fiber composite fabrication marco corazza viral...

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Marco CorazzaViral DoshiAxel KörnerMehnaj TabassumAA School of Architecture

ABSTRACT

This research paper discusses the development of a fiber composite fabrication method for archi-

tectural applications with the main focus on the geometrical framework based on sandwich mate-

rials. The resultant geometrical articulations will be based on the inherent bending behavior of the

chosen core material, thermoplastic foam, to overcome the need for extensive formwork. To gain

control of the bending curvatures, several material manipulation strategies were investigated from

differentiated distribution logics found in natural systems.

During the Master Thesis in the Emergent Technologies and Design program at the Architectural

Association, the authors developed a design proposal for a typology that can be used as a test ap-

plication for structural optimization, where environmental forces from wind and flood pressure acted

as drivers for geometrical articulation. Studies centered on physical exploration of material limitations

in terms of possible curvature and material computation, along with digital analysis of structural

performance under extreme environmental conditions and feasibility within the proposed material

system. Translation between physical and digital models was crucial throughout the process.

FIBER COMPOSITE FABRICATION EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATIONS

Sandwich Core Stresses–Comparison of core thickness to relative stiffness

1

DATA AGENCY 662ACADIA 2014 DESIGN AGENCY

INTRODUCTION

Architectural systems often rely on the agglomeration of com-

ponents to create large constructions. The integration of fiber

composite materials into building systems offers the possibility of

complex integration of different performative requirements into

one coherent system. Intelligent material distribution and variation

can react on structural, environmental and spatial demands, as

observed within natural systems (Greenberg and Körner 2014).

Efficiency exists in composite materials in that individual materials

with differing mechanical properties are tied together to strength-

en each other. Where fibers are resistant in tension but lack

compression capability, a resin matrix can be applied for the com-

posite to perform in both directions, thus creating new structural

capabilities to test at an architectural scale.

Although fiber composites are currently mainly used in high-end

industries, especially aerospace and naval industries, where they are

critical in achieving necessary high-strength to low-weight ratios, pre-

vailing research from various architecture institutes is concerned with

the integration of fiber composites into architectural systems, espe-

cially the ICD and ITKE research pavilions 2013 and 2014 in Stuttgart.

Research focuses on the usage of industrial robots to enable the pre-

cise application of fibers, where current production methods in naval

and aerospace industries (North Sails, TU Delft) investigate the use of

complex adjustable mold systems on which fiber composites can be

applied. Alternatively, the following paper explores a comparatively low-

tech fabrication where the bending behavior of structurally necessary

core materials is used to generate form without extensive formwork.

The link between structural performance and geometrical framework

given by the core material provides the opportunity to develop com-

plex geometries following predefined structural and morphological

requirements related for use within extreme environmental conditions.

DOMAIN NATURAL SYSTEMS

Biological fiber composite materials are composed of just four

different fibers in complex arrangements of highly specified distri-

bution. Scaling from cells to whole organisms, the material distri-

bution creates robustness, redundancy strength and adaptivity in

higher-level system function.

Biological closed shell structures made of continuous surfaces,

such as lobster (Stirn 2012) and turtle shells (Wyneken 2008) exhibit

differentiated and specified properties due to varying material

distribution. The global geometrical formulation is the product

of an evolutionary process, leading to robust and well-adapted

morphology. The organization of fibers within a single structure is

optimized for performance based on different criteria.

MATERIAL SCIENCE

The term “composite material” describes a natural or man-made

combination of at least two different materials, where the intent is

to overcome the weak points associated in the individual materi-

als by combining those with contrasting advantages (Gordon 1968).

A common natural example of a fiber composite material is wood,

where strong cellulose fibers are embedded within a matrix of lig-

nin cells. Under mechanical loads the cellulose fibers take the ten-

sile forces while the lignin matrix carries the compression force.

Modern technical fiber composites can be seen as an artificial im-

itation of wood where strong fibers, such as carbon or glass, are

embedded in a comparatively soft polymer resin. The mechanical

properties of the chosen materials are critical, since the combination

of both should not limit the properties of the individual materials

(Knippers et al. 2011).

SANDWICH PANELS

Efficient use of fiber composites results in low thickness of lami-

nates and thus lacks stiffness. To counter this, an introduction of

core materials can increase structural depth (Figure 1). High strength

skins made of fiber reinforced polymers are layered on either side

of a core, where the core material has to be able to take the shear

loads between the outer skins (Knippers et al. 2011 and Gurit 2003).

APPLICATIONS IN ARCHITECTURE

For lightweight structures fiber reinforced composite materials of-

fer large potentials specifically due to their high strength to weight

ratio. Material properties can be adjusted for mechanical and

aesthetic demands through lamination and additives. Therefore

diverse design parameters in terms of form (structural and aes-

thetic) and surface properties (such as transparency and, the inte-

gration of functional components) are technically feasible (Knippers

et al. 2011). The low thermal conductivity makes composite materi-

als suitable for use as structural elements and building envelopes.

The resistance to aggressive media offers interesting fields for

application, such as offshore and coastal regions.

MATERIAL SYSTEM AMBITION

Manufacturing methods play an important role in determining the

strength and stiffness of composite structures. Most techniques

use a mold to create different geometries resulting in the creation

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of extrinsic customized formworks. Therefore the research path investigated the development of a

fabrication process utilizing the geometrical possibilities of core materials. This allows for the core to

not only act as formwork, but also become a structural member for the generated composite.

The material research and the study of fiber composite applications lead to shell structures

(Knippers et al. 2011, Nerdinger and Otto 2005 and Beukers and van Hinte 2005). Shells make use of their

geometrical properties to achieve structural efficiency, especially in cases of aerospace and naval

industry, to respond to fluid dynamic demands. The possibility to create complex geometries

while keeping the amount of used material comparatively low, make fiber composites efficient for

lightweight structures. Although the industry has become one of the most technically advanced,

fiber composites are still rare as building scale structural applications.

In terms of fabrication, high technology production methods were kept to a minimum to concen-

trate on hand crafted production (Eckold, G. 1994). This will make the material system more applica-

ble to broader manufacturing fields.

RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT MATERIAL

Based on price and availability, glass fiber would suit as the primary fiber supplying the structural

advantage of woven reinforcement but at a fraction of the cost of the carbon equivalent Carbon

fiber would be used as reinforcement only where necessary to reinforce areas of extreme forces.

Glass fiber fabric was selected due to its economic advantage and ease of fabrication, where the

textile easily achieved the double curvatures onto which it was.

FIBER COMPOSITE FABRICATION

Adjustable Rod System–Forming of individual panels using adjustable rods as guides

2

Adjustable Rod System Results–Panels formed on the adjustable rod system created an uneven edge once connected

3

CORAZZA, ET AL.


CORE MATERIAL

A secondary material was necessary which could become an

intrinsic part of the geometrical formwork as base material into

which the glass fiber and resin could be directly applied.

Closed cell PVC foam is a lightweight rigid material that exhibits

a Young’s modulus transformation at 120°C. With a reduced

E-Modulus in the heated condition (similar to rubber) the foam

can be molded into different shapes. Once cooled, it returns to its

original stiffness while keeping the desired shape.

FABRICATION DEVELOPMENT

The first formwork system was developed using adjustable

metals rods between two wooden plates. By arrangement of the

rods, panels could be formed by pressing the heated foam onto

the guides (Figure 2).

This system had issues in achieving a continuous surface where

after forming two panels, the necessary edge continuity was not

achieved (Figure 3). An alternate system was needed to ensure

smooth transitions and efficient force flow between panels.

By forming different panels with the use of wooden edge profiles,

tested in the prototype “Branchair” (Figure 4), (Figure 5), it was

possible to achieve edge continuity, although the introduction of

extrinsic formwork was contradictory to the intended research.

Furthermore, in full-scale architectural applications the 10mm

thickness of single foam panels would not be sufficient to with-

stand the external forces. Instead, edge profiles could be incorpo-

rated into the composite by acting as a framework onto which the

panels are formed and creating the necessary structural depth.

The research continued to explore the geometrical possibilities

of edge profiles made of the same thermoplastic foam as the

panels. Each panel would be offset to create positive and negative

lips, generating an interlocking system to connect panels.

BENDING PARAMETERIZATION

In order to control the material limits of the foam and design the

global geometry it was necessary to parameterize the bending

behavior of the foam edge profiles. Due to time limitations during

our dissertation, the bending behavior was simulated with Strand7,

a finite element analyses (FEA) program. For further curvature

control, material removal through cutting patterns in different den-

sities was applied onto 10cm by 100cm foam strips.

Chair Panels–Forming process of the panels included formwork4

Branchair Prototype–Forming process of thermoplastic foam panels and resin reinforcement for the chair model

5

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redrawing of the curves based on those parameters with

B-spline curves of degree three, with four control points. To cre-

ate this curve the endpoints are copied in the directions of the

tangent vectors. The lengths of those vectors are dependent on

rest length and pattern distribution.

Since for the equally distributed pattern the tangent vectors at the

end points are axisymmetric to the center axis, it was possible to

calculate a value for the maximum amplification of the tangent

vectors (Figure 7). Therefore the length of the vectors in this case

can be calculated with: 1/3 * rest length * c, with c=1.62. For the

steps between rest length 80 per cent and 100 per cent the factor

c has to be remapped between 1.00 and 1.62 according to the

rest length.

The next step examined the relation to the pattern shift depending

on the variable v. The curve for the pattern shift 80-20 per cent

could be redrawn with the following two equations for amplification

of tangent vectors: at point A: v*2/3*rest length*c and at point B:

(1-v) 2/3*rest length*c with v=0.85. For the steps between the dis-

tribution of 50-50 per cent and 80-20 per cent the value of v varies

between 0.5 and 0.85. Based on those values an approximation of

all possible bending curvatures within this range is possible.

GEOMETRIES AND CURVATURE LIMITS

By adjusting the pattern and twist of the bent edge profiles it is

possible to generate surfaces of different synclastic and anticlas-

tic curvatures. Allowing a linear movement of 20 per cent of the

initial length, it is possible to generate an angle of 90°.

Due to the material properties of the thermoplastic foam, curva-

tures in one direction cannot exhibit a lower radius than 10 cm.

With this bending, it is possible to control the deformation and the

spring back after the thermoforming process. To test the limitations

of double curved panels, a series of physical experiments were con-

ducted to analyze the maximum achievable double curvature.

Although it was not possible to fully explore these limits, single

panels of 40cm by 40cm with principle curvature in radius of 40cm

in one direction and 50cm in the perpendicular direction, synclastic

and anticlastic, were achieved. In this range we set the curvature

limits for further experiments. Later, these limits were integrated in

the panelization algorithm to test each panel in terms of their fea-

sibility. To analyze if a certain panel is within the possible curvature

range, the principal curvatures are measured on a grid of points

on the surface and evaluated on two criteria (curvature values are

based on the unit meter). The panel cannot be produced:

ELASTIC MODULUS OF HEATED FOAM

The E-modulus of the heated foam was calculated through a

loading experiment to compute the material behavior. A strip of

thermoplastic foam was centrally loaded and measured for its

deformation. The calculations showed that the e-modulus of ther-

moplastic foam of 16.74 MPa was reduced to 11.4 MPa through

heating. Further finite FEA on thermoplastic foam were conducted

with this reduced value.

CURVATURE PARAMETERIZATION

To parameterize the bending behavior of the edge profiles, differ-

ent slotting pattern distributions were simulated in Strand seven

to evaluate the apex shift of bending curvatures (Figure 6). Starting

with an equal distribution of twenty slots in a strip of 1m length,

the pattern distribution was shifted in increments of 10 per cent in

one direction of the strip, resulting in slotting distributions of 50-

50 per cent, 60-40 per cent, 70-30 per cent and 80-20 per cent, the

maximum density shift we could archive, based on slotting width

of 3 mm and 5 mm depth in the CNC milling machine.

To evaluate the different patterns, one side of the strip was

moved towards the other end by increments of 5 per cent of the

initial length.

For the curvature parameterization the dependence between

rest length, pattern distribution and the tangent vectors at the

end points of the test pieces were analyzed. Doing so allowed


Bending Parameterization–Calculations of the bending curve using tangent vectors7

Pattern Distribution–Varying cut pattern tests on the edge panels to show apex shifts.6

CORAZZA, ET AL.


1. If the absolute value of min. or max. principal curvature exceeds the limit of ten.

2. If both absolute values of min. and max. principal curvatures are higher than 0.2 and the absolute value of Gaussian curvature 7.5 (the assumed limit derived from our physical tests).

CASE STUDY–CYCLONE SHELTER

Since glass and carbon fiber in combination with epoxy resin are

suitable for applications in marine environments, the research ap-

plication focused on a new building morphology to be situated in

an environment that continuously deals with flooding (Figure 8).

The principle geometry was derived from a series of digital exper-

iments of single elements and aggregation to reduce the surface

pressure while creating the highest possible reduction in flood

flow velocity (Corazza and Körner 2013, Doshi and Tabassum 2014).

Fabrication and material behavior became the primary drivers for

geometry exploration along with environmental pressures, where

development of a closed shell structure was pursued. The result-

ing initial geometry was then subject to a genetic algorithm to

optimize the shell in terms of structural efficiency based on high

wind and water pressures (Figure 9). Although the structural aspect

was the main focus, the multi-parameter optimization process

also took into account design aspects in terms of usable space

and feasibility within the material system.

The parameters themselves are based on structural constraints

(floor spans) and spatial limitations (floor to ceiling heights). In

optimization of the structural performance, the goal of surface

manipulation was to minimize displacement under load conditions

based on the movement of control points. The initial shell was

made of 4.0 cm foam core with 0.5 cm of glass fiber in epoxy ma-

trix with a fiber-resin volume ratio of 50-50.

In order to optimize a building morphology to wind and water

pressures, it was necessary to develop a way to transfer sur-

face pressures from the CFD analysis into Karamba (FEA for

Grasshopper). This translation is based on a catalogue of possible

geometries tested in Autodesk CFD.

Experiments showed a relationship between pressure and angle

between surface normals and the flow direction. In addition to this

relationship, the global geometry and the gradient of curvature

changes (from positive to negative Gaussian curvatures) influence

the pressure distribution on the surface (Figure 10), resulting in dif-

ferent pressure values for the same angle between flow direction

and surface normal.

Cyclone Shelter Typologies–Architectural application as proposed through geometry, environmental conditions and material limit studies

8

Initial Geometry Curvature Tests–Geometries analyzed in CFD to create closed shell elements

9

The surface was broken down into domains to establish the

effects from the respective forces. The core, roof, edge and top

portions experience wind pressure while the bottom wall portion

is subject to water flow. The process of parameterization involved

each domain being analyzed through a series of points, from

which the normal vectors were measured against the applied flow

direction. Calculating the angles of each individual during the op-

timization, as well as determining the respective pressure domain

achieved an approximation of the acting forces.

To map the value onto the surface the algorithm divides the global

geometry into a dense mesh of evaluation points. These points

are determined based on their location in convex and concave

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areas in different domains, where the angle between the surface

normal on each point and the flow direction is evaluated. The last

step maps a force onto the points. If the point is within the pure

convex shape, there is one pressure value for each angle. In areas

of curvature change from convex to concave there is more than

one possible pressure value. To find the right value, an interpolat-

ed curve is generated along the evaluation points in the direction

of the flow and a second curve is mapped based in the curvature

graph of the first. Intersections of those curves mark transitions

from concave to convex and back again. All points along those

curves are stored again in domains based on their location along

the surface in concave and convex areas. Thus for each point in

each sub-domain, one pressure value is extracted and translated


Fittest Typologies–Optimization process of the extracted shell typologies11

CFD Pressure Mapping–Surface pressures analyzed on different closed shell structure curvatures.

10

into point loads on the mesh for the FEA analysis with Karamba,

used for geometrical and structural optimization of the global

geometry. This approach to transfer the pressure values from

the CFD program into Grasshopper doesn’t supply 100 per cent

accurate values of forces acting on the surface, as it is an approxi-

mation. The areas of negative and positive pressures are correctly

evaluated and tendency of pressure distribution follows the values

based on CFD simulation.

Once the algorithm produces the shell surface, it is tested to

check whether it falls within curvature limitations. The algorithm

evaluates the principle and Gaussian curvature for each panel

against the extracted criteria and contains a value which indicates

CORAZZA, ET AL.


if the surface is possible or not. Individuals who exceed the curva-

ture limitations are disabled from progressing in the optimization

process. Twelve individuals were selected based on differential

weighting, and tested again in CFD to refine the surface pres-

sures. After a second ranking, one individual was taken for further

development (Figure 11).

PANELIZATION

The next step in the development was the panelization of the

outer shell and defining openings. An algorithm was developed

to translate a given initial reference surface as close as possible

to the material system. This includes panel subdivision, panel ge-

ometry adjustment based on material behavior and evaluation of

panel generation achievability within the system.

The primary subdivision into panels follows geodesic curves. For

each point along the curve, the plane perpendicular to the curve

includes the normal vector of the surface on this point. Therefore

all edge profiles are planar curves, which can be unrolled into

straight strips necessary for the controlled bending process(Pott-

mann et al. 2007 and Pottmann 2013) (Figure 12).

The algorithm evaluates intersection points of geodesic curves in

U and V directions. Polylines are generated for each curve based

on intersection points and the tangent vectors of the geodesics are

evaluated. By comparing the angles between the vectors and the

length of the line segments to the respective curve segments, it is

possible to calculate the bending curve based on pattern distribu-

tion for each segment. A reference angle is calculated to determine

both angles between vectors and line segments. Combined with

the length of the segment, this information is used to determine

the pattern distribution and the corresponding translation vectors

necessary to create control points for the edge profiles. The actual

panels are built by an edge surface through adjacent profiles.

OPENINGS

To create the least possible impact on the structural integrity, the

position and size for openings are related to the acting forces each

panel was subdivided into four (4) patches for possible openings,

where the acting principal stresses were evaluated per patch.

Openings were generated with respect to panel size, ranging from

60/60 cm to 10/10cm based on different pressure thresholds (8.00

kN/m², 6.00 kN/m², 4.00 kN/m² and 2.00 kN/m²) (Figure 13).

Topological adjustments of the material thickness and properties

were necessary since the displacement of the perforated shells

under load exceeded acceptable limits. Principal stress analysis in

Panelization Process–Evaluation of the typology takes into account material curvature limits and feasibility

12

Topological Analysis–Openings were determined based on principal stress on the panels13

Four Pressure Thresholds–Openings and reinforcement determined per stress applied to the surface

14

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each subdivision patch was also utilized for core thickness variation,

where a script was developed to adjust material thickness in a

range from 6.00 cm to 12.00 cm. Areas of maximum stresses were

reinforced with carbon fiber in single and double layers based on

adjustable stress thresholds. With these reinforcement strategies,

the displacement was reduced to the same value the closed shell

exhibited. As was expected, necessary reinforcement increases

with a decrease of pressure threshold for openings (Figure 14).

Once the optimized typology was digitally tested for surface pres-

sures and allowance of openings, physical testing of the material

system of the closed shell geometry was pursued. Four adjacent

panels with differentiated opening sizes were selected for 1:1

scale fabrication, using the CNC process to mill the thermoplastic

edge frames and panels and an adjustable jig for bending of the

edge frames (Figure 15). Panels were formed onto the edge frame-

work. The resultant model demonstrated the surface curvature,

material bending behavior, joinery and large-scale fabrication fea-

sibility with low-tech processes.

TRANSLATION OF DIGITAL TO PHYSICAL

Translating the digital work into a format converted to a manufac-

turing process was integral to the process of research. Each panel

with its shape and opening would be cut on a three-axis CNC mill.

Since the edge curves were derived from the panel geometry, it

was critical to extract the data for patterning and respective twist

in each edge curve so that these could be correctly formed into

FIBER COMPOSITE FABRICATIONCORAZZA, ET AL.

Panel At 1:1 Scale–Full-scale model testing of panel joinery and curvature achievability

15

the frame onto which the panels would be applied. This data

would be input to a computational platform, including milling and

bending for higher precision fabrication.

CNC JIG SYSTEM

For the manufacturing process, an automated system would be

used to control the curvature of the edge frames to produce an

accurate frame system. This jig application is a mechanical, digitally

informed system with linear and rotational movement. Necessary

information concerning rest length, twist angle and pattern distribu-

tion for each edge can be extracted from the panelization algorithm.

CONCLUSION

It was possible to test many aspects of the fiber composite mate-

rial system and develop a basic framework, from global geometry

to local reinforcements. However, the complete integration of

all aspects within the system into one coherent process needs

refinement. At present, the process is divided into different parts

with the establishment of a basic geometrical framework related

to material properties and the translation into digital tools.

Research on possible applications and site conditions was under-

taken to influence the chosen material and fabrication method.

Based on those framing parameters on the local and global scales,

the development of an adapted building morphology involves basic

form finding, global geometrical optimization and topological anal-

ysis. Sufficient feedback between these aspects is not adequately

implemented, leading to a very linear development of geometry.

Structural optimization of the global geometry was the main

objective, while difficulties of fabrication were weighted compar-

atively low. Keeping the proposed low-tech production method-

ology in mind, the weighting between single influencing aspects

should be revisited. The performance related fitness criteria are

at the moment of high importance. While the geometry was opti-

mized using extreme environmental pressures of wind and water,

further development of the material system should focus on its

adaptability to different site scenarios. The process should enable

a basic framework, from which the influence of social, cultural and

environmental circumstances within material selection and fabri-

cation can be evaluated and weighted accordingly.

MATERIAL

Further development of the composite material system should con-

centrate on the integration of natural fibers, since this can be both

a renewable resource as well as reduce the cost of production.


The most expensive elements within the material system are the ther-

moplastic foam core and the epoxy resin. Since the foam core is an

essential part of the system, it will be difficult to overcome this issue.

However, the integration of bio resins should be addressed in future

research to reduce the cost as well as to incorporate local resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Portions of this research were undertaken in the Emergent

Technologies and Design Program at the Architectural Association

School of Architecture during the 2012–2014 academic years.

Academic Supervisors: Michael Weinstock, George Jeronimidis,

Evan Greenberg and Mehran Gharleghi.

REFERENCESBergland, Richard. 1986. The Fabric of Mind. Middlesex, England: Viking Penguin Books.

Beukers, Adriaan and Ed Van Hinte. 2005. Flying Lightness–Promises for Structural Elegance. 1st ed. Netherlands: 010 Publishers.

Corazza, Marco and Axel Körner. 2013. “Composite Morphogenesis.” M.Sc Thesis, Emergent Technologies and Design, Architectural Association School of Architecture.

DesignBoom. “Robotically Fabricated Carbon and Glass Fibre Pavilion by ICD + ITKE.” Accessed July 3, 2013. http://www.designboom.com/architecture/robotically-fabricated-carbon-and-glass-fibre-pavilion-by-icd-itke/

Doshi, Viral and Mehnaj Tabassum. 2014. “Collective Morphogenesis.” M.Arch Thesis, Emergent Technologies and Design, Architectural Association School of Architecture.

Eckold, Geoff. 1994. Design and Manufacture of Composite Structures. England: Woodhead Publisher Ltd.

Gordon, J.E.. The New Science of Strong Materials or Why You Don’t Fall Through the Floor. 2nd ed. USA: Penguin Group, 1968.

Greenberg, Evan and Axel Körner. “Subtractive Manufacturing for Variable-Stiffness Plywood Composite Structures.” Sustainable Design and Manufacturing, 2014.

Gurit. “Guide to composites.” Accessed May 19 2013. www.gurit.com_files_documents_guide-to-composites-v5pdf.

Knippers, Jan, Jan Cremers, Markus Gabler, and Julian Lienhard. 2011. Construction Manual for Polymers + Membranes. 1st Ed. Germany: Institur fur international Architecktur-Dokumentation Gmbh & Co. KG, Munich.

Nerdinger, Winfried. 2005. Frei Otto. Complete Works: Lightweight Construction, Natural Design. 1st ed. Germany: Birkhäuser GmbH.

North Sails. “North 3D Thermo-Moulded Sailing Technology.” Accessed June 10 2013. http://www.na.northsails.com/TECHNOLOGY/3DTechnology/tabid/1933/Default.aspx

Pottmann, Helmut, Andreas Asperl, Michael Hofer, and Axel Kilian. 2007. Architectural Geometry. 1st ed. USA: Bentley Institute Press.

Pottmann, Helmut, Qizing Huan, Bailin Deng, Alexander Schiftner,

MARCO CORAZZA is a graduate of the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa where he received his M.Arch (Professional) in 2008. His professional portfolio includes work at the award winning SRLC architects in Johannesburg, as well as Buckley Gray Yeoman in London. In 2012, Marco was the recipient of the Oppenheimer Memorial Trust Scholarship, which facilitated the pursuit of a Master of Science in Emergent Technologies and Design at the Architectural Association, where he graduated with distinction. He is currently employed at Wilkinson Eyre Architects London working on the Battersea Power Station project within the existing fabric and facade team.

VIRAL DOSHI is a London-based architect, researcher and computational designer holding a Master of Architecture (M.Arch) degree with Distinction in Emergent Technologies & Design (EmTech) from The Architectural Association (AA) School of Architecture, London. He is a registered architect with Council of Architecture (COA), India and has received Bachelors of Architecture (B.Arch) degree from Kamla Raheja Vidyanidhi Institute for Architecture, Mumbai. He is currently employed at Mixity Designs in London working on Trump Tower Hotel in Baku, Azerbaijan. His research interests revolve around digital fabrication techniques and computational tool development for architecture in the field of low cost construction.

AXEL KÖRNER received his Diploma at the University of Applied Sciences in Munich 2008 and his MSc. in Emergent Technologies and Design from the Architectural Association in London 2013 with distinction. He worked for several architecture practices in Munich, Vienna and London between 2008 and 2014, as well as for Createx and Northsails TPT in Switzerland where he was working on carbon fiber material research in 2012. He is currently working as tutor for Technical Studies and visiting tutor for Emergent Technologies and Design at the Architectural Association and is part of the team for Bridge Design at Wilkinson Eyre Architects London.

MEHNAJ TABASSUM received her B.Arch with Honors from Pratt Institute, and her M.Arch with Distinction from the Emergent Technologies and Design program at the Architectural Association. Her research has explored advanced fabrication techniques and processes, with a focus on the interaction between material science and morphogenetic design. She has published work and collaborated on a wide range of programs, from furniture design to urban scales, which investigate distributed systems through principles derived from biological and behavioral relationships.

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Schipper, Roel and J.N.J.A. Vambersky. “A flexible mould for double curved pre-cast concrete elements.” Accessed 15 July 2013. http://homepage.tudelft.nl/6w3a0/documents/schipper2010.pdf

Stirn, Alexander. 2012. “The Formula for Lobster Shell.” In: Max-Planck Research: Materials & Technology Bionanocomposites, 77.

IMAGE CREDITSAll image credits to Authors (2014).

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