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FROM ITINERANT TO PERMANENTFROM ITINERANT TO PERMANENTAN ARCHIVAL REVIEW OF HOUSING TYPES ON PINE RIDGE RESERVATIONAN ARCHIVAL REVIEW OF HOUSING TYPES ON PINE RIDGE RESERVATION

Brent Sturlaugson

REPORT SUMMARYREPORT SUMMARYThe aim of this study is to understand housing construction

on Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. The scope draws on a set of preliminary questions. What do we know about reservation housing? What do we know about non-reservation housing? How do these stories differ? Many existing accounts show how housing materializes in a non-reservation context, through such mecha-nisms as private lending institutions, government insured mort-gages, cookie-cutter design, and corporate construction fi rms. Far less common are accounts concerning reservation housing.

The content serving this investigation derives from another set of questions. How does reservation housing materialize? What are its different forms? How did reservation housing transition from itinerant to permanent? What historical events coincided with this period? For the purposes of this study, content is limit-ed to evidence concerning the period when housing transformed from nomadic settlements consisting of tipis to sedentary settle-ments composed of fi xed houses on Pine Ridge. Though histor-ically specifi c, the methodology might apply in related contexts.

The research process relies on archival material. The process involved fi nding sources relating to reservation housing, a search that included: Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (BRB-ML) in New Haven, Connecticut; Oglala Sioux Tribe Attorney

General’s Offi ce (OST-AGO) in Pine Ridge, South Dakota; South Dakota State Historical Society State Archives (SDSHS-SA) in Pierre, South Dakota; University of South Dakota Oral History Center (USD-OHC) and Chilson Collection (USD-CC) in Vermil-lion, South Dakota; and, National Archives and Records Admin-istration (NARA-KC) in Kansas City, Missouri. Documents from these repositories were digitized and organized according to their governmental program affi liation. The following report represents a sampling of archival material derived from these sources.

Historical artifacts comprise the empirical evidence for this study. These artifacts are organized in four groups: models, surveys, transition, construction. Within each group, typological differences establish a distinctive character for each artifact. In general, models refl ect the aspirations of administrators. These artifacts include drawings, specifi cations, models, and metrics of desired housing. Surveys establish a basis for reform. Survey ar-tifacts include photographs, written descriptions, tabulations, and statistics. Transition accounts for shifts in housing type. These ar-tifacts capture moments when housing composition changes, and rely on photographic content from survey material. Construction describes the means by which houses materialize. Construction ar-tifacts consist of programs based on induced labor.

ARTIFACTSARTIFACTSMODELSMODELS

1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISION1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISION1910 COTTAGES FOR INDIANS1910 COTTAGES FOR INDIANS1925 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS1925 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS1931 INDUSTRIAL PROGRAM1931 INDUSTRIAL PROGRAM1933 NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT1933 NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACT1936 SPECIFICATIONS1936 SPECIFICATIONS1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISION1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISION

SURVEYSSURVEYS

1879-1885 STATISTICS ACCOMPANYING ANNUAL REPORT1879-1885 STATISTICS ACCOMPANYING ANNUAL REPORT1907 REPORT ON HOMES VISITED1907 REPORT ON HOMES VISITED1915 SANITARY SUGGESTIONS1915 SANITARY SUGGESTIONS1924-1925 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEY1924-1925 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEY1933 REPORT ON CONDITION OF HOMES1933 REPORT ON CONDITION OF HOMES1934-1935 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEY1934-1935 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEY

TRANSITIONTRANSITION

1891 REPORT OF INSPECTION OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS1891 REPORT OF INSPECTION OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS1900 PHOTOS1900 PHOTOS1909 OGLALA LIGHT1909 OGLALA LIGHT1927-1929 POSTERS1927-1929 POSTERS

CONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTION

1900 PHOTOS1900 PHOTOS1929 POSTERS1929 POSTERS1938 ANNUAL REPORT OF EXTENSION WORKERS1938 ANNUAL REPORT OF EXTENSION WORKERS1939 REPORT OF BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED BY COMMUNITY PATRONS1939 REPORT OF BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED BY COMMUNITY PATRONS1940 BUILDING PROGRAM1940 BUILDING PROGRAM

77111115152121252527273131

353539394343474753535757

6161656567677171

75757777797983838585

1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION 1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISIONCORPS-INDIAN DIVISIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 3BOX 3

From 1933 to 1942, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) served as a relief work agency under President Franklin D. Roos-evelt’s New Deal legislation. John Collier, then Commissioner of Indian Affairs, extended the program to include American Indi-an enrollees in the Civilian Conservation Corps-Indian Division (CCC-ID). Like CCC, the CCC-ID enlisted adult men in civil engineering projects such as dams, utilities, fences, and roads. In some cases, CCC-ID extended its reach into housing, as reported by Russell G. Pankey, Assistant Supervisor of the Enrollee Pro-gram, in his visit to Pine Ridge from October 23-28, 1939. Pankey submitted his illustrated report to Collier on November 6, 1939

from his offi ce at 215 Treasure State Building in Billings, Montana. Pine Ridge Agency received a carbon copy including photographic prints on November 8, 1939. This copy resides at NARA-KC.

In Pankey’s report, the caption to a small yellowing photo-graph reads, “Mr. Skaar, Mr. Arthur, and Mr. Getty discussing Project Training on the ‘front porch’ of the model house.” Three white men sit on the unfi nished porch of a scale model house. Two wear white cowboy hats that hide their faces from the camera. One stares at the dirt beneath his outstretched boot; he is dressed in overalls and a long-sleeved shirt. The other idly turns something over in his fi ngers; he wears casual dress consisting of pleated

7

trousers and a light jacket. Their boots show signs of light wear, as do their slight frames. Skaar, Camp Assistant, sits on the left, and Getty, Senior Project Manager, sits on the right.

Between them is Arthur, Project Trainer, dressed in a three-piece suit and tie. Over this he wears a long overcoat and a dark colored derby hat. His polished black shoes refl ect the wide open sky. Unlike the others, his posture is determined, his frame heavy. What little hair creeps from beneath his hat appears gray, yet his eyebrows retain a color that accentuates his determined expres-sion. He clutches his hands as if in the middle of an oration, eyes focused on the ground ahead of him. His head tilts slightly as if articulating a puzzling point, and his elbows rest lightly on his bent knees. At a moment’s notice, he might rise, amplify his voice, and address a rapt audience. If he does, he might explain the values associated with the model house on which he sits.

The unfi nished model, resting on a base laid fl at on the bar-ren ground, shows the fi rst fl oor of a house with six rooms. The base measures approximately ten feet square, including the porch. This translates into roughly sixteen hundred feet of inhabitable area. Each space within the house has access to daylight and nat-ural ventilation through generous fenestration. The construction

method employs framed lumber with studs placed at regular inter-vals. Presumably, insulation would be inserted between the studs. Its attention to detail suggests interior fi nishes will not be applied, thus accentuating the craft. Indeed, the construction process is an important feature for the model to highlight. The exterior, on the other hand, is clad with wood rough planks, likely awaiting a fi n-ished surface.

Presumably, the men on the porch discuss the possibility of improving housing conditions through public works. In 1939, Pine Ridge suffered from many of the same ills experienced in other parts of the country, but considering the challenges of reserva-tion economies not plagued by drought, the Pine Ridge case may have been more acute, hence the extension of CCC-ID efforts to include model housing. The question posed by Arthur, Getty, and Skaar is one that has been posed for decades. How can reserva-tion housing improve? How can reservation housing conform to government standards? In this instance, CCC-ID administrators employed visualization in creating a scale model, but before this, many other tactics were tested, each responding to similar ques-tions.

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1910 COTTAGES FOR INDIANS1910 COTTAGES FOR INDIANS

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY PIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTAPIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTASTATE ARCHIVESSTATE ARCHIVESJOHN R. BRENNAN COLLECTIONJOHN R. BRENNAN COLLECTIONBOX MF 1835BOX MF 1835

In 1910, shortly after land allotment began on Pine Ridge, Superintendent John R. Brennan commissioned a series of house designs. Brennan’s intent is not known, but it might be inferred from supporting evidence from other superintendents that com-missioned similar designs to be furnished to allottees. Designs for three houses and one barn were drawn by Middleton and checked by Olop. Their architectural fi rm affi liation is not known. Each sheet includes a variable number of plans, sections, and elevations at one-eighth inch and one-and-one-half inch. Specifi ed materials include dimension lumber, masonry, shingles, siding, large dou-ble-hung windows, small casement windows, and panel doors.

Blueprint copies of these designs are held in the John R. Brennan Collection at SDSHS-SA. To improve legibility, reproductions of these blueprints reverted to line drawings; fading in the blueprint accounts for the discoloration of the reproductions.

The fi rst sheet, “Cottage (for Indians) No. 1,” shows a partial two-story frame house resting on a footprint measuring fi fteen feet by thirty-three feet six inches. The fi rst fl oor hovers slightly above grade, spanning the foundation walls with two-by-eight inch joists spaced sixteen inches on center. Solid sawn timber comprises the fi nished fl oor, and the plaster ceiling rises 9 feet above. The living room has three large double-hung windows, a stair enclosed by a

11

door, and a closet beneath the stair. Through another door, the kitchen measures fourteen feet by twelve feet, and has two large double-hung windows. It is accessible to the exterior by a stoop. Framed with two-by-four inch studs spaced sixteen inches on cen-ter, the second fl oor occupies twenty-one feet two inches over the living room. Three small casement windows and a chimney fl ue adorn the interior surface of the bedroom, which is noted as plas-ter or special lining. The ceiling measures six feet six inches tall at

the bottom chord of the braced rafters, which consist of two-by-six members spaced twenty-four inches on center. Metal gutters and a masonry chimney extend from the shingle roof. Attached to the narrow end of the two-story gable end, a gently sloping shed porch is supported by three posts with decorative braces. Beneath this, a panel door with a top lantern accompanies one of the large double-hung windows.

12

The second design, “Cottage (for Indians) No. 2,” consists of a single-story frame house with a steep hip roof. The foundation measures twenty-four feet by thirty feet two inches. At its cen-ter, a footing supports the chimney. Between the footing and the short edge, twelve-by-twelve-by-six inch footings support short four-by-eight inch posts, which carry the two-by-eight inch joists at sixteen inches on center. Atop these, a solid sawn timber fl oor meets the walls in a shaped trim piece. A porch supported by three posts extends over the main panel door. The ground plan contains no labels, but it implies a living room measuring thirteen feet six inches by twenty-three feet with three large double-hung windows. From this space, one door passes into a fi fteen feet by ten feet

bedroom, and another into a fi fteen feet by twelve feet six inch kitchen. These rooms connect with a doorless opening, and a door with a stoop extends from the kitchen. Each of these rooms has two large double-hung windows. Two-by-four inch studs with a plaster interior frame a fi nished ceiling height of nine feet ten inch-es. The roof consists of a queen truss consisting of two-by-eight inch bottom chords at sixteen inches on center, two-by-four inch webs at twenty-four inches on center, one-by-six inch queen posts at twenty-four inches on center, and two-by-six inch top chords at twenty-four inches on center. A one-by-eight inch ridge beam ties the truss together. As before, metal gutters and a masonry chimney extend from the shingle roof.

13

The third print, “Cottage (for Indians) No. 3,” contains draw-ings for a two-story L-shaped house. The principle foundation measures fi fteen feet ten inches by thirty-one feet ten inches, with an extension measuring fi fteen feet ten inches by sixteen feet. Two-by-eight inch joists at sixteen inches on center span thirteen feet six inches clear. The same general detail section as before describes the wall composition. A small porch with the same structure as before extends from the inside of the L. The fi rst fl oor contains no labels, but presumably the living room, with three large dou-ble-hung windows and a chimney, occupies the entrance space. A door separates it from a larger space, also with three windows and a chimney. From this space, an enclosed stair leads to the second fl oor. Openings on either side of the chimney lead to another large

space, this one having four windows. On the second fl oor, ris-ing nine feet above the fi rst, three rooms with either two or three small casement windows fi ll the footprint of the house. Seven feet separates the fl oor from the bottom chord of the rafter bracing, and the same metal gutter and masonry chimney extend from a shingle roof.

These designs describe model houses for Pine Ridge. Their details require access to processed materials and construction ex-pertise. In a context where building materials were scarce and self-help comprised the labor pool, as was the case during Brennan’s tenure, construction of these designs would have been diffi cult. Indeed, no evidence of built examples could be found.

1925 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS1925 PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS

NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 612BOX 612

Correspondence between E.W. Jermark, Superintendent of Pine Ridge Agency, and E. B. Meritt, Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs describes the next model under consideration. On January 29, 1925, Meritt responded to Jermark’s request, writing: “Superintendent Buntin of the Kiowa Agency has worked out a set of plans of houses and barns which he has found very useful as an inducement to the Indians to build. He fi nds that a consid-erable number of Indians would have used their funds in erecting houses which were much needed for their families, if a satisfactory plan had been presented them before their money was expended in other ways. As you are giving consideration to the betterment of

housing conditions in connection with the fi ve-year program, a set of the plans will be sent you under separate cover with the request that you examine them and if you fi nd any of them can be used on your reservation either as shown or after being altered, additional copies can be secured at less cost from the Kiowa Agency than if obtained otherwise. It has proved quite an incentive to the Indians to have the plans posted in a conspicuous place, generally at the farmer’s headquarters, where they can be seen by the Indians and explained to them. Please submit a statement of your views of the practicability of using these plans.” On February 7, 1925, Jermark responded: “I am very glad that Mr. Buntin has been so successful

15

in this work on his reservation. I am sure, however, that the Offi ce [of Indian Affairs] will agree that houses and barns of this charac-ter are entirely beyond the possibilities of the Pine Ridge Sioux. A few of our Indians have money as a result of their allotment ben-efi ts, and several sold land which produced funds, but in very few, if any, cases is there enough money to build a house as Mr. Buntin indicates. The practical house of this reservation for the Indians should be constructed of logs, properly hued, which work can be done individually; an expenditure of $150.00 will furnish fl oors and shingle roof for a three room house, as well as the doors and windows. A house of this character is in advance of a vast majority of the homes of this reservation. The usual Indian home consists of logs, often times without fl oors and usually without ceiling. It is usually a one or two room structure with a roof of dirt.” In his response, Jermark acknowledged the impracticality of inducing residents to build houses in this manner.

The accompanying package include 20 house plans with two pages of specifi cations; 12 barn plans each with its own specifi ca-tions; two pages of instructions; proposal; agreement; bond; and, justifi cation of sureties on bond. Each house plan is drawn next to a representative photograph on a page fragment, which reads,

“Plans and Specifi cations for Improvements on Allotment of.” The plans range from two to six rooms, all of which have at least one porch and chimney. Four have pantries, and six have indoor baths. The fi rst page of instructions indicates the expected popu-larity of the plan packages: “A fair supply for one year for an aver-age agency would be 1,000 4 1/2 x 8 1/2 fl oor plans and halftone cuts of houses from 1 to 20, combined on one sheet, which would be 50 each, at a cost of $4.00. 500 copies of house specifi cations, $4.00. 600 plans and specifi cations for barns, 50 each.” From the tone of Jermark’s response to Buntin’s relay of this package, Pine Ridge would not require the supply for an average agency. Like be-fore, the model houses described by these plans and specifi cations exceeded the capacity for Pine Ridge to execute. This time, the designs were not commissioned specifi cally for Pine Ridge, as they were in Brennan’s case. Buntin’s model houses intended to satisfy American Indians regardless of location. In fact, the Offi ce of In-dian Affairs adopted these plans and specifi cations for their July 1, 1926 publication “Plans and Specifi cations for Indian Homes and Improvements.” As before, no evidence of built examples could be identifi ed in archival repositories.

16

1931 INDUSTRIAL PROGRAM1931 INDUSTRIAL PROGRAM


On March 14, 1931, E. E. Stinson, Agricultural Extension Agent, addressed the “General Meeting Farm Chapters and Aux-illaries” with his speech, “What Accomplishment Can Be Made in the Agriculture Line to Promote the Pine Ridge Indians.” Estab-lished in the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, extension work aided rural communities with scientifi c knowledge from agricultural colleges, hence Stinson’s presence at the meeting. He opens by pointing at the audience, saying, “If you will look around you will see that everybody is dressed in modern attire, your change from fi fty years ago to today has been very gradual. I think you have made won-derful progress, you folks are to be commended on the wonderful

work you have been doing.” After reciting a few statistics regarding the success of the fi ve year program, Stinson asserts, “One of the fi rst things that we want to create on this reservation is a bet-ter home in which to live, a good home with plenty of food and clothing and a good school and a good church is the foundation of a good people.” He continues to outline a new agricultural pro-gram which promotes alfalfa, seed corn, navy beans, and potatoes: “In addition to that we want to make progress, the only way we can make progress is to improve our homes, keep our children in school, dress a little better and perhaps buy some additional live-stock.” Stinson elaborates on the qualities of a good home, saying,

21

“A good home on every allotment on Pine Ridge, by a good home I mean a home with two rooms, a shingled roof, some good furni-ture.” Added to this is a list of agricultural goals, which will be en-couraged through a reward system: “So you men all want to work to be the master farmer of Pine Ridge Reservation.” Furthermore, he emphasizes, “If things are not going right in the house chances are things are not going right out on the farm so you men as fa-thers and husbands and the head of the families should work hard to provide plenty of food, plenty of clothing and a good house for your wife to live in...”

The model house described by Stinson exists in service of agricultural production. Articulated in his closing lines, Stinson urges simplicity and consistency in house construction, so as not to adversely affect the cultivation of crops. This model accurately refl ects some of the houses on Pine Ridge at that time, but the majority still had dirt fl oors and dirt roofs. Unlike before, Stinson’s description of a model house lies within reach of his audience.

22

1933 NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL 1933 NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY ACTRECOVERY ACTNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCY

From 1933 to 1935, the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) aimed to restore failing industries through executive ad-ministration; it also established the Public Works Administration (PWA), which stimulated civil engineering projects through federal grants. Evidence of NIRA on Pine Ridge exists as a drawing for a model house, likely a result of PWA activity on the reservation.

A single sheet of yellowing paper contains original drawings for a single-story two-room house with an integrated cellar. The foundation measures sixteen feet by twenty-four feet, and from one of the narrow ends, a stair labeled “cement steps” leads into the seven feet by fi fteen feet excavated portion. The other side

remains unexcavated, and is spanned with two-by-eight inch joists at sixteen inches on center. In the middle of this portion, a six-teen-by-twenty inch footing supports the chimney. The ground fl oor shows no doors, but has openings for them on both short edges. The main space has four windows and access to a closet with shelves. The kitchen has two windows and access to a pantry with shelves and a window. From the kitchen, a stoop extends over the landing of the cellar stair, which is covered by a door. Both plans are drawn at one-quarter inch equals one foot. Although detail remains scarce, the house described by the drawing exists within reach of reservation residents.

25

1936 OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS 1936 OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS SPECIFICATIONSSPECIFICATIONSNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 612BOX 612

On January 12, 1937, John A. Barkley, Senior Clerk of Rose-bud Agency, wrote William O. Roberts, Superintendent of Pine Ridge Agency: “We are enclosing herewith three prints covering specifi cations for houses. It is believed that these prints were intended for the Pine Ridge Reservation as we do not have any record of requesting specifi cations from these architects.” The following page confi rms the error where William O. Roberts iden-tifi ed as Superintendent of Rosebud. Another mistake, which did not affect its delivery, noted the address of Rosebud Agency as North Dakota, not South Dakota. These blueprint reproductions were sent by air mail on January 4, 1937 by Alfred Fellheimer and

Steward Wagner, Architects and Engineers located at 155 East 42nd Street in New York, adjacent to William Van Alen’s recently completed Chrysler Building.

Fellheimer and Wagner’s “Specifi cations for Houses” were commissioned by the Offi ce of Indian Affairs, delivered on April 30, 1936, and designed to be used throughout the country. “The intent of these specifi cations is to describe all work, materials and equipment required to construct complete, ready for occupancy, groups of houses for the Department of the Interior, Offi ce of Indian Affairs, Washington, D. C., located in various Indian Res-ervations.” The specifi cations correspond with a range of plans,

27

which could not be located. Its 21 pages contain sections devoted to excavations, back fi lling and rough grading; masonry materi-als; masonry work; carpentry materials; carpentry work; painting; kitchen ranges and cabinet heaters; plumbing; and an addendum dated December 23, 1936 that modifi es the specifi cation of kitch-en ranges.

Like Buntin’s plans, Fellheimer and Wagner’s specifi cations assume homogeneity among American Indian reservations. While perfunctory provisions exist to preserve regional difference in

construction methods, the model described by these specifi ca-tions seeks universal application. No plans accompany the text, nor can a built example be identifi ed on Pine Ridge. Again, the model house for Pine Ridge fails to consider the circumstances of reservation economies.

28

1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION 1939 CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS-INDIAN DIVISIONCORPS-INDIAN DIVISIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 1BOX 1

Returning to Pankey’s 1939 report sheds light on the fi nal ar-tifact relating to model houses. Dislodged from its reference points among other documents at NARA-KC, a small photograph estab-lishes a like to the unfi nished scale model from Pankey’s earlier re-port. In the foreground, a man dressed in a suit and hat leans over a board extending from the back of a fl atbed truck parked in short prairie grass. His lefthand jacket pocket bulges and his shoes refl ect the bright sun. Also leaned over the board is a man dressed in worn boots, slacks, an unbuttoned vest, and white shirt with the sleeves rolled up. He wears a ceremonial headdress that cascades from his head to his heels. Clinging to this, a young girl in a patterned bon-

net gazes at a distant scene. Next to her stands a slightly older boy in overalls, looking past her at a different tableau. The men engage in discussion, heads nodded to shield the sun.

Beside the two men, a rotund man stands on the fl atbed truck. His gray hair is exposed, and his plump frame shows signs of overheating. He looks away from the camera, surveying the crowd gathered in the barren landscape. In one hand, perched on his hip, he clutches a light colored hat. His other hand rests on the rooftop of a completed scale model house. The steep pitch is cov-ered with shingles, and a brick chimney protrudes from the middle of the long ridge. Wood siding is interrupted by pairs of double

31

hung windows, and an ornamental frame accentuates the partially glazed door. Behind the glass, curtains obscure the interior space. Another man stands on the opposite site of the model. His hat lies in the grass beside the truck. At least one person takes refuge in the shade beneath the fl atbed.

A ring of onlookers, fi fty feet away, surrounds the model house. Of the approximately hundred people visible in the frame, most sit on the ground. Behind the observers is another ring com-prising parked cars and horses. These face inward in a radial pat-tern. If the circle implied by the photograph is in fact complete, three hundred people would have gathered to witness the event staged around the fl atbed truck.

Whereas the photograph from Pankey’s report features the interior layout of the unfi nished model from an elevated vantage,

the fi nished model house occupies a small portion of the pho-tographic frame. The fi rst photo emphasizes the arrangement of interior space, and suggests deliberate planning by three white men talking on the porch. The second photo documents the diplomatic and spectacular presentation of the completed model. Situated at the center of an implied circle, the model house begs the attention of onlookers. Its method of display places it at eye-level for stand-ing observers, lending an experiential perspective. For the seated audience, it occupies a higher strata. From their position in the circle, viewers maintain a distance that preserves abstraction and reinforces its fi ctive presence.

32

1879-1885 STATISTICS ACCOMPANY-1879-1885 STATISTICS ACCOMPANY-ING ANNUAL REPORTING ANNUAL REPORTNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX OS 59BOX OS 59

In his fi rst year as Indian Agent at Pine Ridge in 1879, Valen-tine T. McGillycuddy reported 110 log houses “occupied by Indi-ans” in his “Statistics Accompanying Annual Report.” A note at-tached to this category reads, “Huts, brush-houses, or mud-houses are not to be included under this head,” which invariably includes tipis. According to this report, all of these were “built by Indians during the year.” For a reported population of 7,250, this fi gure implies the majority of the population lived in other housing types. While the federal government provided $1,650 toward the con-struction of these houses, McGillycuddy indicated that no houses were “built for Indians during the year.”

Nearing the end of his tenure in 1885, McGillicuddy report-ed 123 log houses “built by Indians during the year,” adding to the running total of 848. That year, the total population reached 7,649. Unless nine people lived in every log house, other housing types still comprised a substantial portion of the housing stock. That year, the government contributed $1,845 in building supplies, such as windows and doors. Again, the government constructed no houses that year; it built three frame and two log buildings for $19,150.

The architectural characteristics of Pine Ridge from 1879 to 1885 consisted of a growing number of log houses and agency

35

buildings. Based on survey information collected by McGillycud-dy, the transition from itinerant to permanent housing types be-gan with his authority. Reports submitted by other Indian Agents follow different methods, rendering the data diffi cult to correlate.

Thus, only information from McGillycuddy’s term can be consid-ered consistent. These statistics point to a possible starting point from which reservation housing changed in permanency.

36

1907 REPORT ON HOMES VISITED1907 REPORT ON HOMES VISITED

NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX OS 59BOX OS 59

On May 1, 1907 from Porcupine, South Dakota, Minerva D. Henke, Housekeeper at Number 16 Day School, submitted “Re-port on Homes Visited.” This ledger contains information per-taining to 17 women ranging in age from 25 to 52. Of these, fi ve attended day schools and one went to boarding school. Only one woman wore “citizen’s clothes.” This woman received the only “good” rating in the category, “Cleanliness, Of Home.” Nearly all lived in log houses with one room and two windows; one excep-tion had only one window, and another had two rooms. Ventilation was reported as “poor” in all houses. Occupancy of these houses ranged from four to nine people. Number of living children varied

from one to ten.Henke’s survey includes only families with children attending

Number 16 Day School on Pine Ridge. Her husband, Julius Hen-ke, Teacher at Number 16 Day School, complete a similar survey for the men of the district. Surveys from other day schools include comparable information, though their scope remained tied to the day schools. For this reason, the sample size is considerably small-er than the earlier “Statistics Accompanying Annual Report.” The information resolution, however, is much fi ner in the day school surveys.

While the results contain certain biases, the consistency of

39

housing types among families surveyed is remarkable. All houses are built with logs, and are spaced along a waterway within a few miles of the school. The houses range from one to fi ve rooms with rarely more than two windows. Occupancy ranges from as many as

six in a one-room house to nine in a two-room. The architectural character depicted by the “Report on Homes Visited” is uniform; log houses comprise the only housing type belonging to families of school-age children.

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1915 SANITARY SUGGESTIONS1915 SANITARY SUGGESTIONS


In the spring of 1915, Superintendent John R. Brennan dis-tributed Circular No. 965, calling for a clean-up day, followed by an inspection, of houses with children attending reservation day schools. The patrons were notifi ed “by written notice delivered by our two police-men, with instructions to explain the purpose of the ‘Clean-Up-Day’ and Report.”

On May 7, 1915, Charles Dushane addressed the “Offi cer in Charge” of the proposed clean-up day. He writes, “These Indians will not reach a high degree of civilization till they can appreciate the necessity of a permanent home.” To this end, Dushane pro-poses the following: “Two vital factors must be overcome in order

to establish the idea of the need of the permenency [sp] of the home. The Indians should live on their own allotments. This will be an expensive propition to the Government, since it will require the redistribution of the day schools. 2d Superstition; nearly every Indian on this reservation tears his house down on the death of anyone in the house.”

The form title reads, “To carry out Circular No. 965: Sani-tary Suggestions, clean-up day.” At the bottom are two blanks for signatures, teacher and housekeeper. A note beneath these fi elds reads, “Do not sign unless visit was made by Teacher and House-keeper.” The surveys are composed on paper bearing a watermark

43

resembling the national emblem. Categories are reproduced in blue from a typewritten original. Information is typically composed in ink, though few are typewritten. Most of the form bear a stamp indicating its arrival at the agency offi ce in Pine Ridge.

170 forms located at NARA-KC comprise the survey sample. Of these, 31 reported poor house conditions, 46 fair, and 81 good. 27 documented poor house premises, 39 fair, and 96 good. Some indicate the lack of an interpreter during the visit. A sample of the written notes for house condition include, “Clean, as is possible to keep it with dirt fl oor,” “Very bad, and the old lady was playing cards,” and “Lives in a tent, dirty.” Sample suggestions include,

“House should be kept clean and well ventilated during the day,” “If we have any hopeless cases, this is one of them. The old lady and a little grand child live alone and no one to care for them,” and “Build house, spend money for furniture, cooking utensils, etc. Wash clothing each week. Be careful in buying provisions. Buy the economical things.”

The content of these surveys reveals the condition of stu-dent houses in 1915, and provides instruction on how to keep a sanitary living environment. Noted by Dushane, this survey oc-curred during the allotment period when much of the reservation was reconfi gured according to property assignments.

44

1924-1925 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 1924-1925 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEYSURVEYNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 7, 1229BOX 7, 1229

The “Economic and Social Survey” occurred during a period of growing awareness of living conditions, both urban and ru-ral. In 1921, the Federal Highway Act established the mechanism for creating a national highway system; in 1922, Better Homes in America, Inc. was founded on the basis of bringing sanitary con-ditions to rural areas; and, in 1923, the Regional Planning Associa-tion of America (RPAA) was created to account for the expanding infl uence of cities and highways. Thus, the “Economic and Social Survey” fi ts within a wider framework of regional analysis. Infor-mation from this survey has not been previously published.

Photos from the “Economic and Social Survey” feature indi-

vidual houses. Often, inhabitants pose in front of the house, and in some instances, pose for the photo with a rifl e or standing on one leg. The dominant house type is a log cabin. Nearly every pho-tograph captures the long elevation in which the primary entrance is located. Many of the photos fail to capture a portion of either end elevation. On the back of the photograph, the name of the house owner is penciled in cursive handwriting. Stamped in purple ink on the back in a parallelogram shape is the mark of the printer, “This is an Aloe Print.” A dark patch on one side of the back sug-gests the presence of adhesive at one point in time.

Survey methods varied. Some recorded detailed notes in the

47

form of typewritten pages while others included only select in-formation. One method recorded 207 individual houses. These entries were composed on a typewriter according to a template. This template included name, allottee number, degree, status, fam-ily, health, house environment, date and author of survey. Another method included name, location of house, crops, and livestock. This list is typewritten on single sheets of paper, and is also in-cluded on the backs of the corresponding 106 photographs. The abstract for the Porcupine District included a summary of “live-stock” and “acres of crops.” Following this are pages that contain name, allottee number, degree, status, family, house environment,

economic activity, and date of survey. At the bottom of each page is the identifying mark of the authors. 148 houses were assessed in this fashion. The fi nal method is exactly like that from the earlier report, which contained only name, location of house, crops, and livestock. These number 78. Together, these reports account for 539 houses.

The “Economic and Social Survey” illustrates the compo-sition of reservation houses in the 1920s. Log houses with dirt roof comprise the vast majority of those surveyed. Although cor-responding tabulations could not be found, the detail with which each house is described offers a wealth of research material.

48

1933 REPORT ON CONDITION OF 1933 REPORT ON CONDITION OF HOMESHOMESNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 6BOX 6

On November 30, 1933, the “Report Condition of Homes” distributed by the Division of Extension and Industry instructs, “Grade the Indian homes on the jurisdiction into three grades, each containing three classes (good, fair, and poor) and state how many in each class.” The fi rst category reads, “Estimate the total number of houses on this jurisdiction,” to which the responses in-clude 289 good, 360 fair, and 570 poor for a total of 1,119 perma-nent houses. The second category, “Estimate the total number of hogans on the jurisdiction,” receives no input. The third category says, “Estimate tht [sp] total number of tepees, wickiups, or tents on the jurisdiction used as homes the entire year.” This category

amounts to 18 good, 22 fair, and 7 poor, for a total of 47 itinerant houses. The instructions conclude, “Send one photograph and the fi lm of each class of homes in each of the three groups, for our permanent offi ce fi les.” The following report pages include the relevant photographic evidence.

The caption to the fi rst photos reads: “Good homes 289 (Shingle roof, board fl oors, log or frame, some are stucco over logs.)” The image shows a house from an oblique angle. There is a covered porch, brick chimney, fenced kitchen garden, stucco walls, timber trim around windows, shakes on the pediment of the gable, a man and woman standing on the porch looking at the camera,

53

and a black dog with white paws walking away from the camera. On the back of the print is a purple stamp reading, “Graves Stu-dio, Portraits & Kodak, Chadron, Nebr.”

The next caption reads, “Fair Homes 360 (Dirt roof and usu-ally dirt fl oor)” The image depicts a woman standing outside a log cabin with slightly overlapping logs at the corners, a door posi-tioned left of center of the long elevation, a window in the short elevation, thin fascia holding back soil on the roof, a bare chimney protruding from the left quarter of the house, a fence made from rounds stripped of their bark. Turkeys roam around the dirt yard. Next to this cabin, approximately 15 feet to the north, another cabin sits. To the south, there appears to be a frame structure clad with branches.

The third caption reads: “Poor Home 570 (Dirt roof and fl oor, small, one window, poorly furnished)” The image shows a man, woman, and child in front of a log cabin with posts at its cor-ners, a dirt roof with two rakes, a shovel, and various other instru-ments strewn about, a bare fl ue protruding from the far left side, a door approximately 3 feet from the outside edge of the corner post, a window nearly centered on the long elevation, and a bench outside. The photo is taken such that neither gable ends are visible.

The next section shows the classifi cations of tents. The cap-tion to the fi rst photo reads, “Good tents used as homes 18 (None board fl oors and side walls)” The image shows a tound woman in a patterned dress standing outside a tent. Its fl aps are held open, and inside is a wash tub, a kerosene lamp, a small stove, a barrel, and a raised sleeping surface. The tent is held up by crotched branch-es planted into the ground. Another branch spans between these crotches, and to it is tied the supports for the tent. In the distance is a two-story structure with a hip roof.

The next caption reads: “Fair tents used as homes 22 (None

have side walls or fl oors made of lumber)” The accompanying image shows no one in front or inside the canvas tent. Its doors are also propped open. Inside is a metal frame cot, a bucket, and a chest. No fl ue pierces the tent envelope.

The fi nal caption reads, “Poor tents used as homes 7 (None have board fl oors or side walls, sleep on the ground)” The photo-graph shows an infant seated in the open doorway of a canvas tent. Inside, the only visible item is a stove. Its fl ue protrudes well be-yond the top of the tent. Around the dwelling are many different sized buckets and boards. A broom and shovel rest against the tent fl ap to the right of the opening, and to the left, an axe is propped. Many garments drape over the rope structure holding the tent up-right. Beneath the feet to an old stove are a collection of neatly shaped posts, carved to a point at one end. In the foreground, a large log is pointing into the tent and around it are many wood-chips. In the distance, a portion of another building is evident. This structure has a steep roof pitch, likely covered with shingles. Between these two edifi ces, a number of bare branches protrude from the prairie.

According to the “Report on Condition of Homes,” the ar-chitectural character of Pine Ridge varies considerably from 289 good permanent houses to 7 poor itinerant houses. This survey does not consider occupancy, infrastructure, or surroundings in evaluating the condition of the house. Thus, its conclusions speak to the construction methods used during that period. Since the “Economic and Social Survey” in 1924-1925, both the number of frame houses and tents increased. This suggests the possibility of unsanitary conditions in log houses forcing families to either seek resources for frame houses or establish residence in tents. While conclusions of this sort cannot be ascertained from the informa-tion provided, speculation may open channels for future research.

54

1934-1935 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 1934-1935 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SURVEYSURVEYNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 177BOX 177

On January 13, 1934, the “Economic and Social Survey Weekly Report” estimated 2,200 families on Pine Ridge. At that time, 196 surveys had been completed by a team of 17 people. On February 28, 1934, James H. McGregor, Superintendent of Pine Ridge Agency, wrote Commissioner Collier saying the “survey is practically complete and much of the tabulation is done.” How-ever, McGregor accounts for troubles encountered in establishing land ownership, writing, “the important task of determining the present ownership of heirship lands is not yet fi nished.” He re-ports, “There are 820,382.06 acres of trust lands held for living allotees and 904,210.27 acres of trust lands that were originally al-

lotted to Indians now deceased.” Addressing this issue, McGregor proposes two potential remedies for “landless Indians,” including “a set-up for 25 families” and “settling of a small number of fam-ilies on existing tracts of patented lands which might be acquired for their use.” The following pages outline the scope of work for each alternative, effectively creating a model community for res-ervation life.

In the fi rst option, each family would receive a 20 acre farm-stead, and the community would have access to 30,000 acres of grazing land. Fencing would vary from 11 to 20 miles “depending on shape of tract including home sites,” with “labor to be fur-

57

nished by members of the community.” One well, on average 50 feet deep, would service each family for $75, and one house, either log or frame construction, would be provided for $350. The sec-ond plan details “groups composed of from two to fi ve or six fam-ilies…settled on good bottom lands tributary to tracts of range lands of suffi cient size to provide approximately 1,200 acres of range per family.” Closing his letter, McGregor offers, “We realize that the actual organization of a colony such as the one suggested above will require deep study of the details, minute examination of lands to be used and extreme care in execution of details.”

The “Economic and Social Survey” cover letter states, “Ac-cording to the 1933 census there are 8,294 Indians enrolled at this jurisdiction. Of these, the Survey reached 6,892.” The following pages account for the survey methodology, which took as its base unit the farm districts. McGregor adds, “In submitting this report we wish to call the attention of the offi ce to the fact that in so far

as possible Indian people were employed.” The survey summary accounts for: 2,033 families consisting of 6,892 enrolled members; 843 employed, 866 unemployed; and, 134,215 days of employ-ment in 1933, earning $261,464. Housing type includes 309 frame, 3 brick, 1 stone, 1,152 log, 45 tent, and 5 dugout, totaling 1,515. Only 37 had water piped in the house, 805 had a toilet, and 3 had electricity. According to the report, 3,784 people lived “more than fi ve miles from a surfaced highway.” Prior to 1929, 1,250 received regular relief, and in 1933, 1,015. McGregor notes, “Other Indians have received relief through Red Cross, issue clothing and charity, during the early part of 1933. This number has been reduced to the minimum at present due to ECW, CWA, and PWA pay rolls.”

The “Economic and Social Survey” from 1934 establishes the basis for reform amid a climate of progressive politics. As was the case ten years earlier, the vast majority of houses consist of log construction.

58

1891 REPORT OF INSPECTION OF 1891 REPORT OF INSPECTION OF GOVERNMENT SCHOOLSGOVERNMENT SCHOOLSNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCY

On May 27, 1891, Daniel Dorchester, Superintendent of In-dian Schools, submitted a report covering the general condition of the government school facilities. His introduction recounts the ef-fects of the recent Wounded Knee Massacre on the school’s facili-ties. According to Dorchester, after many of the stronger students were enlisted as scouts, “Many of these vacant places were imme-diately fi lled by ‘freshmen’ from the tepes [sp], and such children are still coming in.” He continues, “the taking in of fresh children from the tepes [sp] at this late season in the school year present the school at a disadvantage.” Concluding his section on “Industrial Work,” Dorchester writes, “It will not be an easy matter to make

the Sioux youth appreciate the habits of industry, with the rations system continually behind them, but it is even more important on that account; and a Superintendent with a stout, kind heart, fi rm nerve and tact, can do this much needed work if the Government furnishes the facilities.”

In a section regarding “The New Sub-Issue Policy,” Dorches-ter opens, “I have made diligent inquiry concerning the working of this new system, and take pleasure in reporting the good ef-fects already perceptible. One of the most palpable benefi ts is that the new system cuts off the congregating of the Indians from the whole reservation. A people naturally gregarious, lazy, full of

61

talk, cherishing more or less resentment against the white race, and disposed to be jealous toward the administrators of an Agen-cy, on coming together and lying around loosely for several days, as was their custom, become addicted to scheming, planning and sometimes foment trouble. Conspiracies of more or less magni-tude heretofore often organized, taxing the time, ingenuity and pa-tience of the Agent to overcome, will largely be avoided under the new policy.” He continues, “Under the old system, Indians living at remote points, would start from their homes on Friday with movable tepes [sp], taking their whole families even the children from the day schools, their dogs and ponies, camp along the way, and reach the Agency in season to get their rations on Tuesday and Wednesday. They would start for their homes on Thursday, reaching there on Saturday or Sunday, thus spending eight or nine days out of fourteen, on the road. This process was repeated every two weeks.” Further, “Both parents went regularly to the ration-is-sue, because according to the Indian custom, the squaw must care for the horses, put up and take down the tepe [sp], and draw and convey the rations to the tepe [sp] for the family; and because both parents went, the children must be taken from the day schools.” Under the new system, “Most of the Indians can go to the is-sue station and return home, in one day; those upon the outskirts and particularly those far away towards Rose Bud will require two or three days.” These observations indicate the importance of synchronizing policies in service of a desired settlement pattern. The shift from centralized to atomized rations distribution points

decreased the amount of travel time, thereby increasing the time spent on other activities such as house construction and repair.

In the fi nal section, “Progress—Property Accumulations,” Dorchester writes, “No longer ago than when Dr. McGillycud-dy became Agent, these Indians were all living in teepes [sp], and huddled together in villages abounding in fi lth and reeking with foul odors. Dr. McGillycuddy possessed the qualities necessary to leadership, courage, tact and grip, which every Indian Agent must possess in order to push forward the Indians on the lines of progress and civilization. With a strong hand he broke up their villages, and scattered the people. Under him, as I am informed, the Indians fi rst built log houses, most of which are now lived in. Dr. M. had stoves to issue, but he would not give them out to be put up in teepes [sp], and only to those who had built log houses. During his administration, the Indians made their fi rst efforts to raise grain, and greatly increased their list of vegetables.” Dorches-ter’s refl ections point to a critical juncture where policy encouraged a transition from itinerant to permanent housing. While overly simplistic in its attribution, Dorchester’s testimony contributes to understanding this shift.

The transition Dorchester describes moves according to fi rm political leadership. Dorchester ascribes causality to the directives established by authority. For him, the transition from itinerant to permanent housing types resulted from a pair of policies that en-couraged time savings and promoted well-being.

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1900 PHOTOS1900 PHOTOS

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY PIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTAPIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTASTATE ARCHIVESSTATE ARCHIVESRICHARD A. POHRT COLLECTIONRICHARD A. POHRT COLLECTIONBOX P 170, P 171BOX P 170, P 171

SDSHS-SA holds evidence relating to the coexistence of housing types at the beginning of the twentieth century. Photos in the Richard A. Pohrt Collection depict tipis next to log cabins, brush huts next to log cabins, and log cabins next to log cabins. In one photo, a man in a wide brimmed hat stands in front of a small tipi, hand folded across his front. A dog sits next to him and gazes sidelong. Next the tipi, a woman wrapped in a patterned blanket stands outside of a small log house. It has a pile of wood neatly stacked next to an open doorway. The roof is made of dirt, and from the top extends a naked chimney fl ue. No windows are apparent from the photograph. Another photo shows a similar ar-

rangement. A slightly larger tipi sits alongside a log cabin. This house has two visible windows and two fl ues extending from its roof, the material of which remains inconclusive. Surrounding the log house are several carts. From this evidence, a period of coex-istence occurred in which residents occupied both tipis and log cabins.

65

1909 OGLALA LIGHT1909 OGLALA LIGHT

BEINECKE RARE BOOK AND MANUSCRIPT LIBRARYBEINECKE RARE BOOK AND MANUSCRIPT LIBRARYNEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUTNEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUTYALE UNIVERSITYYALE UNIVERSITYCOLLECTION OF WESTERN AMERICANACOLLECTION OF WESTERN AMERICANAZC16 O25 OG4ZC16 O25 OG4

Pages from the November 1909 issue of Oglala Light, the periodical affi liated with Oglala Boarding School, show evidence of transition from itinerant to permanent housing types. The fi rst photo comes from the same negative as that held in the Richard A. Pohrt Collection at SDSHS-SA. The caption to this photo reads, “First steps to civilization—From the tepee to the log house.” To this point, the article states, “When you take a free, untrammeled, open air, migratory, meat-eating race and practically confi ne them in an unhealthy, unsanitary log house like that in our fi rst illustra-tion, in which four fi fths of the full bloods live, generally with one room, having a dirt fl oor, with no ventilation, what is the result?

When their children are sent to boarding schools the most care-ful attention is paid to their food, ventillation [sp] of their school rooms and dormitories, and to their cleanliness and general hy-giene, but when they go home and live in such a log house, per-haps with a sister or brother, who has tuberculosis or some other contagious disease, what good does their education do them and how long will they survive contamination?” Oglala Light draws its premise from their observation that “the full blood Indians are decreasing in number due principally to their being easily attacked and succumbing to tuberculosis. Their infant mortality is high, due to their neglect and lack of knowledge in the care of their babies,

67

and to their unsanitary and unhygienic mode of living.”The caption to the second photo reads, “Modern home of a

progressive Indian.” The article continues, “As is seen in the pic-ture of the progress Indian’s home, it is as good, if not better, than most of the white farmers have in this vicinity. And it is in houses

of this sort that most of the mixt bloods are now living in, where some attention is paid to cleanliness and hygience, and so it is not to be wondered at that they are increasing, while the full blood is slowly decreasing.” The tone adopted by this paper carries extreme gravity.

68

1927-1929 POSTERS1927-1929 POSTERS

NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCY

From 1927-1929, students in the Pine Ridge 4-H Club drew report covers for various periodicals, including Club News, Pine Ridge Industrial Program, and Pine Ridge Five Year Program. Ev-idence that these covers refl ected the political aims of Pine Ridge Agency administration exist in a letter from Superintendent E. W. Jermark to William E. Bergen, a farmer with responsibility in 4-H Club activities. Jermark writes, “I am very much pleased with the frontice submitted by you for the 1929 Resume. It occurred to me however, that we might make a smaller house, showing more of it and a pile of building material, as well as the hat. The tent, the dinner cooking, etc., are splendid and I would not want any of that

omitted. If you can conveniently put the house a little further back and include the other items, I shall be very glad.” Unfortunately, the referenced cover is not included among the other artworks. The others, however, present evidence of transitions afoot in res-ervation housing types.

The artwork for “Resume Third Year Pine Ridge Industrial Program” in 1927 features a person sitting on the ground outside a tipi adorned with pictographs and a fl ag extending from the top. Three vignettes billow out of the person’s pipe, depicting a pro-gression of scenes labeled fi rst, second, and third year. The fi rst shows a small house with one door and chimney; a shade structure;

71

a cart; a small abstract shape; and, a cluster of black lines. The sec-ond scene depicts a larger house with one door, two windows, and a chimney. Behind it a fence encircles a small swath of prairie. The third image shows a much larger house with one door, a porch,

three double-hung windows, a chimney, and a shingle roof. Behind it is what looks like a well placed alongside the two houses from previous scenes. The majority of the frame is taken up by a fenced fi eld drawn in dark strokes.

72

1900 PHOTOS1900 PHOTOS

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY SOUTH DAKOTA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY PIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTAPIERRE, SOUTH DAKOTASTATE ARCHIVESSTATE ARCHIVESRICHARD A. POHRT COLLECTIONRICHARD A. POHRT COLLECTIONBOX P 170, P 171BOX P 170, P 171

A photo labeled “Indian women erecting tepee” shows three women placing seven poles in the process of building their lodge. Another woman carries several other poles to be placed. Else-where in the frame, children study the contents of large vats.

Another photo from the same collection shows a group of men sawing timber. On the left edge of the frame is the eave of a small building with a shingle roof. Beyond it, fi rewood is loosely stacked in front of a small shed with one window. Next to this two men operate a crosscut saw while two others look on. Near them, a man in a vest and cap holds a fi ve foot timber upright. He watches two other young men operate another saw while one other

looks on. Another team of two men carry logs. None of the visible rough cut timbers measure greater than fi ve feet in length. Next to this activity stands a small log house no more than four feet tall. It has no visible roof, and the door is only three feet in height. This structure might have been used to house farm animals, but evidence from other sources indicates that even chicken houses were built bigger than this. Given the nature of the activity at hand, this structure might have been used as a training device in teaching young men to build log houses.

75

1929 POSTERS1929 POSTERS

NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCY

The February 1929 issue of Club News focuses on “Home Improvement.” Its cover depicts the interior of the log house where a boy and girl play with a bin of tomatoes and seed packag-es. A woman with her back turned affi xes curtains to the window. She wears her long hair in two braids, and dons a simple patterned sleeve dress with an apron. Beneath the window is a box that reads “hot bed,” and next to the window hangs a calendar turned to February 1929. It reads, “It pays to use the best seeds.” Outside, a man appears to be hauling hay into a large pile beyond a pole fence.

Another drawing shows an old man with disheveled hair and a long goatee pointing toward the framed perspective. He wears

a jacket emblazoned with stars and a striped bowtie on his tall collared white shirt. Over this he wears a striped vest. The obvious parallel is to Uncle Sam as depicted in the 1917 recruitment poster. However, the notable absence in the Club News drawing is the star spangled top hat. The speech bubble near him reads, “Are you farming? Are you trying? I’m going to fi nd out. Get busy!” The intended audience is likely the readers of Club News, in which case this drawing urges increased production.

77

1938 ANNUAL REPORT OF EXTENSION 1938 ANNUAL REPORT OF EXTENSION WORKERSWORKERSNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCYBOX 142BOX 142

This report summarizes the “activities of the Indian people of Pine Ridge Reservations” in 1938. In terms of home improve-ment, “12 homes were repaired and 1 newly constructed through use of reimbursable funds. 38 homes were repaired through use of reimbursable funds.” Additionally, “80 homes fumigated for eradication of bed bugs. 5 storage cellars for Black Widow spiders. Yards cleaned, houses scrubbed, etc., at time this work was con-ducted.” The tabulations account for 2,260 reservation families, of which 1,409 individuals were involved in extension organizations. It documents land use, livestock, horticulture, gardens, farm and home buildings, and 4-H Club work. The survey reports 1,438 per-

manent dwellings on the reservation. 35 of these were newly built, valued at $14,370. 59 were remodeled, resulting in an increased value of $17,595.

In the section “Community Organization,” Peter M. Cum-mings, Farm Agent, writes: “The ultimate principle to be attained in community organization relates specifi cally to the economic de-velopment of the reservation, and, more generally, to the proper conservation and utilization of Indian owned lands. It is proposed to hold these lands in restriction and intact for Indian use so that eventually a self-sustaining group of Indian people all striving for one major objective will be formed. The achievement of such an

79

objective can best be accomplished by the successful adherence to a defi nite outlined PROGRAM OF WORK, so constructed and designed as to convey evidences of originality and equality. Hence, the ultimate aim of such a program must be presented to the community in such a way that they will understand the accept-ed formalities and known the interpretation of the rules to be put into effect by a particular group.” Cummings continues, “Reserved land for Indian use to be of value must have fi nancial backing. This can be gained not necessarily through loans in all cases, but through judicious use of grazing privileges. Such a plan will aid in the fostering of land use by Indians. Offi cial regulations govern-ing the stocking and capacity of grazing lands will be placed on a more accurate basis, which will in turn warrant a more profi table enterprise. Numbers should be available to qualify for Range Con-servation payments and Land Restoration benefi t payments. They should be engaged in subsistence farming and gardening, prefer-ably with irrigation. They should be trained to conserve the re-sources of the reservation.” In conclusion, Cummings offers: “It is hope that by this plan homes will be improved by higher standards of living and a better conception of the need for health will result. Project activities are stimulating an interest in community organi-zation, since dams, repairing houses, and the like promote civic pride and give a basis for working together for a common end.”

The section “Cooperation with Other Departments” ac-counts for work done with the Agricultural Adjustment Admin-istration, Soil Conservation Service, Land Division of the Indi-an Service, Bureau of Animal Industry, Irrigation Service of the Indian Service, CCC-ID, Rehabilitation, and Education. Irving E. Freiberg, Farm Agent, writes of Rehabilitation: “The housing problem is one of the greatest on Pine Ridge and the assistance of this department is making it possible for us to set up self-help projects for repairing homes or constructing new ones or for con-structing public buildings such as canning kitchens or recreation centers or buildings, fences, wells, etc., at the rehabilitation project centers.” In terms of Education, Freiberg reports: “Reimbursable funds were used for the purchase of lumber that is being used by the boys of the Kyle school under the instruction of the shop instructor to repair Indian homes as a self-help educational proj-ect. The day school teachers are active community leaders and are helping the adult people to see the value of livestock associations or community gardens by actually organizing and conducting them in cooperation with the farm agent.” Concluding, Freiberg writes: “The home economics teacher and the housekeepers are conduct-ing many of the rehabilitation sewing clubs in cooperation with the Home Demonstration Agent.”

In the section, “Home and Yard Improvement,” the report states: “Through the Rehabilitation Sewing Project it has been possible to do a number of things in home improvement that oth-erwise might not have been accomplished. It is surprising what a different attitude can be developed in an Indian home when it is possible to put new curtains, pillow cases, quilts, and a few small accessories in the home. Many of these women completely renovated the house. They washed all clothing and bedding and whitewashed the walls of the house with native clay. They do this before hanging the curtains, because they are so proud of having made these things and they want the home to look its best.” Lat-er in this section, “The Rehabilitation Home Improvement pro-gram was helpful in so many ways to the Home Agent’s work. Mt. Frank O’Neill, who was in charge of this program, asked the Home Agent to assist in survey work and in helping to select the

homes in which work would be done. Assisting in this work en-abled the Home Agent to develop some intereste in home im-provement work which would not have been possible otherwise. At each home prepared, a few scraps of lumber could always be found and each piece was utilized in some way. The Extension Agent feels more interest is being shown in home improvement this year than has been for some time, and it is believed this will be a good project for next year.” The general objectives of the Reha-bilitation Home Improvement program were: “1. To stimulate the pride and interest in Indian homes and to assist in getting Indians to keep their homes in the best possible condition. 2. To improve the appearance and make for better living conditions in homes. 3. To improve the health and morale of families, through cleanliness and better equipment.” This is followed by a list of “Goals for 1938” and a column of “Goals Accomplished.”

The next section, “Bedbug Extermination,” opens, “Bedbugs are defi nitely on the down grade. After all, when not even human beings can battle hydrocyanic gas without coming out the loser, what can one expect of a small bedbug?” In describing the process of fumigating a house, it reads: “When the check of the house is completed, one of the workers holds her breath, lowers the bag of crystals into the acid jar, and walks, still holding her breath, to the door and out. The other worker pulls the door shut and begins hastily to tamp the cracks with wet newspapers. The door is pad-locked, and if you listen closely you can hear the vicious hissing of the powerful fumes as they start to rise. A hurried glance in the window will show hairy vapors rising like evil Geneii and fi lling the room. One cannot stand too long near the window, for a single wiff [sp] of the fumes will produce a violent headache, and a cou-pld of whiffs will send a human down the long road to Eternity. In fact, it is the growing popular way of sending condemned convicts to death.” It continues, “Although the acid and crystals method is so dangerous to users, it is about the only effective method known of exterminating pests.” The Home Extension Agent, Mrs. Mamie Searles, takes applications for fumigation.

The report photographs include “Chuck wagon prepara-tory to leave for Black Hills to cut logs,” which shows fi ve men in brimmed hats. Behind them is one white man in a similar hat. They load a truck that is parked amid two cabins and another 1937 Chevrolet in the ponderosa pine forest. Another, “Piling logs cut preparatory to hauling,” shows two men, two horses, and one dog in a ponderosa pine forest where many trees have been felled. “Felling trees to be used for construction of Community Hall” shows two young men looking at the camera, one smiling, and one man working on his knees next to a standing pine tree. Another, labeled “The Obleys Community gang on competition of cutting logs,” shows ten men standing in front of a 1937 Chevrolet parked among a dense forest of ponderosa pines.

Relating to house improvement, the photograph, “An Indian Home before the home improvement under Rehabilitation Pro-gram” shows a principal structure of milled timber, notched at the corners, with a gentle pitch roof consisting of dirt. From this central volume projects a singled bare chimney fl ue. To one side of this main volume is a plank structure with another fl ue extending from its shed roof. To the other side of the main volume is log structure with a dirt roof. This piece contains the only visible door.

“The same Indian home after the improvements have been made” shows the dwelling from the same angle. The principal structure remains largely unaltered except for a clean dirt covering on the roof, which appears to have a new fascia. Where the plank 80

extension once was, a new volume now projects. This space has a pitched roof to match that of the main structure, and is covered in plaster. It has a new window where the old window once was. The volume extending to the other side of the main structure appears to have a new fascia and clean dirt roof covering. It might also have a new door. The foreground in this photo shows more debris than the previous one, and the vegetation also has abated.

Another example, “An Indian home before th [sp] home im-provement under Rehabilitation Program,” shows a confi guration of spaces much like the previous example. A main volume consists of a milled timber frame connected at the corners by notches. It has a single window in the end gable, and dirt covers the shal-low pitch. A single, bare chimney fl ue extends from this space. To one side, a structure built from shaped logs, also with notched corners, is covered by a similarly crafted roof made of dirt. This volume has one opening and no visible windows. To the other side, a low plank structure with a shed roof has another door. The corresponding photograph entitled, “The same home after the improvement has taken place” shows the central structure largely unaltered except for a raked dirt roof and some possible improve-ments to the fascia. The volume extending off the near side of the main space has planks instead of logs supporting the dirt roof, and the fascia has been upgraded to boards instead of logs. The chimney fl ue has also been extended upwards. It has a new door

in place and a new window next to the door. On the opposite side of the central volume, where the shed structure once attached, is a structure consisting of a similar roof pitch, a new door, an addi-tional chimney, and a stucco fi nish.

Finally, “Dave Garneir’s home before improvement under Rehabilitation program” shows a structure in the process of con-struction. A framed addition extends off a main volume, also of frame construction. Milled lumber clads the spare structural frame, and the steep pitch is carried by a simple king post truss. Roofi ng material consists of asphalt paper. Next to the unfi nished house is a wagon holding a barrel with a cloth covering. Under the wagon, two dogs fi nd shade. “Dave Garnier’s home after improvement under Rehabilitation program” shows the same house, zoomed out to capture the entire structure, in its fi nished state. The ex-tension has a complete plank exterior and a shingled roof. The chimney has a brick enclosure. A man, young child, and two dogs stand in front of the house. A toy wagon replaces the full-size wagon from before.

These construction activities highlight the productivity asso-ciated with extension work. Many of these programs have housing as their target improvement arena. In these examples, self-help la-bor constituted the primary means by which improvements oc-curred.

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1939 REPORT OF BUILDINGS CON-1939 REPORT OF BUILDINGS CON-STRUCTED BY COMMUNITY PATRONSSTRUCTED BY COMMUNITY PATRONSNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONNATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATIONKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIKANSAS CITY, MISSOURIRECORD GROUP 75RECORD GROUP 75PINE RIDGE AGENCYPINE RIDGE AGENCY

A typewritten ledger entitled “Report of Buildings Con-structed by Community Patrons” contains information regarding the process and composition of construction of buildings associ-ated with each day school. In total, 41 buildings measuring 15,739 square feet required 17,655 hours and $464.63 to build, resulting in a total estimated property value of $8,375.00. The building types include goat barn, community work shop, poultry house, garage, root cellar, ice house, hog house, fuel storage house, and calf barn. Construction materials include logs, slabs, poles, dirt, lumber, scrap, cement, straw, shingles, wire, and rammed earth.

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1940 BUILDING PROGRAM1940 BUILDING PROGRAM


The day school teachers on Pine Ridge organized projects designed to teach construction methods to students. Among these, the fi les from Number 5 Day School document a wide range of construction activities. On February 3, 1940 Rennie J. Smith ad-dressed L. M. Keller, Education Field Agent, regarding the pho-tographic documentation of building projects: “The request for information concerning buildings completed by adult and school labor at this school is hereby submited [sp].” Projects for which documentation exists include a bus garage, primary farm house, chicken house, hog house, calf shed, and goat shed.

For the bus garage, Smith reports, “it was decided that a bank

garage with a dirt roof ” would be the best method for keeping the bus warm enough to start effi ciently. Smith describes the planning, building, material purchased, time required, and use.

For the primary farm house, Smith writes, “The primary chil-dren took a great interest in the building of their barn, while there was of course a great deal of heavy work which they could not do, they helped with the planning and watched with interest every process of building and helped wherever possible. The project as a whole was a valuable educational experience. The children were responsible for bringing their fathers to work on the barn.” The cost of materials was $28.71.

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Smith describes the chicken house construction, writing, “In February 1939, twenty girls in grades 5, 6, 7, and 8 chose chick-ens as their livestock project. They decided to build a log chicken house, 18’ x 18’ with a gable roof, two windows to the south, and a door and window to the east.” In the process, “They persuaded some of their fathers and older brothers to bring the logs and do the actual constructing of the building.” Smith reports, “The roof was made by running poles up to the ridge logs, and covering them with army coats and hay. Sod was placed on top, and the roof has been very substantial.” The building took 300 hours to complete at a material cost of $13.83.

For the calf shed, Smith reports, “The boys and girls inter-ested in the calf project are building an open calf shed and corral

for 10 heifer calves. The corral is completed and the calf shed is under construction. The work on this project has been done with students labor. The boys and girls cut all the poles for the corral and hewed the logs for the shed. 130 hours went into this project, and only $1 was expended on nails.

The hog house was also built from logs. It took 600 hours to complete at a material cost of $19.20. The goat shed consists of a less substantial frame, built from “old hay and scrap of woven wire.” The construction methods observed in the Pine Ridge day schools refl ected earlier trends in self-help labor. These programs paid special attention to applied learning, instructing school chil-dren in building projects. Presumably, the skills learned

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REPORT SPONSORED BY:REPORT SPONSORED BY:

AIA SOUTH DAKOTAAIA SOUTH DAKOTA2014 ENRICHMENT AWARD2014 ENRICHMENT AWARD