,00030,00040,00050,00075,000100,000150,000200,000250,000300,000400,000500,000

BERTHING SPEEDSShip berthing speeds are the most important variable in the energy calculation. The speed is measuredperpendicular to the berthing line (vB) and depends on several factors which the designer must consider:

> Whether or not the berthing ship is assisted by tugs; > The difficulty of the approach manoeuvre onto the berth; > How exposed the berth might be including currents and winds which push the ship; > The size of the ship and whether it is berthing fully laden, part laden or in ballast.

BS6349, PIANC and many otherstandards adopt the Brolsmaberthing speeds graph. Selectedvalues from the curves are alsoprovided in the table below.The most commonly used berthingconditions are represented bylines b and c.

a: Easy berthing, shelteredb: Difficult berthing, shelteredc: Easy berthing, exposedd: Good berthing, exposede: Difficult berthing, exposed

Berthing speeds are for conventional commercial ships. For unusual ship types including high speed monohulls and catamarans, barges, tugs and similar craft please refer to Fender Team for advice. For navy ships designers can refer to US Department of Defence guidelines, UFC 4-152-01 (figures 5.3 & 5.4).

Berthing without TugsAll speeds in the graph and table assume conventional

ships berthing with tug assistance.If tugs are not used then designers should refer to graphs provided in:

(i) EAU 2004 (Fig. R40-1)(ii) ROM 0.2-90 (Table 3.4.2.3.5.2)

These codes suggest that berthing speeds without tugs can be 2~3 times higher in favourable conditions, and 1.3~2.3 times higher in unfavourable conditions.

a b c d* e**

Berth

ing V

elocit

y - Tu

g Assist

ed, v

B (m/s)

Displacement, MD (tonne)

From BS6349 : Part 4 : 1994 : Figure 1

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22 >

Unless otherwise stated, suggested values are from PIANC 2002 (Table 4.2.5).

LARGEST1.25A1.25A

SMALLEST1.75B1.75B

COMMENTS & INTERPRETATIONSA: Suezmax and above B: Handymax and smallerA: Capesize and above B: Handymax and smallerNo PIANC guidance. Safety critical so high factor required.A: Post-Panamax and above B: Panamax and smallerUse higher factors and speeds if tugs are unavaibableHigh safety factors may be necessary on the most exposed berths.No PIANC guidance. Large wind area can make berthing difficult.No PIANC guidance. Large wind area can make berthing difficult.No PIANC guidance. Ships have limited slow speed manoeuvrability .Come in all shapes and sizes. Many unknowns.

VESSEL CLASSTankersBulk carriersGas carriersContainer shipsGeneral cargo, freightersRoRo & FerriesCar carriersCruise shipsFast ferriesTugs, workboats

BERTHING ENERGYThe berthing energy of the ship is considered in two stages:

NORMAL ENERGY The normal kinetic berthing energy (EN) of the ship is determined as:

SAFETY FACTOR ()The safety factor takes account of events and circumstances that may cause the normal energy to be exceed-ed. PIANC states that the designers judgement should be paramount in determining the appropriate factor. Care should be taken to avoid excessive safety factors which will render the fenders too large or too hard for smaller ships, particularly when there is a wide range in the size of ships using the berth.Some safety factors are suggested by PIANC (also adopted by EAU-2004, other codes and guidelines):

Normal Energy (EN)The normal energy may occur routinely and regularly dur-ing the lifetime of the berth without causing damage to the fender. It will consider:

> The full range of ships using the berth> Likely displacements when berthing (not necessarily fully laden)> Berthing frequency> Ease or difficulty of the approach manoeuvre> Local weather conditions> Strength of tide or currents> Availability and power of tugs

Abnormal Energy (EA)The abnormal energy arises rarely during the life of the fender and should not result in any significant fender damage. It will consider:

> The effect of fender failure on berth operations> Occasional exceptional ships> Large ships with very slow speeds that need exceptional skill during docking manoeuvres> Hazardous cargoes and environmental impact> Human error> Equipment failure

1.50~2.001.50A 2.00B

1.752.002.002.00

2.002.00

ABNORMAL ENERGY The abnormal kinetic berthing energy (EA) of the ship is determined as:

The energy capacity of the fender (ERPD) must always be greater than the abnormal energy (EA). Fender selection should also con-sider manufacturing temperature, compression angle, operating temperatures and compression speeds. Please refer to page 26.

fTOL . fANG . fTEMP . fVELEAERPD

EA = EN .

EN = 0.5 . MD . VB . CM . CE . CC . CS

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23>

CONTENTS

CONTENTS (Section 2 of 2)03

2324262728293031323334353637384041424445464748495051525455

SECTION 1 : BERTHING ENERGY CALCULATION Ship tables and methodology for calculating berthing energy is covered in PART 1.

SECTION 2 : FENDER SELECTION GUIDEFender SelectionEnergy Capacity & Environmental FactorsFender EfficiencyFender ApplicationsFender SpacingMultiple Fender ContactBending MomentsPanel ConstructionFender Panels & Hull PressuresPressure DistributionLow Friction Pads & Fixings Chain DesignChain Droop & Bracket DesignWheels & RollersFoam Fender DesignAngular CompressionFoam Fender InstallationDonut FendersDonut ApplicationsPneumatic Fender InstallationHydro-Pneumatic FendersEnvironment & Corrosion PreventionAnodes, Paint Coatings, Stainless SteelPerformance TestingType Approval CertificatesProject QuestionnaireConversion FactorsAfter Sales Warranty

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24 >

FENDER SELECTIONBefore selecting fenders the designer should review all project requirements and other available information including reference design codes and guidelines. The list below acts as a useful checklist to identify which information is known from the specifications and which is missing inputs requiring assumptions or further research. Some design data is derived from calculations so it is also important to highlight if these calculations were based on known and/or assumed information.

Ship sizes Ship types or classes Loaded or ballast condition Under-keel clearances Berthing mode Frequency of berthing Approach speed Berthing angles Point of impact Bow flare angles Bow radius Beltings Side doors and hull protrusions Freeboard levels Berth construction Cope level & soffit levels Available width for fender footprint Seabed level Design tidal ranges New or existing structure Construction or expansion joints Temperature ranges Ice flows Local corrosivity

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25>

FENDER SELECTION

FENDER SELECTIONOther design criteria for the fenders may be specified or assumed according to best practice, type of berth and local conditions using the designers experience. There are many aspects to consider in fender design and the correct selection will increase performance, improve operations and reduce maintenance. Sometimes the smallest detail like using thicker low-friction face pads or adding a corrosion allowance to chains can extend service life for very little extra cost.

Fender type (fixed, floating etc) Fender size and grade

Temperature, angular and speed factors Manufacturing tolerance Type approval to PIANC, ASTM or ISO

Testing, certification and witnessing

Hull pressures Panel height and width

Edge chamfers or bevels Bending moments Open or closed box panel design Steel grades (yield, low temperature etc)

Corrosion allowances

Paint durability (ISO12944 etc) Dry film thickness

Paint type Topcoat colours

Low-friction face pad material Wear allowance

Colour Face pad size and weight Fixing method and stud grade

Weight, shear and tension chains

Link type, grade and finish Connection brackets on structure

Connection to fender panel Adjustment or toleranced chains

Working load safety factor Weak link (PIANC)

Corrosion allowance

Cast-in or retrofit anchors Material grade and finish

Lock tabs or lock nuts Special washers

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0.91.01.11.21.31.41.51.6

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature, T (C)

23C

Tempe

ratu

re Fa

ctor, f T

EMP

0.991.001.011.021.031.041.051.06

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Compression Time, t = 2/vB (seconds)

Velocit

y Fav

tor, f

VEL

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

1.05

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20Compression Angle, (degrees)

Angu

lar Fa

ctor, f A

NG

26 >

ENERGY CAPACITYIn all cases the fender must have an energy absorption capacity greater than or equal to the ships calculated abnormal berthing energy (or the specifications stated Required Energy as defined by PIANC). Due allowance should be made for fender manufacturing tolerances (fTOL) and the effects of temperature, compression speed or rate and compression angles (horizontal and vertical).

Different fender types and materials respond in different ways to these effects so please consult the Fender-Team product catalogue or ask for specific data for the type and material being used. Data shown is typical for SPC fenders.

TEMPERATURE FACTOR (fTEMP)Rubber and foam, like most materials, gets softer when hot, stiffer when cold. The datum temperature is 23C (fTEMP = 1).

The fenders minimum energy will occur at the highestoperating temperature, the maximum reaction force willoccur at the lowest operating temperature.

VELOCITY FACTOR (fVEL)Rubber and foam have visco-elastic properties which means they work partly like a spring, partly like a shock absorber.The datum initial impact speed is 0.15m/s.

This factor depends on strain rate and the size of the fender, so the velocity factor is determined from the compression time where, t= 2/vB . The fenders maximum reaction force will occur at the highest impact speed.

In practice, most fender compressions take longer than 4 seconds.

ANGULAR FACTOR (fANG )Some fenders are affected by the compression angle because some areas of the rubber or foam are more compressed than others. The datum angle is 0.

The fenders minimum energy will occur at the largestcompression angle. fANG should be determined using thecompound (vertical and horizontal) angle for cone & cell fenders. fANG should be determined using the individualvertical and horizontal factors for linear types like arch,cylindrical and foam fenders.

Angular factors >1.0 are usually ignored.

MAXIMUM FENDER REACTION (RF)

fTOL is the manufacturing tolerance for the fender type,typically 10% for moulded rubber fenders, 20% forextruded rubber fenders and 15% for foam fenders.

For historical reasons the tolerance of pneumatic fender is 0% for energy (termed the guaranteed energy absorptionor GEA) and 10% for reaction.

MINIMUM FENDER ENERGY (EF)

RPD is the published or catalogue performance of the fender at 23C, 0.15m/s initial impact speed, 0 compression angle and mid-tolerance.ERPD is the fender energy at RPDRRPD is the fender reaction at RPD

FENDER TOLERANCE (fTOL)RATED PERFORMANCE DATA (RPD)

RF = RRPD . fTOL . fANG . fTEMP . fVELEF = ERPD . fTOL . fANG . fTEMP . fVEL

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27>

EXAMPLE 1The largest ship berths 12 times per year.It hits fenders at highest speed once in 100berthings. It berths with largest angleonce in 40 berthings. Fender design life (N)is assumed in this case to be 25 years.The likelihood of this event at any tide level is:

Designers may regard this as significant

EXAMPLE 2The largest ship berths 12 times per year.It hits fenders at highest speed once in 100berthings. It berths with largest angleonce in 40 berthings. Fender design life (N)is assumed in this case to be 25 years.The probability of this event happening at LAT(every 18.5 years) is:

Designers may regard this as insignificant

RISK ANALYSISEach assumption made in the design carries a risk. The probability and frequency of particular events happen-ing during the working life of the fenders or structure can be estimated. It might not be commercially viable to protect against every very small risk, but if there is a high probability of some events, and these events have important consequences, then a risk analysis will assist designers to select the best fender.

P = The probability an event is equalled (or exceeded) at least once in a given time Y = The return period of an event N = Service life

FENDER EFFICIENCY

FENDER EFFICIENCYEvery fender type has different characteristics. Any comparison will start with reviewing the ratio of energy at low end tolerance (ELET) and reaction at high end tolerance (RHET). The efficiency of the fender (Eff) what is the force into the structure per unit of energy absorbed.

This comparison only considers energy, reaction and manufacturing tolerances. A more detailed comparison would take account of compression angles, temperature and impact speed. There will be other factors too, including suitability for small or large tides, fender height and deflection, low level impacts, hull pressure, belt-ings, non-marking fenders, ease of installation, maintenance, durability and price.

Single Cone1 pce/systemSPC1000 G2.1

ELET: 501 x 0.9 = 451kNmRHET: 955 x 1.1 = 1051kNEff: 451/1051 = 0.43

Dual Cone2 pcs/systemSPC800 G2.0


Cylindrical1 pce/system

1400x700x2300L


Pneumatic1 pce/system

2000x3500(0.8)


Foam1 pce/system

OG 2000x4000 STD


P = (1- (1- )N) . 100%1Y

Y = 1/ (12 . . ) = 333 years1100140

P = (1- (1- )25 ) . 100% = 7.2%1333

Y = 1/ (12 . . . ) = 6167 years1100140

118.5

P = (1- (1- )25 ) . 100% = 0.4%16167

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VESSEL TYPES

APPLICATIONS

Tankers

Bulk Carriers

Gas Carriers

Container Ships

General Cargo

Barges

RoRo Ferries

Car Carriers

Cruise Ships

Fast Ferries

Navy Surface Ships

Submarines

Linear wharf/doc

Dolphins

Monopiles

Low-freeboard ships

Belted ships

Large bow flares

Large tide zones

Small tide zones

Ice Zones

Lead-in structures

Lay-by berths

RoRo ramp fenders

Lock entrances

Lock walls

Shipyards

Ship-to-ship

Ship carried fenders

Temporary berths

Generally suitablefender type

Suitable for some applicationsin this category

Requires specialist product knowledge- Ask Fender Team

SPC

CSS

FE PM PVT

V-SX

V-SX

P

V-SH

CYL

RF WF

PNEU

HYD-PN

FOAM

DONU

T

EXT

SPC

CSS

FE PM PVT

V-SX

V-SX

P

V-SH

CYL

RF WF

PNEU

HYD-PN

FOAM

DONU

T

EXT

28 >

FENDER APPLICATIONSCorrectly selected fenders will be an asset to a berth, providing smooth and trouble-free operations.

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RB

LOA/2 LOA/2 - x x

Parallel Side Body (PSB)

B

S/2 S/2h HC

RB

29>

The distance between fenders is:

S = fender spacingRB = Bow radiusH = Uncompressed fender heighth = Compressed fender heightC = Clearance to wharf = Berthing angle = Tangential angle with fender The contact angle with the fender is:

BS6349 suggests that:

LS = Overall length of shortest ship

FENDER SPACING

FENDER SPACINGDesign standards like BS6349 say that a fender can be a single system or several systems close enoughtogether to all be mobilized during the berthing impact. The ships bow radius, bow flare angle andberthing angle will determine the fender selection and the distance between fenders.

BOW RADIUSShips are often assumed to have a constant radius hull curvature from bow to the parallel side body (PSB). Streamlined ships which are designed for high speeds (i.e. container, cruise and some RoRo ships) will have a bow curvature that extends further back on the hull. A ship designed to carry maximum cargo (i.e. bulk carrier or oil tanker) will have a shorter bow curvature.

FENDER PITCHLarge spaces between fenders may allow ships, especiallysmaller ones, to contact the structure. At all times there shouldbe a clearance between ship and structure, usually 5~15% of theuncompressed fender projection (including any fender panel, spacer spools etc).

The amount of bow curvature is sometimes estimated based on the ships block coefficient:

Bow radius can be calculated as:

CB < 0.6 0.3LOAx

0.6 CB < 0.8 0.25LOAx

CB 0.8 0.2LOAx

RB = + Bx

4B

S 2 RB - (RB - h + C)

= asin ( )2 . RBS

S 0.15 LS

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C'C

Ship Deck

a

H h C H h1 h2 (=C)F1 F2 F1F1 F1

30 >

MULTIPLE FENDER CONTACTDepending on bow radius and the fender spacing, ships may contact more than one fender when berthing. If this happens the total berthing energy will be absorbed according to the respective deflection of each fender.

BOW FLAREThe angle of the ships bow at the point of contact may reduce the effective clearance between the hull and the structure:

C = C - a . sin ( )

C = clearance at bow flareC = clearance due to bow radius and fender deflectiona = height from fender to ship deck (or to top of structure, whichever is lower) = bow flare angle fender panel, spacer spools etc).

Even Fender Contact (2, 4 etc)> Energy is divided equally between two fenders> Reduced deflection of each fender> Greater total reaction into the berth structure> Clearance (C) will depend on bow radius and bow flare> Small bow radius ships may get closer to structure

Odd Fender Contact (1, 3, 5 etc)> Energy absorbed by one fender plus the fenders each side> Larger middle fender deflection is likely> Bow flare is important> Single fender contact likely for smallest ships> Multi-fender contact possible with biggest ships

DOLPHINS & END FENDERSOn dolphin structures and for the end fenders on continu-ous berths it is common to design with a fender compres-sion angle the same as the ships berthing angle (=).

M (R) =W . b2 . L

Always check the clearance between thefender panel or brackets and structure too.

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V(x) M(x)

xFa

a

RF

RF

V(x) M(x)

x

F

F a

b

a

RF

RF

V(x) M(x)

x

q

a

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a

RF

RF

31>

L = 2a + bq = 2RF /LV ( x = a) = q . aM ( x = a) = q . a/2M ( x = L/2) = M ( x = a) q . b/8

BENDING MOMENTS

BENDING MOMENTSFender panels are designed to distribute forces into the ships hull. Ships usually contact the fender panel at one or two points or as a flat hull contact. This creates bending moments and shear forces in the panel struc-ture. Bending moments and shear forces are estimated using simple static methods. A more detailed analysis is needed to study the complicated effects of asymmetric load cases. Special care is needed where stresses are concentrated such as chain brackets and bolted connections. Fender Team are equipped to assist with ad-vanced structural analysis to European and other design codes.

DESIGN CASESSome simplified common design cases are given below:

A ship belting contacting themiddle of the panel will cause high bending moments. The upper and lower fenders are equally com-pressed and can both reach peak reaction.

MIDDLE BELTING CONTACT

L = 2aF= 2RFV ( x = a) = RFM ( x = a) = F . L /4

Low belting contacts cause the panel to tilt with unequal de-flection of fenders. The top maycontact the ship hull, creating a long length of panel which must resist bending.

LOW BELTING CONTACT

W . b2 . L

Maximum shear force V(x) and bending momentM(x) can coincide at the centre of the panel.

Maximum shear force V(x) and bending moment M(x) coincide at the fender positions. If belting contact is below the equilibrium point the panel is pushed inwards at the bottom.

Peak shear force V(x) and bending moment M(x) often coincides at fender positions. A simple analysis assumes a symmetrical panel and equal reactions (RF) from the fenders.

High freeboard ships with flat sides may contact the full fender panel. Systems may have one or more rubber units which will be equally compressed.

FLAT HULL CONTACT

L = 2a + bF = RFV ( x = a) = FM ( x = a) = F . a

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Neutral Axis

Front Plate

Back Plate

Internal StiffenersSide Bevel Welded Studs

32 >

There are many demands on the fender panel which cause bend-ing, shear, torsion, crushing and fatigue.

The marine environment demands good paint coatings which prevent steel from corroding and to main-tain panel strength.

Low temperatures require special steel grades which do not become brittle.

Face pads must be secured to the panel firmly, but still allow easy re-placement during the lifetime of the fender.

PANEL CONSTRUCTIONMost modern fender panels use a closed box construction. This method of design has a high strength to weight ratio and creates a simple exterior shape which is easier to paint and maintain. The inside of the panel is pressure tested to confirm it is fully sealed from the environment and water ingress

A typical fender panel cross-section includes several vertical stiffeners, usually channels or T-sections fabricated from steel plate. The external plate thicknesses, size and type of stiffeners will depend on many factors. Fender-Team engineers will advise on the best design for each case.

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AB

C

W

H

33>

DESIGN CASES

FENDER PANELSSTEEL THICKNESSPIANC 2002 recommends minimum steel thicknesses for panel construction. Sections will often be thicker than the required minimum for heavy and extreme duty systems.

STEEL GRADES

Fender panels are made from weldable structural steels. The grade used may depend on local conditions and availability. Some typical steel grades are given below.

COMMON EUROPEAN GRADES

EN10025

S235JRS275JRS355J2S355J0

YieldN/mm235275355355

TensileN/mm360420510510

TempCN/AN/A-200

COMMON AMERICAN GRADES

ASTM

A36A572-42A572-50

YieldN/mm250290345

TensileN/mm400414448

TempC***

A Exposed both sides 12mm (1/2)

FENDER PANEL WEIGHTSEvery fender design is different, but this tablemay be used as a rule of thumb for initialcalculations of other components like chains.

Standard duty panelsHeavy duty panelsExtreme duty panels

200300kg/m300400kg/mOver 400kg/m

*ASTM steel grades for low temperature applications should specify required Charpy value and test temperature.

B Exposed one side 9mm (3/8)

C Internal (not exposed) 8mm (5/16)

Many ships can resist limited pressure on their hull, so it is important to determine the likely fender contact pressure accord-ing to the ship freeboard and tides to en-sure allowable limits are not exceeded.

In the absence of more specific information, thePIANC guidelines below are commonly used.

Class

Oil tankers

Bulk carriers

Size

HandysizeHandymax

Panamax or biggerAll sizesFeeder

PanamaxPost-Panamax

ULVC 20,000dwt>20,000 dwt

PressurekN/m (kPa)

300 300 350 200 400 300 250 200

400700 400

Not applicable usually beltedRoRo & Ferries

General Cargo

Container HPRFWHA

HP =RF

W . H =RF

A

HULL PRESSURES

= average hull pressure (kN/m or kPa)= total fender reaction (kN)= width of flat panel (m)= height of flat panel (m)= contact area of flat panel (m)

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1/2 H

1/2 H 2/3 H

1/3 H1/6 H

5/6 H

1/3 H

HP

HP HP

HPMAX HPMAX

vvB

vL

RF

RF

34 >

LOW FRICTION PADSUltra-high Molecular WeightPolyethylene (UHMW-PE) padsare replaceable facings fittedto fender panels. Good wearresistance with a low-frictionsurface helps prevent damageto ship hulls and paintwork. They also reduce shear forces infender chains.

Large UHMW-PE sheets are sinter moulded from polymer granules. These can then be planed (skived), cut to size, drilled and chamfered to create individual pads. These are attached to the panel with welded studs, bolts or low profile fixings.

UHMW-PE is available in virgin and regenerated grades, manycolours and thicknesses to suit standard, heavy duty and extreme applications.

Friction is important to good fender design. Ships will inevitably move against the fender face, generating forces which can alter the fender de-flection geometry. With reduced friction and proper chain design, these effects are minimised.

MaterialsMaterial AUHMW-PEUHMW-PEHD-PERubberTimber

Material BSteel (wet)Steel (dry)

SteelSteelSteel

Minimum0.10.150.150.20.20.250.50.80.30.5

Design*0.20.20.30.80.6

Friction Coefficient ()

*A higher design value is recommended to account for other factors such as surface roughness, temperature and contact pressure which can affect the friction coefficient.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONHull pressure is distributed evenly if the fender reaction into the panel is symmetrical. When the fender reac-tion is off-centre the peak hull pressure is greater, even though average hull pressure remains the same. The examples below show typical design cases. It is common to use a fender arrangement so that maximum hull pressure is no more than double the average hull pressure.

HP =RF

AHPMAX =

2RF

A= 2HP HPMAX =

4RF

A= 4HP

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Tw

E

D

E

B

A

C

Stud Fixing Bolt Fixing Bolt with Blind Nut Low Profile Fixing

35>

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

LOW FRICTION PADSPads selection and fixing method should consider factors including impact, wear or abrasion caused by beltings, swell and frequency of use. If access is difficult then extra wear allowance may be useful to reduce maintenance and full life costs.

Weight(kg/m)28.538.047.566.595.0

STDM16M16M16M20M24

HDM16M20M20M24M30

EHDN/AM20M24M24M30

PadT (mm)30*40*5070100

STD613172743

HD37142337

EHDN/A241427

Fixing Size (M) Wear, W (mm)

STD510

3004005070

EHD510

2503505070

Otherdimensions

Edge chamfer, CBolt spacing, DEdge distance, E

EHD510

2503506080

STD = Standard duty HD = Heavy duty EHD = Extra heavy duty* 30-40mm pads STD can use half nut, all other cases use full nut

COLOURED PADSUHMW-PE pads can be made in many colours(to special order) to suit Navy or cruise ships, for greater visibility or easy differentiation between berths. Common colours are black, white, grey, yel-low, blue and green.

SMALL OR LARGE PADSLarger pads have more fixings and might be more durable. Small pads are light-er, easier to replace and less expensive. In some countries the maximum lifting weight (often 25kg) can dictate biggest pad size.

PAD FIXINGSUHMW-PE face pads are attached in various ways according to the type of panel. Studs or blind nuts with bolts are commonly used for closed box panels. Standard nuts are used for open panels and structures. Low profile fixings can provide a greater wear allowance. Larger washers are required to spread loads and prevent pull through (typical size M16 x 42 dia). The thickness of PE under the head of the washer is usually 25~35% of the pad thickness.

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The length (L) and static angle (0) are the most impor-tant factors determining the load and size of chains.

T = Working load per chain assembly (kN)n = Number of chains acting togetherRF = Fender system reaction (kN) = Friction coefficientG = Weight of fender panel, PE pads etc (kN)L = Length of chain pin-to-pin (m) = Fender deflection (m) n = Number of chains acting together0 = Static angle of chain(s), fender undeflected (deg)1 = Dynamic angle of chain(s), fender deflected (deg)x = Panel movement due to chain arc (m)

DESIGN NOTES(1) Highest chain loads often occur when the fender unit reaches a peak reaction at about half the rated deflection.(2) For shear chains, G = 0(3) FenderTeam recommends a safety factor () of 2 for most applications, but a larger factor can be used on request.(4) An easy to replace and inexpensive weak link or element should be included in the chain assembly to avoid overload damage to fender panel or structure.

T = G + . RF

n . cos 1

x = L . (cos 1 cos 0 )

1 = sin-[( L . sin 0 ) ]

CHAIN DESIGNChains are used to control the geometry of the fender during impact and to prevent excessive panel move-ments. They can assist with supporting the weight of large panels, preventing droop or sagging, also to increase rubber deflections and energy absorption in low-blow impact cases.

> Shear chains are used to limit horizontal movement.> Weight chains will limit vertical movement and reduce droop or sag.> Tension chains work in conjunction with weight chains to limit droop, can also improve performance during low-blow impacts.> Chain brackets can be anchored, bolted, welded or cast into the structure.> Tensioners limit the slack in chains due to tolerances or wear.

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CHAIN DESIGN

BRACKET DESIGNChain brackets can be designed to suit new or existing structures, steel or concrete. The bracket should be considerably stronger than the weakest component of the chain assembly. Their design must allow the chain to freely rotate through its full arc and should not interfere with other brackets, the fender panel or rubber fender body during compression. The main lug should be sufficiently thick or include spacer plates to properly support the correct size and type of shackle.

The weld size holding the bracket lug to the base plate is critical and should be referred to FenderTeam engi-ne

fender team design manual

Documents

fender designwelcome

good fender design

aspects of fender design

fender selection process

reliable fender systems

fender selection guidethe

engineered fender solutions

fender systems