ferguson_explaining war_en_haas_anthropology of war.pdf

8/14/2019 Ferguson_Explaining War_en_Haas_Anthropology of War.pdf

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THNTHROPOlOGY

OFW R

onalhan aas


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Pub i.hed by1M Prat ~ u l uf he UniYemty 01 CmblidleThe PltI B\ iId lII. 1h q npn l ~ . Qm.bliclpCBl lRP10 WeslZOth Stied. ttir Yofk NY lOO)). USAI O S m ~ ~ Qlkkich. Mdbourne JI66. AUllnlli

eOtmbrid# UnMrsU Ptm 1990First publishcd 1990BritWl Libta . ed,o.I""" publlccI'ion dallThe mlh .QIY of ", .r. - (Sehool ofAmeric:a:nRataICh Id ,ncdxmlnar series.)(A KhaolufAmerican Resarch boot)J ..... .r_ -lit. ,...... 1 ' .. ... n I .VP() .....c:a. pC' . . . . ~ . I ~l. H }onlthtn. J9t9- . Serie1111. Sooriro30).6'6

Ubrary M41qu", in publicdtion Jdtd11IranlhrQpolop ofWl.t editedi by Jonatbtn Hus.p. cm-{SdJooJ orAmcrieln Rexal'C'h ednnce.dsemiRlIferies)-A &hool of .Amtrican Resaf(h bocilW(Se O m ~ 8 01. Warfut P r m t ~ r HUI, ~ t h a l ] j . 19f9- . U.Series.

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Contents

u t o{N I/ributor.

2 EJ,pbin nc w. 6IN ....w:"Y ..

J MotivatioN.nd t r u l k r i ~ eawt:s: on h npbNtiont eme" .d M 6n 4XlO "" 'IC iEl

T

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CONTEHTS

6 Raidin&, lradin&, 1M tribal IUtonny in imulllrSO l bca.1 A'i' 125. . . . . . . . .ASC ......

8 War&re and lhe evolulion or hibal polilies in Iheprehistoric: Soulh'Ut 7JONAllIMI IIAAS

9 Chiefdom.level d,tine as exempl ified in 'iji and lheCauca Valle)' 190em' C U N I ' W )R w .. 212

m


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M c C U l ~ Y C1ari Richard. Cha;,Dept. o( f Jyo:hoIocr. Bryn Ma TCol

CARNElRO. ROOm LAmcrian MUl(um of NaturalH;,tory. N .... YoriCHACNON . N e O l ~Dept. of Anthhpolocy . Un;,v;tyo 3 t i f o m i ~ . ....nlo Ro ,,.

~ E R C U S O N , R, BmnDept. of Sociology. Anthropolocyand Crim;nal/ustice. Ru'FnUnivers ity

Contributors

CIBSON . Thomu P.Dept. of Anth,lJIXIlocY. U n i ~ n i t yof Rochtst..

CRECOR. 11>omao A.Dept of Sor;ioIogy andAnthTOp


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2Explaining warR. BRJ AN FE,RGUSO .

This PlllJilCIi proposcs a,ma cliallist s)'nthesis o ~ h . o o : r y , tow'ams a ,oomprehCfliSWe o:pLana:ton 1 'MIr jn stal:cles:s socidies Waf by sbles ,s,discussedl, bu. on])' as th.: e; i\d point of lhe ralllge being 'cuminoo,W:n ,it$elf is difticu:hto ftfine.Ebewbcr,e (Fergu OD 1 9 8 5) 1describe the broadCf phcmomcna, undC1ly:ing Wll l ias "or,pn"zed,pulplSCfu) poup ,aetion. ,diJtcd apinst iln.mhcl p l1P invo]",ingChe actuall0,[ palenCia] app]iciilion orlelha T ~ . War i not m relyaction. hown'l f. l is .a oondition of amd bc :twun ocieties,. w i ~ binnumerable o m l ~ t e s ,n i f W a U y evef) dimcniSion ofcu)ture.

&cau.se t isso 'pcrvlUWe, Ilile n e s ; i s , p f O ( l c s s e s and consequetitc;:e:s ofwar can bem.d ed' fro:m ,di veDe perspecUvcs" whl,ch can lcad rad 'CiIJ] ydifcrent n d s of conc'hl$iolil$, Befo an)' analysis even kgitU. 'CNcia,decjsiQns h:ave a l r ~ y ~ made. Wha.'willl:be: the- fQflQl,of the atl;ll)jsis- i l f t r i b u ~ o n ofcawcs j d'cmonstration o functionaJ I'iobgcs, ~ h i c v cmeflt of subjectivt' ,undcnl3nding? WhiiJt aspeetfs) ,ofW'af and $(I(:iely wiUbe the- focU$oftbe invesligation? M:a,t lewW of .analYJ il 2nd wha* time&ame MEI 'be uscd?'D e p e n d i ~ on, thesc d'ecuions, diril fCntanalysts ,oo-uld ]001 at onecase oC M 'r .00 oondude .ha. it is al oonA 'ct olVcr po1itic . staM'NOmen. ulU'ral m o u ~ or tr de eoocls ao, o of Wtitchcraft

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be] 'e&,oognUive ,orientatiollls,. pent-up frustraron,. rules oC conftict, orbe ieJen.:pe:rwn]tics; a queJt fOl pJCl:stige,rCl,'cnge, security. powe f.tfopbies. 01 weaJth. a collefluetilct o mid'cnoopattcflU, leve] ofpoUtica[ evoJul&on. ments OlpnizaUoM. O ' I I e M ~ p t y . or inadequak:oonAict resolution mechanisrDS,; anll that is gCllletated by il ldii\lidu,..1d'cdsions. llbe fUlIlction" ng o$ocietal: u b s Y 5 r e m ~ o r c u l t u r a ~ selecfOlll.PossiMy. a l ~ of tbese conclUS'ons ~ o o Id be correcto Eadll couldaceurately idcnIlif'y onc aspcd o f ~ 1 e mulfplcintctactions in olved in

~ h 3 t particular cae of a ~This complelCity m u ~ t be tect i,gfi z ~ anJ dealt witb. Not h31ving doneso up totbe H ~ s e n t i one rea on _hatanthropologic.Jl a n a l y ~ o walftcoo lo the pamcuhifistic ami cdectic. When t l i l ~ f ( ' t i c d ( ; O n m ; , e f S ~ - sdodevelop, lliley ttnd 0 be non--oomrparable, .allld the poinb a e argued(1111 ) among ~ d a l i s t s in one o n Arguments a:bout Or'eat .PlaiIndmns' warfare fo instance, do Rol (J\redap with ,ilrguments about the.ortheas1 Woodlands (oom palre Oi,olsi 1984; Trigger 1(76), and nei1heris cited in the cunelltly hot debates over Wj in Highland New Guineaaudl Amazonia (se(' Fergwon 1984a: 30-:31). S u d ~ I I l W ~ "ncialism ielfCclable ,gil\l'en the Umtt:ed de .. I O p B I ~ u t of gelneral (hcol)'. e r a ~m.ore ~ n e d hypothescs halolc appeared ololcr the years. mos"t of whichwm be mentioned in the tCl t. Out lhe;e have r.lrely ~ connect:ed toeach other or to olhell' rescarch filndi.ngs.Cumulative growth in understanding war rcqu'oos hat ameJ bei m p o . s ~ on (litis explanatoT)" cihaos. Weneed t h e o r c f c a l t e m p l a ~ c : s totest apinst h e bur,geoning descri,pt1 ..e m a f c r i 3 ~ (scc Ferguson 198&),.est j t remain mcrelly raw data:. Wc need .syntheses aE findings, showwhefe approaehes ma)' agml . nd fO'clarify wherc thc-y dO' notoThispapeis a.naHmlpttoconstruct soch a synthcti.c thooy Ol'mod.e1,one 'tltat is.capable of oop 'ng with the sociocultural:oomplex'tynvolved in war . Jt does no loenfer on any s,peei6c hypo 'hesis. ~ t h o u g i b.he tlheory ieS capahle o genuatina manytesta.ble pml' liDns. T'hepresent d'ort is mene dledootivethan inductive. The criterion of iCwi 1iI.empinal data is 3IeCOudary lo entena (if the ~ J a n a f o r y power andpaE5lmooy ofa fewinitial premises:, ,and the Jogicalintegrit)' of theh Y J X I t h ~ ~ t . e y ,e"WJite.ThellheoIYoutlined bere is .gtnliraUy c:onsistent wHh tibe researl'chstrategy ofotdwral m a t u i a ) ' ~ m (Hams 1979a:part 1; Price ](82), evelilIhQughit i f t ~ r s significandy from sorne eadier anaWyses of war assooiated with ihat slniltcgy . lnadeqwcies in eallier thoor,etica conceptiolls

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R. BRMN FERGUSON1cd ro' re(ormulatiQD$,which a ~ i iloorpoJa1;ed here. iml udIing a dec:mp:lwOofrundional mooc:ls: a ndlhc conccpt ofadapta,tion. al ~ t e rem.phasiIJ Olil conscious .s IQtqiizi g , ]ll wW of po]tical ,evolution. historical proccsscs, ,and exp'li.cit' feC:QgDil'on of ,tlle po iMity of mul'liple]cvc:1s ofIrn lysi.s (scc Ferg,u rn 19.84a: 28-3,7). Insddifon, ten: j,s aliJemajor plint whelc ibis th ' Orj' dOllerges fJom the exiJti 'n,g ,cuhuralmattria]j,stic rcsearct.,rlr,ltegy.Th ce muwally renforcinK prcmiSCI rn ke his a materialistilPllfOach o TIte fird , .he ~ l i M I o ~ m ~ t of rhe c a ' W ; ) ~ primacy ,of lhe' n / i a s ~ a,..... Ba:si ...., - i i th -- f - ' ii' . 'th,al ' ' iaU , 1 . o.. _ _ n J C ~ l h . . _ . . _ y. L , ,, ,5 .. : o p o o __ var ,_ lue ~ c adng, 'dtmQSNphy,. t ~ c h n : o l o . g y . theorganizaf 111 of wofk" ,and inkractionwithtbe narutod Cfiivitonment J.apoe . l l U t t Y J a l p . l f t e m ~ of kmbi"ecoftOmjcs, a ild poi itia. alld .ha1 tl1c lalter in ttI ni. oombllle wi.hintTa5 I U c r u r a ~ variables tos 'ape idcolqgical or 'sllpcrstructural:p;I,ltcms(Hams J9?9a : 56). The causal pnlmacy i .cxpre ed both in ehe: e x i s l ~ n g :orp niution of s:oci ty, aOO in ns pattemcd ~ ~ ~ o n.e\\'citroumst.anccs.I disagr witb Har is', {ofRmliatioJil, OWCVCiF , ti Wil: t dura1 sudsupentru wtrd (adon .ho:uld ~ i n v o ~ e d as explan ' tions of olherculrural palteros on])I afterlhe pD.Ssibtlities o . info.dru rum] exl' ::Jn3-lions havc ' ~ c n exlulUstcd. In my iew. t,l ese are not ,explsll &lilmyvan bies or oly Keond 'or la t Te ' rl. 1b:1-t ri' tkey expedabty willopcra1e in s p e c i f i ~ w-a)'$, dctcrm i'fl,ing specifi Itlds Qr a H ~ r n $ T h i ~ i$ 3programmatic diference, alld onc w) i.eh pmwcL tlh. hasis ,of the$.)lndlas.ro follow.Thc: pcrspectivc cmS':oycd herc: is ora ne.sted,hicnuchy ofcon trai.n inl factor ' , pJogressi.vcly ~ i m i f ng po.ssibil ires. Morc' powerful, ud--n'"'ra] ,ootlstraim e a ~ ' J. i ~ d -, -r r _ ~ . J a ~ b t - t - . - - fi-~ .. ,. __ .. _. , .... ___ T" , . ,IU _e _o ......v l T)' 'ti mo _e J)eC.. ed'dcnnina,nb M ~ f i Y ~ n - $ u b r t a J l t i a t e d find'p about ,he ind.dcficeand conduct ofWIU haw: ~ c n mado wi1ho'Ut rektcncc lo thc i.nfr:'l$IJUCturc', w'bidh I,r,e nevedhele . perfe tleampat'ble w i l J ~ l . matcrialli t.app:r-oach mOled in thi$WOIY. Thc$C find 'ngs can be: alllchored nandwork of dcductiw J'nl :qes baKd on millcrial 't p:remi -- , thusexpandilll tbe- scopc (lf materh111d explanation and maki ng ti eincorporatcd 6nd in ,somcth.ng more ~ h a D a, form le IIsscmb ase ofmlil .. ~ l ) " ....I-w - t f-- " ( " P ' , ]98" 712). _,'' ' ' ' ' l ....,e _IiI _ . g KC nc:-c " '. : . .

T h ~ i d ~ of 'h .er.Jfchyof constra hb is oot the onty m a t e t i a l i ~ f epn:mis:e iln tltis,model. The: secomd ut l.=t ."ere may be eompctilionbelwccnand se: tion among gmllps., andibat behallioTS ,affecti n,828


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.ExplainiJW Wdrmilitary abai1y 'tan bernade unifonn in a regioA as groups, wi:tb 1mcdfccliYe' millitll')' paftems are eJ'mirnatall. Cmllpsdection mooels havebeco lairg:elydiKredited :n biollogy(WilJitllffiS 1966; lWl). Whateverthe~ m e m l r c l e v a n c e of hosc critiasmslD ,cu]tuTaII prooesses, Haui:s]984a:I JO- 3,3;, rom ]919:10-13), 1Iley ~ a r J IrfoC nol l c \ ' i l n , i the r e ~ f l

f i ~ , the $e1e-ctiDD h ~ r e 'isfQ, "trib;" concewntngm iJi.tl'ry capa:city.rathef' thm ~ f o o u c t i o ' l f,OO$;,",,'hich i . ,hat dile biofogisl$ algue aboutS e c ~ n d . tIle mechanism prooucillg group'extinctions - anotheJ thomyiswe in b'ology - is: wadtself see aroJl]966; Oltclbeirn 977). Wa filreean resol', in the cJi mi natloll of rocal groups by death . di persion, o,absorption"]f hei r l i m i n a ~ ' ou is dlJ lo SODle ,eu ltm'arpattem ielated tolhe pf3cticeor war. ilt , lihlf tha' other ~ O C O I l gtOlJps willl talkt.aWfoptiate S leps, lo avoid a similar fate. e\IIen ir that requir " thali,ndiv:'dllal: in teml:s and tendeocies be o.vt:liTUled (sec AlfOOIde-r 2rndlBor,pa ]978: 470. 411 . Thb jcy ' s appUed -el ewhe \C lo e pla"n the

u n i v e r s a ~ i t y of ,ed'isbibut.ive exc-hange .ud as po1Jaich" g am01lgNonhwest Coa5t societie'S (Fergu:son )98 Ji aud lsee Barris 1975: 272;WeMter 1917: ],41).The ~ h i r d ao finall ma:lefi:d 'st prem:ise cancelns motir ation, AUexpl:malion$ of \ ~ r ,3repr,emiiOO on :some . _ . _ _ N queftion of motivation f ' elscwhere,(] 984;il: 37-42), WhCIC ]p:ropose thatthree basic ma.l fial ~ r l s a m ~ ma'n l lilsnoe or impm\o\emenC of (L)available resourees. (2) works'tuation " al1ld' (3)SC'C-urriity aga 'nst thfea:1sd. Cha,gnon. this volume ', TheS'e three are.oF c-ourS'e.alwaysacc1>mpanied by ahost ofotkerconct11ls. Undeuomecondirions. otbCTnon-mal -rial8(131$ c3n, otweigh ma,feTia1 irn;rentivesin ,c ec-isiom 'ofight. But in the vi:ew advocatcd heJe those cases WiI'1be exception llil .

Non-material goa 15 ",,'H Inol regnlad), lead ro was ulllless tite)' accompanmate ial:oh 'utives. That is be:cause WilT itsdfty cal1y in\'OI, es majmcosU. nos must be emphasizcd : war 'oosb H\lcs. h ~ . d U i l . J C ' $ o u ~ C C $ i 1 n deft"ort. So, ifthe o t i v a t i o l i 1 ~ 1 pJemi e is mct. wemould expedp:aocif Ihe 'Proba ' I: Ciostsof war ,ar:c nat outwci:ghcd byporentia,l bene6ts.This e J p e t ; ~ i v e os al$O ,applicable tQ uodershmdli1ilg, f lUi sitioft$ from otilepb


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R BRIAN FERGUSON

he motivational premisc can be cxpressed in one general proposition: \Vars occur when those \Vho makc the decision to fight estmate thail is in their material interests lo do so. (This is a more precise ancl corredformuJation Ihan statemcn1s made prcviously [Fcrguson 19843: 32 ] thal\Vars are conAicts ayer scarcc resourccs. ) he nwterial interests ofdccision-makers can t;lke Ihe form of six strategic obicctives of \Var: (1) to lcrease access lo fixed resourccs; (2)10 capture movable valuables; (3) toimpose an exploitativc relationship on another ndependent group; (4)to conquer and incorporatc another graup; (5) to USe external conAict asa lTIcaos of enhancing the decision-makers' position wilhn their ownsocicty; and (6) lo forestall attaeks by others. Objeetive (6) sllggests animportanl clarifiealion. A "malerial interests" pcrspeetive does notimply that war is always deliberatcly chosen and planned. t may be so,or il may be an unplanned and unwanted last rcsort, the Olllcome of a"prisoner's dilemma" brought about as the result of prcvious sclfinlerested slrategic decisions. Even in sueh a situabon, ho\\'ever,dccision makers will eonlinue lo ael in aeeord wilh thdr pcreeiveumaterial inlcrcsts.

he Ihree complementary materialist premises form a base for astrueturc of explanation extcnding through variOllS areas of social life.he modcl can be summarizcd as follows.Infraslruclural factors explain wh ) war oeeurs. In Ihe absenee of a

pressing searcil)' of somc essential material resouree(s), or when anexisling seareity can be addressed by alternatives less eostly Ihan war, Ihemodel indicates a low likelihood of war. 'l'he infraslructure alsoaeeounts for basie parameters of how warfare is actually practised, andIhat in lurn affects all othcr dimensions of war.

Wilhin these constraints, strudural faclors explain the social palterning of war, even as Ihey Ihemse vcs are responsive lo war and lorequircments of production and reproduction. Kinship affects ho\\'people are grouped to fight. Economics translates resource scarcity intohostile rclations between groups. Polities is the means throllgh whichantagonistic inlcrests beeome purposeful, violent, group action. Structural faetors can make Ihe differcllce bc"veen war and peacc insitualions where searcities are gencrating tcnsions; and economie andpolitical organization have a limited (at Ihis evolulionary level) ability locrea te significant additional incentives for \Var. But generalIy, structuralfaeton do nol generate war in themsclves. hey do largdy determinesuch malters as why a particular war starts just where and when il does.

O


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xplaining warSuperstrudural palterns shape the way individuals perccivc and ad

011 conditions rclatcd to war. Calculation of material loss ami gainneccssarily must consider relevant propertics of the existing socialuniverse, and that illcludcs the values and rules hy which individuals areexpected to live. Those which affeet war are strongly eonditioncd bywar, but they also respond to cverything e1se in the social system. Warrclakd qllirks of the sllperstrueture, or even of ils manifeslation in oneindividual, may tip the sea les in a situalion already at the edge of \Var.Bu independent of infrastrudural and strudural patterns conducivc to\Var, sllperstrudural elemcllts Il


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a ~ have t)'picaUy betn impJk-.atcd ,n "'eeofogcalr n a y ~ - (01: aquarler eeawry fhe domi nalilttheoretica1 a:pproach to war Bennelit Ross1'971; Harris 1914: 61-80; H:icbf$on 1965; Nettiug 9 7 3 ~ R a p p a J X I d1967; Siskind 19'73; Suttl,es 1961 SweeI: 19'70;. Vayda 1969a; I969]x,~ 9 ' i 6 EClOlqgilb I ..,ve most oRen invobd infrllSlmclura] m :ilOrs ro

e x p I ~ i n c r o s s ~ c u l t m i l l \/lIriatiomin war - w'hy'society X. ha & h ~ generalWlT patleEn that'itdoc - ra,h,er ella:npart ieular vAr:iatiol1s in l'he pncf oc:sof war wilibin one rociety (el. V;ayda 1979).

~ j t e nlellsi,I'e cbanges i l i l e o o l ~ c a l t heory , .he klsic kI,ea, hiliSfemai,ned that warcalilliH ar,eadiolil topopu:atiolil, r ~ i g Q , n te'$Olnces,nd, tha:t it e.iI,n ~ e a d ~ o , rcJaxatio:lli of thaC prcssurc . So , war can , be'adaptive. (Altlh.o gh Vayda [lQ:-7,6: 1-7) audi othl fS mject populationp : r e n u r e ~ 'tlite g c l l e r a ~ cause owalr - ,.dopti1llga bro d'er view ofwa r a arneans of 'oopilng with alily Iype ,of l 1 l \ l ' ~ o n m e n t a l kiliZlrd - popubtion

f e n t a i f l s t h e - - i n i ~ ) haza-.J d m l l t ' R a ~ ~ i *liIi :rl.) Jt '.iess:ure . . . _ . pr 1;: . 1 ___ u _e-. _roL _ I;\ .lh_ . WQ _celtil iRI)' not incvitabl e iMi human popolatioos expand tlinti1 thc _arestopped by ;cilrc:ity of wme c.mill rcsollrc-e . WhcliI tI cydo not , ODemajo cause c ~ m p e t i t i o m . aud c ~ n 8 i c t is e irminated,.B'Ilt population5,oornmonly o ,grow. l;Oiding lo ' e ~ u r ( : C 4 T C i ~ j e s aJld prompting som~ m c d i a l Belion.This adioo, noed not be: waT. A. cons 'S'lent LI eme io ecolog:ical.ana ly es wr be past decade has, 'beeo the possibiHty of fllncfonal.altemativesto war (8al:ee J 85 "Saff.: Monen 1984: 169- 70: ,etting]914a; Pfice- WS+' 220-222; Vayda .'976\+-:5;: Web ter 1977: 34>..348).Inte


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W969\3} easl)' 8Dd ~ n f t u e n 1 i I study of o:pand 'ng $,widden ,eultivalorsi l ' l ' l O ~ compclitiion OV'r desiro'bJe secondary gwwth f O T ~ t l;lnd,

~ a t e r i j d i t paftkpalilts in tlle d ~ ~ t C over \ i'af in H gbhmci ewGuinea :lind ~ n t e r : r i _erine mazonia h \I\C . rgu;cd fOflaad and g meshortages,. Iresproh.ely (see FergusoD W984a; 3 0 - ~ ] ~ 9 % ). ,3s.scrte,ompeflion ror p ime sub lsl nce arcas, notab])'


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I . BI U. :FEIt.CUSONrnakes d l ~ n c a n d i d a ~ f o r tradecxmkoUenor meJ'Qenaries (F\JIku .andTudon 1 f 1 9 ~ Col(fen 19.861.Peires 1981a)',80th hunten and plhe;-en and pastofalisls have subtistcJlce technolog)" I'nd skiUs whtch can 'be ,eanied over ioto comba. (Cohen 1984:319; Ehral ]961; Tumey-H.,. t'971). The eechnolO,g)' of Wilr it.sc r s aDlinfrasbuctur,a1(;ctor witb direct bea,ring on milita,r) planning andaction Engo ~ 9 1 9 : 18;:"192; Mason MeNen 1982: '9-20.;

T u m e y H i ~ 1971 and P 1 t ~ R i v c : r s 19(6)- a &ct wbich sllouldbcobvious lo an wIiIo Ii e .in tille: nuclear .p .Wlt.ttc:vef the ~ n O J a I mbsi


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lOl. 6 2 3 ~ Variousdbe t and ,ndir,ecl ,demographic oonsequences ofw ali can ,s'low oleven fe:ve:l a population gO\lloth trellld (Coolc 1'9 ; ;Djval: lind Harri,s 1976; Fe: gUIDO J989b;. Va)'dli 1968.: 470; Wc",er198,J,). On lile other hand ",'ar capti\'ts m ~ be hIlen .0 replenisha,dwindlng poptda:lion (Oba: 1971: ] 9 ~ 192; Triggeilf 19'76: 12), Or ioadkl to a ,geograph"call) 'expanCiUng ORe E 1 ' 3 n . s , . . P r i ~ c l u n d l'9,*O: 221 ;Wagner 194()t H8),Does t h ~ m ~ n dJ:at wa,r i$ a d ~ p t i v e ' ? Ada>m ion as a, ,oolWep1 asproblematic to employechtilica11)/ a I ~ iil ' $ ind "pensable ror generalusase (see Fergu50nlc;l89b). 1t might lile beHe:r reshidcd lo gau;ral' ~Jd'eJring - wUh de:liberote impreci$jon - to the a:bility ofan' individllal ,Ilocal gtoup, m clIlt\u( Co suwi\'' ,and ptosptr withilll it natural'enviironment. In '11;tgeneral sensc 'warma,y be"",apti,ve. I,tca nlead toreduooon of theprressute ,of plpulatiolJl on fesoUII"Ces which Icd tolhefigll:ling. In do "ng so . WIIl' m":ght,pro1ccUIu: .nttBJ'ity oHhc C n \ r o mcntby pxventing OVCil'- i.l5e ,and ong-tmn degradlltio ofthe i alue base .But. tt.,is a ~ m e n t ohllaptil e value neelb major qualiofication . WaTI,Isl1alily entails majal' oosts in resol1rces. efforl, and H\I'es. fOl botihWiUn(l'S, mloser , 31l1d i1 is not self.evidentdlilllt thesc ar,eoutwcighed byoObsef'olcdof h ) ' P O e t i C ' a ~ bencfits o warr, Morco .r. bw use w i .abrnd ptooim. triggeted by l'OC


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gr . then describiRg linb or waEare' vadables lo specific s:truc1uTalaO'lngemcFlb" IInd foJlowed by discussi,olll oF . h ~ patterning 01' i t h igwupaml beih\.'CeQ -grollp rclla,iOflili.Kimhi;

Rdatiom: oC dcseent, afli hit)' ~ n d co-"C$idel1c>c: I'JOvide 'lile basic( l r p n i ~ n g principie: Qf daJil)' r ~ ill, I i h ~ $OC,'eties; u n d c : 1 o o n ~ i d c r n t i o n ,The im'mediare :family and largcil' cin::Je of linare oontext nO' ' .ust fol'

b i o l o g i c a ~ ~ f i J ~ o c i i l l fepliOO lJctiofi, t h ~ albo


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1i xplaning w rover scarce critical resources (Ember, I':mhcr and Pasternak 1974;Harner 1970). Their presence can add dcfiTlition to groups involved inwar SeU 1935: 253- 259; Berndt 1962: 165-266); and olle varidy, thesegmentary lineage, has been idcntified as "an organization of predatoryexpansion" faeilitating militar}' eooperation of local agnatic groups(Sahlins 1967; and see Brown 1964; Kelly 1985; cf. Peters 1967). Butvery intense and d ~ l d l y warfare can wark against unilineal deseent as anexclusive basis of group membership, as high battle losses can makeAexible recruitment a lleeessity (Langness 1964: 174; Lepervanebe1968). Other structures wbieh ,lffcct the organizatian of military foreesinclude men's houses (Maybury-Lewis 1974: 306), lllalc age grades(Fadiman 1982; Fukui and Turton 1979), and non-kin sodalites (Lqwie1963, 105 ).

The nature of interpersonal relations within a group also affeets thepractiee of \Var. In some sitllalions, domestic antharity patterns arecarried over to military action (Kiefer 1968: 226) . n some, the structureof male-fcmalc rclatiolls can foster tite transformation of resourcescarcity into violent eonAict bctween rnen over women (Fergllson198%; Siskind 1973). Choosing sides in a conAict, individual deeisionson who is lIS and who is them (when that is necessary) is illAuclleedby strength ofkin ties (Berndt 1962: 234; Chagnon 1979a; Mair 1977:34-35). And when eonAiet does develop among related people, kinshipprovides an idiolll for eonceptualizing and acting on diverse ,1l1dsOlllctimes ineoTllmel1Surable issues (Netling 1974b: 157-161 ).

Bctweell groups, mi litary relations are partally dcterm ined by kin tiesrclatcd to marr


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R. BRIAN FERGUSO N

scarcity willlcad to progressive strain in fulfilling these obligalions, andeventual failurc to do so, heginning wilh more dislan kin. Thesefailures conslitute violatioTls of the norms of proper kin behavior, al atime when thcir fulfilment m::ly he mmt nt't'de.d ( ;JS;J snnrr (, nf m::ltf'ri::llassistanee). The hostilily created by Ibese breakdowns may be in directrclation lo Ihe previous closeness of Ihe ties (Malinowski 1964: 251 ).Thc situabon can end lowards polarization of factions (Coser 1956), lothreals and accusations ofwitebcraft (Marwick 1970), and ultimalcly lodivision and \Var.

conomicsThe preceding paragraph c,dls atienlion lo Ihe overlap of kinship andecollomics near Ihe egalilarian end of the evolutionary spectrum. Theycannol be llnders ood apart. l kinship provides Ihe slructure of socialrelalions, cconomics provides much oflhe suhslance. The organizationofwork, properly rela iolls, expectation of righls and duties in produclion, distributioll, and eonsumption - al are expressed through kinship(Leacock 1982; ee 1982; Siskind 1978). But as k i n s l ~ i p is directlyinAuenced by Ihe nccessilies ofbiologieal and social reproduction, theeCOllomy is shaped by Ihe exigencies of material produclion. And aswith kinship, the distinctive slructures of Ihe eeoRorny inAuenee thepractiee of wal. Tha inAuence becomes more prominent wilh inereasing ~ l b o r t i o n of the economy, i.e. with evolulion, but eeonomiepatterns are importan variables even in relatively simple societies.

'nle possibilily of intcnsifieation of prodllction, as noled aboye, mayoffer an alternativc lo war. This possibility is strongly conditioned byinfrastruduml faetors, bul eeonomics opcrating within infrastruduralcomtraints can take on their own dyn


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'position w.itl:l'in ~ B ~ n g eoonomic re1ationsthlou.gh S'II:OCeSS ln w lf .That can occur directly. when booty 01' new teuitoJ}' is a c ~ u i r e d by aVI'ilrrio:r. 01 lllldirect y , he, the ma diToecl benefi,t 1.5prc-$lp hutp r e m ~ one's material welM>Ciing (bc:low). Howe 'er oontinuousdevelopment of economic inequaJity wiU lcad to other andrncm:fUndamental changes in war . Thes:e, aud t),e re:sults of daooJation oreoonomic slruclures andprocesses . will be colllsidcrtd in tbe secli.on 00c\lolution11 .e le ~ t i o n betwcc:n kinsbi'p and ecomomics comes lo the 'far,e 3gainVloh.enone oonsiders the definmon of 3 group all(J che structum ofintergroup refations. As a]ready nted i , "us," bound by dense Un J i e s . isabo a commuuil}rof 'nterests linked b)1 eoonomic oooperatiofil andlorcommon propert)'. l\e bn ties th.a:l . nd dHfercnl oommuni1j'cs aT,emuaJl)' conduits rol exchange. Thelatter meil'it >articulaT attention.

L e v i ~ S t r a u s s (1944) obstJVeS;that mr arnd exchangecan be ullderslood ,asopposites two 5ide$ ufone l'cl.. ion . lt may nol be wise lo gu thalrar hul war aud ~ c i b a g e o o d ; f n]y are lI"elaed il ll Many contex: s,(C:bson. this u m e G l ~ i ( l r thi$ ..olume; Ma ,uss 196 . Sahli11l,s.]965).RedisbibutiQn, at multiple leve.s, can, he a mean s,o buil'd ililg alliaocesbeyond ti limits of ,daily Ie(:i,proca] sharing (Fc;:rgusQn ~ 9 8 ~ ; Cregor.,th 'svoJume; Robb':ns 198 2: et.,. 7),Sim, e bafltcs 'ma)' compensare f


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PoI.iliaAt th ;' mOR ~ ] C Q i C f l b l r y 1 C \ ~ 1 (if poltitical orgalllization, poti' 'es is firmlycmbc:dtlcd in the rondition .:al rc:ady discusscd, IfkilUihip is dIe struc:turtuf ~ i l me, md economics a Jatge :pad 01 the content . politics, allllexpression of lhe nter,cm thCl" gcnerate . Through '.liJe mcd:ium ,o(patities. conO,t i ~ 1 I inteml s bccolifut W;1 r. arnd t h ~ I nb klw'een warrfafemd po ifes .are exten,fW .f':)litica1I1'ou-ps and aUgnments n lilect he W lrtOIiS di . j,s]Oh$ of ocialstructme .and thc illltere:sts oftheir e m b e ~ Wihat nc lhe signi 'licantIUnds of pcdilcal diisions? One pcmwle d 'iiSlon :s betwccn portital.~ e d m aod followtrs . But in r e ~ a t i \ e l y e8aritarian socwCSc, leaders l indrouowcn may be ha 'rdl), dis'illguishabte . Political Jeadcn .arcl'cprcsenhl,U\ C5 ptimaril)' of kinsmen ( p ~ U ,my ,olher folll(iwers Ihe)' c)1l atlract),Thc:y ,am ,dosely scrutinii'Joo', and g;l\l n h c ~ r tak ofiOiutharit)' a Icader'sactiolitS are, lo \'8.tying degr - .ci r,eumscribcxl: by th wi hfl'S of hissuppofters rLepervanche 1%8: n6-m78 ; Pr:iee 198U. S t i ~ l mren Ibeseleaders lIlre .n 3 somewhat dlistinctivc SDC.ial position and F I 1 ~ r a n y ha,:wmelaftode lo "nftuenc"C group .illctiOJili. Aliso 111:


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e eavages whi,ch 5Cparat,e' s'm.lar grouping,sor lin: dans, l i n ~ g t $ .Cactions, elle. AIII ean h \le th,:'ir ooUoctive irereslii ,and dlepoten'ialltoad 'on them . These units may be OOHlpJetd 'independe I t. OT " ifled insome lartr ooalttion or structure. or merdy larrent divj ions will in asingle gJ'Q1 lp" Afting.erncnb are oRen CQmpruicated and Hu'd, w i ~ hpll,itJcaJ re1ationsamong un 'ts at ame org nizaticnal Ievd aft'cclililgrdarons lix:tween Ievels, and _ce' versa ' DeuneU Ross ]984 : W2-101.

mdt t962 : 253-2.54; langncu ~ 9 n ]04-213Ma , lbury-Lewi$ 1974:194, 2 l 2 ~Suclh common ' :ituationsput in question theclaim thal makingw.uisaH e:xpetlaibJe atttibule of sQwr'eignty (ChagJlon ]977; 16l; S a h i n ~.1968: 4), Notunt is chis assertiollJ tauioloticall soveJcignly i ~ d i a g n o s c db the ability lo wag , A',n), but ~ h e very concept of sovc 'reignty seem:inadequate to d c a ~ wieh the manifest complexity sIOd dcgJt'CS of'pollifcal

i ~ d e p e n d e n c e r e g a J d i ~ g miJibl1'Y potiC}' (Bemdt 1%2:309-310; and see,Beondt Ross: ]980; d , Carne ro. ' ' ',is \I'OJume; Chaglloo Ihis vo]ume;Robbin$ t'98.2:71-8;' )


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R. IRU N F'EiRGUSONgeneral corndation ofpoUtica] C:eiBrtI:al iuUan .and m.iUlary sophisticatiorl(see below), hut the meaniqg ofthe ronel:ation isclouded by che. f bs - 1 . '1.-1. .__ heJutemcosutanha vanabon oelWttn t -e two.

When war breab out and WiMval i:S:the ;ssue, the:JIC are often meajolchanges in ntcmal authority pa.ttems. Ir pea;ootime leadenremain iine:harge:, ifleir dccwion power ubroadcned nd 5b'e"8lhcllcd lo relaxaga in wIIen peace N rcslored (Oha:gnon 1974: 6,2: COlHns 9 O). artenauthority j handed over to men oi bown mi]itary skiU. wooare'MIpeace lead'et$, ,and who,ma)' C \ ~ n be ' _ cluded iom theactu1 dec ' siontolighHF'adimam 1982:97; Hoo1x:l 1978.:43; alro'MeggiH 1977:68-69; Nume


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so.. Leaders ~ I ) lo sdect che most dcsir:able ames from tl e ct ofpossib'l ities. takc ' thestcps to inl about a gcneoT I amanee,. andncgo 'ate specific uRders.tlndings ro,. ~ p e c i f i c c o n A ~ c t s . Ther ac:tio sCf)'Staimze polli't,'callalisornc'I1b. aud in ding SIO llave a ma or 'mpact on.he P OCe ofw


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l BRIAl . FERCUSON

forms. Bencdiet's (1974)approach is to cxplain war as an cxprcssion of ageneral eogniti\ c pattcrn. The anal)'tical dra\\backs ofher approach arcwell kno\\'ll (see llarris 1968). Unfortunately, similar problcms remainin JIlore recent dfurts (Bureh 1974; Ilallpike 1977), rendering thceonstructcd patterns questiollClble in Ihemselves and uscless as explomatiom of war. More subslancc is found in several o\'crlappingapproachcs, which look al war in terms of rno,bl personalil)' I)'pes,parlicular values, and cultural norms of warfare.Peoplc who make war oflen have belligerent pcrsonalitics (Berndt1962; Clwgnon 1977; Ko ch 1974a). But the relationship behvccllaggressive pcrsonalities and WlT is hardl y a necessary one. PcopJc withnormall )' pacific personalilies ca n e quite brutal in war b l l i ~ 1951;eider 1970: 127; J\furph y 195 7; Robarehek, thi s volume; V./a llace1972: 39-48). As the di seussion of leauership indiealcd, oftentimesaggressive fighlers are kcpt out of or are secondar}' in rnaking a decisionlo fighl. (The "hotheaus" IIlay bc yo ung men, bachelors, who I;vc lcsslo losc and more lo gain fmm combat Ihan older family mCIl lBaxtcr

19 79: 83-84J.) Even very aggress\'c pcrsons can find oullet for theirfeelings in non-violen adions (Co


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xplaining warsaerifieial eaptives, etc. Ofien these trophies have direct material valuc,as when Jivaro cOllld trade a shrunkcn hcad to Westerners for a rifle(Karsten referenced in Bennett Ross 1984: 90). Trophics whieh aTtaken and kept may serve as tangible proof ofmilitary aecomplishment,which in turn has material rewards (Baxter 1979: 82-83; Zegwaard1959: 1040). Or they may be llsed to signal a grollP'S ferocity to potentialenemies, as when Northwest Coast peoples staked heads on poles infront of their settlcments (Fcrguson J984b: 308--309; and sec Trigger1976, 70).

A final value, and probabiy the most wide y eited of aH , is a desire toavenge past offenses. Again, this truly is an important motive in sorneconflicts, espeeially those with small and dosel)' related decision grOl.lps(Bennett Ross 1984; Langness J 973: 308). Tt docs 110t stand U as a llsefulexplanation ofwar, ho\Vcver, first bccause the existcnee of trCTllCndOllSvariatian in the situations ealling for revengc itsdf rcqllircs explanation,second becallse revenge-seeking often cannot possibly operate in thealltomatic form suggested by ethnographers or every member of thesociety would be killed (see Peters 1967), and third beeause revengerequirements are freqllently and obviously maniplllated by deeisionmakers, with offenses "forgotten" or "rcTllembcrcd" at convenicnce(Bcrndt 1962, Ch. 12; Yayda 1960,45; and see Balee 198+ 246-247,Ferguson 1984a: 39- 4 ). AI1


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r i t u a ~ brings up the next tapie: C ( ) l f i n e c t i o ~ ~ e n war and magco.rdigiOl"l$ i e & and practiQe$. Souree ,citt :'OIU 'on this tapie arewperlIUOUiS s:ince' it is hard to filnd c ~ whuethe ,oollneQ io ,nol:evident(bu.'lora 'compilation, sa:Tume)'-Hig'h 1971 :213-22.0). RitualcomInOAI: prctedes., accompanie ,. lnd followsall1clilgageme:nt . Mill..tary ~ and $are r.etum ,are dviMelI11Ie memy is atlaclcd andOOB.fUmI by rupe.mahlral: means. Oadu : Ind curscsmainblin i C i p i n ein combato u p e m a t u r a ~ rewards are added ro olher po1:cm,:id pim fefWlIinion.

~ p i t e the abundance of data oOn th is oonndon. [ ,(OU d fifl.d nogcm:ral lliJcordical Silud) devotcd 'lo il. Perhaps that l ,eglect mms from apejooicethat wal and reUgion do,not "lOng t h e r a,bias fe\'ealed.for i l l 1 s ~ l l c c . when the mli n:ists da,im dtat "god is O'n 01,11 s ' d ~ ;$viewed] as ,wnie. But 'tbelinbge,ofwar wjth reUgion and mqic oS:quHecxpectab e. War ililvotves. i 1 aD ,extreme' form. wilhla11y alll uf III,ecircumsbnces wbicih have beenl :involed tn ~ ain the gmesis: ,o~ H g j O n Ilnd magic. lt 'sa 00] cctiveacti ty,. ,clase'l)' Ilinked,Ro groupsol 'darity and suMval. lt forees indi\liduls to con&ont a haZllirdousunbIOWTl.. be)'ond theiJ r a l i o n a l ~ i n s t r u m e l l l ~ a l oonlJol H places aprcmium. OH the efiicac-y of $OC'al control. It poses '1he q,uesfon ufmeanina:" repcatedJy. as ]t,Jeads: lo tr .gedy. injustWe. ,and irnmorality.FOf aill these reasons. war b:a viltJual ma,siC0-reJigiolils magmet.An thcse: factors afFed h,ow WlIr is practica) and 'lhrcsholds uf'/o]cncc, but generall:.. thcy alone do nal cause 'War (Kocih 1919: 2l').What they da b reinforee die 'resolve of warr"on (Whitehead.thb,,"olume). The deci,S 'onlo, ~ g h . might Ibe 'made according lo materialintefC$t,. bu. t h ~ u1tirmate benefits may seem to ' pale as men maTChtowaro pmib e death. 'Th.e rules,.va]ues .and attitoRs described .aoovepve an add1d and more immcd 'ate IlIIccnlh't'. They an: hammeredintoboys :oom :IIn ea y age, sometim ,e,s accompanim ~ y ~ r e punishmentfor &iluife Q I ~ m ~ h e t n Ind ividUa. miJibny a : O R l p ~ i s h m : e n t may beaprerequisite ror ae:hiev,illg ,adul:ibood;, and reinfo.roed fOI adu ll1 by:$hame rOl' CQWilrdS, aud prcJtige lor ac..omp1idJed warrion (Fadi:man1982:Oh. 3. 4; e i d e t 1970: 129:,Vogd 1964)\ Shame and pl ,ge do,- -t ...._ JI. - Il- n h \lo' -. - 1 1 1 ,- llicen have ve-tan - 'b)e corre ~ t e s ino S iI lN iillo e, o :ever. _ -Cf 0.1" ,__ . ___. __ __ .g\ ___ . ___ . --- omafri.ages in tesomoet. and in inftueoce (Ohagnon ., ~ h i vol,ume;.Mcgitt c - n 1 ' u m . q r - U i g h 1971:PaltU;Zcgwa31'd 195:9: W t -UMl). AJiII hcse:withilil .gro1lp ~ i n f o r c c m e n t s wiU be backed up by thet ,, . ~ -. -f -' 1] ~ " .... - 11M wl .ichl ha-- n- l suflicien,Jy_ _ UN N _ WI _ ~ OU., pou ... . JI _______ 7" __'-" ___ . ___ .


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E .J ' "x...cJUI'In& warmoti"wt-...1 th"il[ fi..J..1'"0, , . . . n ~ i d t . . , . . : -- t'h- - -- ....- -f ' -' - '_ _ ~ _ ... _ _S' ... -- V\ I ,, _ "_,yon o iD ex m", ." o relnJUKlnglhe fC$Olve ,o WU1'_OI'$ should e1im nate any n . ~ i o n of war bci8 ~ h ~resu1t ofan ~ m ' y e :nstilllct.")

'T1me layen of motiva:lion o o m p ~ i c a : t e ksting orthe propo,{ tion thatMI ' happms when it is in decbion- makers' matetial: interm (soeFerpoon 1984a: 37-4,2)" Expectabty . indi, iduals .,dl ,express feculhn:alva]ues astheir motives in war $O cmicaooounts will 080111be atvariancc from themateri:al gaio vie:w, Evaluation. of the material:motivatio1il pmpos:ition is s'fll p1ssihle. h N ~ b; in'-"'Cdiptingwhetl Jer it - in conkast toother motivationalprem ' - can expla inaerua. mili,tary beha,vior. wewedlon a Jegional ~ J c (.FcTguson 19Mb);O [ by eva:lw,ing whelher Ctl l'Ient and prospective materiallam.ditionind ' iduaUyassased, carr)' tI e moo weigtlt in VQup dcJiberatiolils aooul'Naif ( F ~ $ O n worlin, ~ a:nd see Chapon . fhls vollum e), Thiset'Ids tbe su,rvey of factors invohlCd \Vith war in rcla.th'cly p I H a r i a nsocictics. excluding lhe efrects,ofWESIIl :m COnllact,. -

EVOLUTION AND WART h : e c o I i I C l e p t o f g ~ n e a soc 'oc:ul:lural evo]u tion has a long hislOly, alldlabo Jonptall.d:ililg .assoc:iated conceptual; problem , (FriEd W967;. aas1 98,2. liar:ris 1968: 6301-6S3 . Mano 198& S e n r i ~ J971; ~ 9 7 5FolttJnale'ly. mos ,oHl ose can Ii>e aivoided beca.use ihc 00 cem here isnot ,\\ 'lb e\'Ollutio'n per seor wUh the f,ole of wamue io. promolingevolution (S 'Oa.mc:iro, Haas. d:lis volumc), but wUh che changes 'nwali wh 'ch goarong w:ith evolution. ol this purpose. iIeooncept ,oevolutioncan be Ieft al central ization of pol itica l oontrol. greater. a.."t -1:, --, -l'ty -ud - - - iet-n-- ~ -- l:i -- t t : o l u l n Inr ue UIO mequa_1 a mon: _ . e _e p:rwuc _ n ~ J i _eL _ g _surplluses.nhas long heen mOMl , probab.ly sirnce before theTe werc sta:tes, dilate'o\olution jS5$OCiatf d wiih pea Cf m'l tar}' sophi


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R. IRJAN fERGUSON

changes 41rt mofl appaffllt when one artives al .he sblte l'eve1 ofoIgan ' tion, bul the)' .are changes o:f degm: andesn Ii.c ~ u d j e d it h r o u ~ o u t the evo)ufonar)' talll e.

Generar dc\'elo,met: b aSKK:ialed witt. evol'ution: .m ..ffcct tlle:s"gnir6cance ofinframuctut.l l50urcts ofoonAict. Thedited ro :slrainuofcoolggy ale Joosened as ,other cJcmenb o .be inft;astructufe dcvcl.op,and ~ y c t i C ) n n O ~ ~ i 8 : y Boml si rnple Ilidtie technology. I m i ~ e dsto:rqe C3,pability, andrclativeIDy


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mn 'tary specialists. In s1at.es, .be o r g ; l Q i ~ . on of J),Toouc-fcm arndk a n ~ d a t i o i l caD be suffictelltto iUp.,orl: a speci:al i:z.ed arm .11 e O ~ : Sohny p;lrlicu13f militiu)' eJfod may be "educed" aud 50 ts Hkclihoodincre-a-s.ed. ir :society is .allre-adydivertios: majol resourccs to e l'outineTlliliJl1rtenanee' of a mililary roJee . A"dTeS'1j (1968. nz) COlns tite ' itrm

' p o l e m i ~ as Ilhe raro of energyde\loted lo warfare 'lo the: tola] cflergyaiV3ilable to society. Th,epriorily di,version of$Calce rerourcesis one of,lhe major chanctciI"istics or oon ,rempar.Hy i u d u ~ f i a l societies O ) ~ b b l e1967" Melma 1974; 1984), Uis imposs'ble to ~ y how _his cornp 'aresw.ith pol'emiCy jne rly sb'lll Sorm:- ,s1atc soc:icties. ~ n c e \ i f l ' . l l i l n ) ' n O w o r khas bccm:do e ,on , t {d. Rol>bins 1'982: 224-2H , 'fhe topicmer1$ini estigafoll especiaU iln rcgard lo thc point whete the milital}' lodIi1leiT associates .acquilrc:enougt struCilural di tincti 'C'IlCSS tod velopim to3, powcdul ~ n t l ' : e s t ,group . Libanr int, rest poup. 1 1 i I ~ S e compete wil:hothC'l' power groupings oveT the distribution of $OCie : ,'s resOllrceS(Claessen 1-79; Fortes ancffi I E I I ~ n Pr'tehard 1'910: 11-14), Si C ~ : e,can haKl]y jiu rey mOJe &uppod f h e r e i .no dange;r ol "''aro tbey mayha\l'e ninte-re:st in Ijloomotifil,g mill'ital)' cofl:frontatiofl . On .he: otlle;rhand. SQrne slakUflllie.s must ] a ~ I ~ SlJpport m s e m \ C $ . llld peTmmadditional' \\ 0 :k besides {Boom ,- 193 : 179-183; lair 1977: 129). Amcent sem,inar 00 Zulu I listo:ry concluded tha 't it was the d'm.elopm niQf ~ i m < m k o d Ia,bo which fa ilita,OO therise ofmi litarized states P e ~ r e98Wb: W }: ,ehiefdomsand tates, one's m len I inrere l' dcpcnds more' opositioJl witbill1theslfucture ofsociety than on tlle general relation h ~ por poP'I.IIlaf.oo Co ftatulreSlO'I.IIrc:es . Ca t nd be elirts of \\ T . 'l'\C\\,iscdepcmd on structul posil' on. Poop[c or olgall izati,on al:dlii(crcll'l' levelsin a socely mal' ha\ - eve


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19M: 34}>. Colden ~ 9 8 6 ; Kicfcr ~ 9 7 2 i09}, rivaltrong meo mayo o ~ O O f l t r o ~ (if Ihe ,Qenh'a] admin id.'Jrtiof;l {Mair ]977;62. NumeJ"n1961; 20; WoU:ilnd Hanson 1'91,2: 0 " ' 2 2 ~ ) , OT p o p l l l i f d i S ' O O n t ~ 1 I i t may'dUC:ilten t h e e n t i r e p o ~ i t c a l s 1 r u c t u r e {Ommmey ]986; Ferpson 198fb:290. Peojil'e'S 1'981(: Wolft97;). AU ~ ~ t dangers lo ) < J ruliflg elitewhichoftcnlcan be ,. cutral"zec by mobiEi'l.ing r o t c : ~ a g a i l i l ~ l


31/36

xplaillillg warwill those who decide milituy palie)' benefit? Subjcets can e eompellcd to aeeept a paliey deeision, and eornpelled to fight. TIle oldmaxim that a soldier must fcm his offieers more than the enemy \Vasappreeiated by rulcrs of protostates in Afriea, as epitomized by Shab ofthe Zulu, \Vho heaped rewards on hrave warriors, but exccuted thosewho hcld hack ('I'urney- High 19 71: 83). That, along with changes in theorganiZ


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R. BRIAN FI


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xplaining war1982; Trigger 1976: 626; Vayda 1960: 106; Whitehead, thlS volume).The new teehnology may indude new and more deadly weapons (dTownsend 1983). Tha can lead to major ehanges in taelies (Lewis 1970:183-188; Trigger 1976: 41 7); and, sinee possession of these weapoTlsOlay be crucial for survival (see Naroll 1966: 20), il may trigger an armsraee which itself generales more raiding for tradeable plunder and slaves(Bennett Ross 1984: 9D-93; Chagnon 1983: 202- 203; this volume;Fcrguson 1984b: 2l)l)-mO; Gamst 1986). On the other hand, skillfuldistribution of manufactures by an outside agent e,m be uscd to fosterpeaee among local indigenous groups (Cordon 1983: 206, 209).

Structural patterns related to war are restrudured by contad(although such t h r e e ~ w y inleraction has received relalively li tle study).Kinship strudures often go Ihrough major changes due to depopulation,changing work patterns, and dired inlervention by Westerncrs .Residence patterns cae change complctcly. Normative cxpectationsamong kin can bc undercut by inereased value ofmovable property andgeneral monehniz


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R. BRIAN F'ERGUSON

1975; Whitehead, this VOIUlllC.)Poltical pattcrns also change in various dircctions. Group identiticsand boundarics alter in thc process of contact-induccd "tribalization"(Frie


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xplaining warof the topie. Rceognition ofthis faet opens the possibility that bolh sidesin an argument sometimes could grant the validity of the opponent sview - ifhoth opponents take eare to precisely define the questions theyare addressing.Obviously, there will be objeetions to the causal priorities suggestedhere. Objeetions would be more produetive if they \Vere framed in termsof alternative hypotheses, rather than being purely negative, and evenbetter if they were conneeted to other findings on war, in the mannerattempted here. he existenee of alternative general theories wouldestablish that there is much eommon ground between them, and allowfor true comparison of their merits where they do differ.


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u

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