FIBRES

&

FIRES

The Role of Textiles in Fires

for

Dr. A. Buchanan

Monday 6th April 1992

Lyndon HAMMOND and Darrell STATHAM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY 1.

INTRODUCTION 2.

WHAT TEXTILES BURN and WHY ? 3.

WHEN DO TEXTILES BURN ? 4.

HOW DIFFERENT FIBRES BURN 5.

WHERE DO FATAL FIRES OCCUR 5.

THE TOP FIRE DEATH SCENARIOS 7.

FLAME RETARDATION of TEXTILES 8.

FABRIC USE and FLAMMABILITY RELATIONSHIPS 10.

Clothing 10.

Furnishing 11.

FABRICS for use in PROTECTIVE CLOTHING 12.

NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS 14.

CONCLUSIONS 16.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 17.

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SUMMARY

Textiles are an intimate and prevalent part of our daily act1v1t1es and life. This explains the frequency of textile-related fires and the many deaths and injuries that result.

Natural fibre textiles may be broken into two categories; those fibres that are plant based, like cotton and linen, whose major constituent is cellulose but are highly combustible, and animal derived fibres consisting of complex protein molecules that are difficult to ignite and generally do not support combustion (wool is a good example).

Synthetic fibres may melt or burn as a liquid under fire exposure creating new and difficult problems. Conversely, synthetics with possible advances in technology offer considerable hope of virtually eliminating all fire problems associated with fabrics.

How easily a textile will burn depends on three crucial factors; the fibre, the fabric and the textile design. Fabric deals with the weave and relates to the surface area while the design of the fabric determines the amount of air accessible to the fibres.

There exists a number of varied and complex methods of treating combustible fabrics. Generally flame retardant chemicals affect the flammability by a combination of four retardant theories (Chemical, Thermal, Coating and Gas). These result in temporary water soluble treatments, permanent treatments and outdoor treatments.

When evaluating the fire hazard potential of clothing- the age, physical condition a.nd mentality of the user, the type and style of fabric, and the possible sources of ignition are all factors needing consideration.

Residential fires cause the largest single number of fire fatalities with furnishings being the primary spreading agent. The fire hazard posed by a piece of furniture depends on how easily the fabric cover will catch on fire, or char through, and how fast the fabric I filling combination burns. Although the polyurethane foam of most furniture is highly hazardous it is often considered less important than the fabric covering it.

The fabric choice for protective clothing depends on the end use and the hazards envisaged. It should be highly flame-resistant and not disintegrate or shrink during exposure. The fabric should have good thermal insulation, be easy cleaning and both lightweight and comfortable for wearer acceptance.

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"Textiles are an intimate part of daily life. The clothing we wear, the chairs we sit on, the carpets we walk on, the beds we lie in are examples of textiles in the human environment. Almost all textile fibres are combustible. This fact, combined with the prevalence of textile products in people's activities, explains the frequency of textile-related fires and the many deaths and injuries that result" .111

"Textiles usually form ·the exterior surface of an item

INTRODUCTION

/

2 Mins 15 Sees

Figure 1 Textile Combustion. (REF.m}

of which they cover. They are usually organic and therefore may be readily burned. Some actively spread flame. Thus, they are vulnerable to fire and to controls designed to promote fire safety". 121 As textiles are the major source of primary combustion, and together with combustible building materials comprise most of the available fuel load, it is essential that their combustion characteristics are understood.

What, how and where the fabric burns is important. We need to establish how we protect textiles, and hence ourselves, by the use of flame-retardants. As textiles are such an important factor in protective clothing we discuss protective fabric choice.

We also indicate the fire related textile standards employed in New Zealand.

These ideas are the principle concerns of this report.

Flashover

Figure 2 Textile combustion. (Ref.

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WHAT TEXTILES BURN and WHY 7

Although most fabrics will burn they will not, of course, catch alight of their own accord but need a source of ignition instead.

A. Natural Fibre Textiles. The major constituent ( > 90%) of cotton is cellulose (C6 H100 5 )x

along with some protein, wax, ash and organic acids. Other plant fibres such as Jute, Flax (linen), and Hemp are also predominantly cellulose (60%-80%) and gum (20%-40%) with some water, fat, wax and ash. All plant fibres are combustible (ignition temperature of cotton fibre - 400°C) and once ignited produce heat, smoke, carbon dioxide/monoxide and water, without melting.

Unlike plant fibres, animal derivative fibres consist of complex protein molecules containing high percentages of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and possibly sulphur with small amounts of wax, fat and salts. Two examples are wool [(C42H1570 15N5 S)x with approximately 50%C, 24%0, 16%N, 7%H and 3%S] and silk [80%(C 15H 23N 50 6 ) and 20%(C 15H25N5 0 8 )]. Wool supports combustion with difficulty, is much more difficult to ignite (ignition temperature - 600°C), burns· more slowly and is much easier to extinguish th(m cotton:

B. Synthetic Textiles. Synthetic textiles such as Rayon, Nylon, Polyester (dacron),

Acrylic and Spandex (lycra) have created new and difficult problems in evaluating fire hazard properties of textiles due to the tendency to suffer from shrinkage and/or melting and/or dripping along with burning when they are subjected to heat. Conversely, synthetics offer considerable hope of virtually eliminating all fire problems associated with fabrics due possibly to space-age technological advances and the modernization of natural fibres by novel durable chemical finishes.

* Note. There are noncombustible textiles

which include those made entirely from inorganic materials (ie. glass and metal subsidiaries) 1Figure

31 . Unfortunately the inherent properties of brittleness and/or weight of the noncombustible fibres limits their practical uses as textiles and almost certainly prohibits their use (present and future) as clothing materials.

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Glass

Beta Fiber E-Glass Quartz Carbonaceous Residue Carbon Graph1te

Figure 3

Metal

Stainless steel Super alloy Refractory-Whiskers Alumina Zirconia Boron

Noncombustible Fibres (Ref. <J>)

WHEN DO TEXTILES BURN 7

Textiles will burn whenever there is a source of ignition that is producing enough energy (for that particular fabric/fibre) to combust the organic compounds present.

(Heat)

ie. Carbon + Hydrogen = = = = = = = > Carbon Monoxide/Dioxide + Smoke + Steam

(Oxygen)

How easily a textile will burn depends on three crucial factors.

(1) Fibre. Just about all fibres will burn. Cotton and Rayon catch fire easily and burn quickly. Most synthetic fabrics ignite more slowly, but melt as they burn. If mixed or accompanied with cotton or rayon they can burn fiercely, melt and stick causing deep skin burns (if in personal contact). Wool is one fabric that is both difficult to ignite and slow to burn.

(2) Fabric. Loosely woven fabrics are more flammable than firmly woven fabrics as they present an increased surface area to the flames/heat. Lightweight fabrics will burn faster than the same fabric but in a heavier weight due to the decreased density. Fabrics with a brushed/piled surface can alight very easily and burn very rapidly as the brushed surface has a lighter (comparative) weight and a more loose weave than the main body of the fabric.

(3) Design. The amount of air that is accessible to the fibres will determine a textiles rate of burning. An obvious area of concern will be the clothing industry where any loose-fitting garments will be acting much as a household chimney will, sucking air up the inside, presenting more fuel to the rapidly advancing flames.

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HOW DIFFERENT FIBRES BURN

Note : The safer fibres are marked with an asterisk. Common trade names included in brackets.

Natural Fibres Cotton, Linen Burn readily.

•wool, Silk, Mohair, Hair, Fur. Usually difficult to ignite, burn slowly and in heavier weight fabrics tend to self-extinguish.

Synthetic Fibres Burn readily. Viscose-rayon, Acetate, T riacetate

Acrylic (Dralon) Generally burn before melting, (sometimes igniting only with difficulty). Burns strongly with thick smoke and may drip.

• Chloro-fibres(Vinyl 'sl Generally do not burn. Will shrink away from flame.

• Modarylic(Kanekalon) Difficult to ignite. Similar to chloro-fibres.

•Polyamide(Nylon's) Melt when heat is applied an generally drip away from the flame. Because of this they may not burn. When blended with some fibres (eg cotton, rayon, wool etc.) they cannot drip away from the flame and will burn, often very fiercely. May also burn when garments are sewn with cotton thread which prevents the burning fibre from dripping away.

•Polyester( Dacron) Similar burning characteristic to polyamide fibres.

Polypropylene Melt when ignited and drips molten drops while continuing to burn.

WHERE DO FATAL FIRES OCCUR?

According to a 1991 New Zealand Fire Service journal(41 (which studied five years of New Zealand Fire Service records from 1 January 1986 to 31 December 1990) there were 195 fire-related deaths caused by 156 fires. Of those 195, 161 (Figure

51 (82.6%) died in "fixed" property (ie. buildings, tents and caravans). A further breakdown of the 161 fixed property occupancy deaths reveals that 146 deaths (or 74.9% of all fire deaths) occurred in residential buildings. Results also showed that 87.8% of fatal fires caused only one fatality and one- and two-fatality fires comprised 94.9% (cf. 86% for a 1979 study in the U.S.A)(31

•

From the United States study it was found that the top two ignition scenarios accounted for approximately 32% of the fatalities. In both of these scenarios, cigarettes were the sources of heat that ignited upholstered furniture in living areas and bedding in sleeping areas. Leading ignition scenarios for one- and two-fatality fires revealed that 40.3% of deaths resulted from a fabric coated object igniting which corresponds to 41% of all fires.

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When the ignition factor was the misuse of the heat of ignition in one­and two-family dwellings it was found that 69.2% of the deaths (69.3% of fires) occurred from a textile covered furnishing being ignited in either the living room or the bedroom. Conversely, when the source of ignition was mechanical failure/malfunction 10.4% of the deaths ( 10.6% of fires) occurred when a fabric covering was the material ignited. One f61rther scenario surveyed was the misuse of material ignited as being the ignition factor. In this possibility the percentage of deaths relating to a textile being ignited was 21 . 6 (23.4% of the fires).

Occupancy

Res•denlral (1) Clubrooms

Commercial laundry

Sawmrll

Storage facrhly

Brewery

Equrpment area

Commercral Garage

Manufacturing site Tool shed

OHrce

Shop

Stat1onary vehrcle:

on drrveway

on farm

Oulsrde rn forest

Total non-resrdential

Total

No of lire incidents

117

14

131

No of deaths

146

2

1

15 161

Deaths per % of all lire lire incidents

1.2

1.1

1.2

related deaths

90.7

9.3 100.0

( 1) Res•dent•al refers lo any burlding where people sleep. It includes houses. flats. care of the aged facilities, hotels, caravans. tents. board•ng houses. prisons. and sleepouts. It also includes two 1nc•dents whrch occurred m the garage of a house.

Figure 5 Property Deaths (Ref.~)

It is evident that one- and two-fatality fires most frequently originate in residential areas, eg., living rooms, bedrooms, and kitchens, which all contain considerable amounts of textiles.

Losses Occupancy

II

Time

Ill

l.lndusrrt>l~ 2. Commcroll----( 3. Public =emblv-< 4 lnsmuCtonll---( 5 Tomportltton----yt. NIGHT 6. RESIDENCE 2 D>v --7. Independent--(

,-----------<------

/~----------~-======

Ignition sou.-ce

IV

Spreading agent

v I Direct cause of loss I

VI I

~!.SMOKE AND

g L FbmmJbic ftu1ds g GAS U Fru.oon 2. FURNISHINGS 2 Ht>JC Jnd thme I Fbmt· J. Structur.JI ---

2 l1ghtns or n 4. lnrt"nor timsh-----<: = = 3. SMOKING 5 AppHcl - = = 4 Elt'ctfH_ll C"qu•pmcnt --<=-== 0 Conf1gurJUOn S Ht>Jtmg-<ookmg -:,urfact"-<.= =~ 6 Elecrnol Win:-------<==: 7 SpontJnt'ou<.----< 8 Ar~on ---9 Or her-------<

,~, -~~-~-

~~~ =--=--=-~_ -_ -_

Tmll number of ourcomes equJh s.~J

Figure 6 Possible Fire Scenarios (Ref.m)

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THE TOP FIRE DEATH SCENARIOS's'

Rank Occupancy Item ignited Ignition source Percent of U.S.deaths

1 Residential Furnishings Smoking 27

2 Residential Furnishings Open flame 5

3 Transport flammable liquids Several 4

Independent Apparel heating and 4 cooking

equipment

Residential Furnishings heating and 4 cooking

equipment

Independent Apparel Several 3 /flammable liqu1ds

Residential flammable liquids heatmg and 3 cooking

equ1pment

Residential flar:nmable liquids Open flame 3

Independent Apparel ·open flame 3

10 Residential Interior finish heating and 2 cooking

equ1pment

Residential Interior finish Electrical 2 equipment

Independent Apparel Smoking 2

Residential Structural Electrical 2 equipment

Residential Rubbish Smoking 2

Sub total 66

Furnishings I (48)

Apparel

Others (all< 2%) 34

100

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FLAME RETARDATION of TEXTILES

There exists a number of different methods for flame-treatment of combustible fabrics. The effects of chemical treatments are varied and complex with many phases still not fully understood. Generally it is considered that there exists four theories that provide the basis for the way in which chemicals (or various mixtures of the chemicals) retard the spread of flame and after-glow.

1 . Chemical Theory

Based on the fact that certain chemicals form a non-volatile char or liquid which reduces the amount of oxygen and heat that can reach the fabric, some of these chemicals alter the decomposition of cellulose in favour of non-volatile carbonaceous material; or n:olecules from degradation of the flame retardant chemical. react endothermically and interfere with the chain reaction in the flame.

2. Thermal Theory

Structured on ideas that the flame-retardant chemical decomposes endothermically absorbing the heat supplied, or the heat is removed by conduction along the fibres.

3. Coating Theory

Assumes that the fibres are coated with an impermeable glassy coating.

4. Gas Theory

Based on the belief that on combustion the chemical or mixture releases an inert gas that interacts with flame development by excluding oxygen from the burning surface.

Usually a flame retardant chemical or mixture affects flammability by a combination of these methods. The different methods of flame-retardant treatment often depend on the type of material to be treated. In mixed fabrics for instance it is the more flammable fibre that reduces the flame-retardance of the fabric. Commonly three main classes exist for the treatment of cellulosic cloth.

A. Temporary water soluble treatments are used for curtains and other materials that do not come in contact with water. These are good for "one use only" and therefore must be renewed after washing.

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B. Permanent treatments are used for clothing and interior fabrics that are not exposed to severe weather conditions but are laundered frequently.

C. Outdoor treatments are used for fabrics subjected to exposed weather conditions (large usage in the military).

A fabric is made flame-retardant by immersion in one or more baths of fire­retardant salts, or by spraying, or brushing with fire-retardant salts. Brushing with salts is the most economical method.

Note that spraying and brushing techniques provide a less durable fire-resistant coating than the immersion techniques.

Many different chemicals have been investigated on textiles and a large number have been rejected for objectionable characteristics. A few flame-retardants have been identified as carcinogenic while others are corrosive or toxic.

There is little reduction in fabric strength with most treatments in use today. However, a loss of strength may occur at abnormally high temperatures.

Often of primary concern is that the texture and colour of the fabric remain unchanged throughout the treatment

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Fabric use and Flammability Relationships

The use to which the textile is put - clothing, household furnishing, etc, is very important when evaluating the flammability of a textile.

Clothing

By far the majority of clothing fire accidents involve everyday fabrics that have no unusual flammability characteristics. It is simply an unfortunate fact that cotton and rayon, which form a very large portion of the fabrics used in the garment manufacturing industry, are relatively flammable fibres.

Another unfortunate fact becoming increasingly important is that most synthetic fibres used in many clothing applications melt, and in some cases liquify , when exposed to sufficient heat. This greatly increases the severity of the burn injuries.

The relative fire hazard potential of an article of clothing is determined by several factors. First, there are the fabric's physical properties, including weight, weave, or construction (whether it is smooth or has a brushed, napped or piled surface). Second, there are the chemical properties of the fibre or fibre mixture in the textile. These determine its basic thermal properties- an aspect of increasing importance since the introduction of synthetic fibres, many of which melt or burn as a liquid under fire exposure. Many textiles are provided with special permanent finishes which can influence flammability. It is also important to assess the style or type of garment as the availability of oxygen for burning on both sides of loose fitting garments accelerates the spread of flame (a human chimney). Any large flowing or flared garment will make itself more vulnerable to an ignition source.

In the case of clothing we must also consider the age, physical condition, and mentality of the wearer, the type and style of garment, and the possible sources of ignition. The most frequent victims are those partially or fully dependant on others for the safety of there environment.

Children's clothing must now meet with a number of New Zealand Standards aimed at improving fire safety.

One of the most important points to be emphasised in this section is that clothing cannot catch fire unless brought into contact with an ignition source. The most common ignition sources for lighting clothing fires are, cooking equipment, matches, lighters, cigarettes and these deaths most often result from misuse of the heat of ignition or misuse of the material ignited.

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Furnishing

Polyurethane foam is by far the most common furniture filling used in New Zealand. Once ignited it burns rapidly giving off dense smoke and poisonous gases as well as generating so much heat that flashover may be reached in a matter of minutes.

The fire hazard posed by a piece of furniture depends on how easily the fabric cover will catch on fire, or char through, and how fast the fabric I filling combination burns.

Although it is the foam that is the most dangerous combustible it is often considered less important than the protective fabric covering.

Consequently, all new furniture available in British shops must now have either a covering which resists a match flame, or a fire-retardant fabric between the cover and filling. Mattresses and bed­base fillings are also covered by the regulations.

In New Zealand furniture manufactures are not compelled to make sure furniture offered for sale passes a flame test or a cigarette burn test.

Treating only the outer covering (upholstery or mattress ticking) is of questionable value, and can only be affective if the treatment has good glow resistance, if the charred fabric retains sufficient strength to prevent the physical penetration by the cigarette into the padding below, and the cover is

Figure 7 Furnishings sufficiently heavy to provide enough heat insulation (Ref. (4>)

to prevent the ignition of glowing in the padding. Much more assured protection can be provided if at least the top 25 mm of padding or batting is similarly effectively flame retardant treated or is of material not susceptible to ignition by burning cigarettes.

Of the most common furnishing fabrics only wool, or wool-rich blends, will stop polyurethane foam filling catching fire under the cigarette and match tests. Covering materials such as the chloro-fibres, polyamides and polyesters encasing polyurethane foam melt and shrink away from the heat source exposing the flammable foam to possible ignition.

The fire hazard of soft furnishings depends on the fabric.

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Fabrics for use 1n Protective Clothing

Significant advances have been made in the development of flame retardant protective clothing. No one fabric, fibre type or garment design will provide the complete solution. Three broad categories exist based on the end use and the hazard envisaged. These categories follow a logical progression in the degree of protection required.

1. Protection against heat and flames.

The main objective of this fabric is to minimise injuries in the event of a flash fire or an explosion and to act as a heat shield.

2. Protection against heat and flames and conductive heat.

This category is mainly concerned with protection against molten hazard and is a specialized area with stringent restrictions on fibre and fabric choice.

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3. Protection against multiple hazard ( heat and flame, oil and water, petrol, v

dangerous chemicals ) .

This category deals with fire service tunics and riot police overalls.

General protection against heat and flame is provided by choosing a fabric constructed from non-thermoplastic fibres which is inherently flame retardant, or a fabric which can be durably flame retardant treated. Glass fibre and asbestos fibres while very flame retardant tail on grounds of high thermal conductivity. Thermoplastic fibres such as PVC, nylon, polypropylene, modacrylic and polyester are not suitable for protection against heat and flames.

To maintain protection through active wear the fabric should not disintegrate during exposure and subject the wearer directly to the energy source.

The fabric should not shrink as this will reduce the insulation gap between the fabric and skin.

Fibres that show good char formation, like wool for example, create a physical barrier between the energy source and the skin. Unfortunately this barrier can be broken by movements if the charring is extensive enough to weaken the fabric. Wool fibres are the weakest under stress while carbon fibres are probably the most efficient at maintaining fabric integrity. Some commercially available blends attempt to utilize the strength of flame retardant synthetic fibres with the best characteristics of natural fibres.

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Good thermal insulation reduces heat transfer to give adequate time to avoid or minimise burn damage. Heat transfer from flames is minimised by using a fibre which has low thermal conductivity and a multiple layer garment construction ie.a tightly woven outer layer covering a bulky low density knitted fabric which contains one of the best and cheapest insulators - air.

The accumulation of water in the outer layer increases protection by increasing heat capacity. However, the accumulation of body perspiration water in inner layers increases the fabrics thermal conductivity.

The best protection against heat transfer from radiant heat is only adequately provided by aluminised coatings.

The ideal flame retardant fabric should be capable of withstanding both washing and dry cleaning without affecting the flame retardant and heat insulating properties or the normal textile properties.

Protective clothing should be as comfortable as possible to reduce the physiological stress to the minimum while maintaining the maximin protective properties. A compromise is therefore necessary to optimize the best of both worlds. It is generally accepted that protective clothing fabrics should be vapour permeable to allow escape of excess metabolic heat. Another option available is for the clothing fibres to act as a reservoir for perspiration vapour from the body to be released later when the wearer moves to less humid surrounds.

Protection against conductive heat {molten metals and slag) imposes further restrictions on the choice of fabric in that the material should not only be resistant to ignition but also resistant to penetration and adhesion by molten metal. In general, molten metals show the least tendency to adhere to wool materials. For protection against multiple hazards, where flammable solvents, water and dangerous liquid chemicals may be encountered as well, the fabric must be capable of being treated with a durable and effective oil and water repellent finish. Aramid, flame retardant cotton and wool, treated with fluorocarbon finishes, are currently being used in the outer shells of fire fighters jackets.

1.

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

Fabrics intended for use in flame retardant protective clothing should ideally exhibit as many of the following properties as possible:

High level of flame resistance

Fabric integrity

Low shrinkage Good thermal insulation

Easy cleaning and fastness of flame reurdance

Wearer acceptance

Oil-repellent

Water-repellent

Resistant to dangerous adds and aqueous ch=.lcals

Does not contribute to wearer's initJry

Maintains barrier to prevent direa exposure to hazard

Maintains insulating au layer.

Reduces heat transfer to give adequate time to escape before bum damage

Removal of flammable contaminants without ~dverse effea on flame retardance and garment properues.

Lightweight. comfortable Protection from flammable contamination. such as oils and solvents

Related to (6)- mainta.J.ns wearer's comfon

Figure 8 (Ref. <10>)

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NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS 161 [,._: ·'

The current standards covering the relationship between textiles and heat/flame are ...

(i) AS 1530:- Part 2:1973 Test for flammability of materials

Describes the procedure for preparing and determining the flammability index of thin sheet or woven materials of pliable nature which are combustible and do not melt readily or shrink away from an igniting flame. The index is determined according to a speed factor, heat factor and spread factor.

(ii) NZS4516:1991 Fireblankets

(=AS 3504: 1989) Sets out the requirements for finished fire blankets and includes tests for materials used in the manufacture of fire blankets which may be tested separately.

(iii) NZS 8703:1977 Methods of test for combustion characteristics of textile materials

(=AS 1176:Parts 1 to 3: 1976) Measure of a textiles burning behaviour by a number of combustion characteristics which may be evidenced in part or full depending on the particular end-use of the textile.

(iv) NZS 8704:1989 Low fire danger fabrics for domestic apparel

Sets out the requirements for low fire danger fabrics. Fabrics which comply with this standard, because of their fibre content, weight and other factors, do not easily ignite and burn slowly. Suitable for childrens' night clothes including those of Category 1 of NZS 8705.

(v) NZS 8705:1989 Childrens night clothes having low fire danger

Sets out the requirements for childrens night clothes of low fire risk including pyjamas, pyjama-styled over garments, sleep-suits, nightdresses, dressing gowns, bathrobes, infant sleeping bags, nightshirts and babies' stretch-and-grows. Specifies two categories of childrens' night clothes, those made from low fire danger fabric and for which there is no style restriction (Category 1) and those which may be

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made from any fabric except those surfaces which burn rapidly, but which must be styled to reduce fire danger (Category 2).

(vi) NZS 8709:- Fire tests for furniture

Part 1:1984 Methods of test for the ignitability by smokers' materials of upholstered composites for seating

( + /- BS 5852:Part 1: 1979) For assessing ignitability of material combinations when subjected to either a smouldering cigarette or a lighted match as might be applied accidentally.

Part 2:1985 Methods of testing for the ignitability of upholstered composites for seating by flaming sources

( + /- BS 5852:Part 2: 1982) For .assessing the ignitability of material combinations when subjected to flaming ignition sources in the form of butane flames or wooden cribs.

(vii) NZS 8720:1988 Methods of testing for the ignitability of mattresses

( + /- BS 6807: 1986) Using smouldering and flaming ignition sources of differing severities.

(viii) ISO 6925:1982 Burning behaviour of textile floor coverings from the tablet test at ambient temperature

Specifies a method for the assessment of the burning behaviour, often superficial, of textile floor coverings in a horizontal position when exposed to a small source of ignition under controlled laboratory conditions. Applicable to all types of floor coverings whatever their construction or fibre composition.

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Conclusion

As textiles are the major source of primary combustion, and together with combustible building materials comprise most of the available fuel load, they are an important factor to consider in designing for fire safety.

From our literature review we can conclude that:

* Just about all fabrics will burn. Cotton and Rayon catch alight easily and burn rapidly whereas most synthetics ignite more slowly but melt as they burn. Wool is the one common fabric that is both difficult to ignite and slow to burn.

* Ideally the textile will be firmly woven, as heavyweight as is practical and not have a brushed/piled surface.

* A flame retardant chemical or mixture affects flammability by a combination of methods the phases of which are not fully understood. The appropriate degree of durability and protection should assessed for the use envisaged.

* By far the majority of clothing fire accidents involve everyday fabrics that have no unusual flammability characteristics and the most frequent victims are those partially or fully dependant on others for the safety of there environment.

• The fire hazard posed by a piece of furniture depends on how easily the fabric cover will catch on fire, or char through, and how fast the fabric I filling combination burns.

* The fabric choice for protective clothing d.epends on the end use and the hazards envisaged.lt should be highly flame-resistant and not disintegrate or shrink during exposure. The fabric should have good thermal insulation, be easy cleaning and both lightweight and comfortable for wearer acceptance.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY References Cited

111 "Fibres and Textiles", Fire Protection Handbook (page 4-16).

121 "Textiles, Fire and Test Standards - A Polemic", Fire and Materials, vol 3 #4, 1979. Clegg, D. ICI Fibres Division, North Yorkshire.

131 "Fire Loss Information", Fire Protection Handbook (page 2-18 to 2-22).

141 "Fatal Fires in New Zealand, Where, When, and Why They Occur" (pages 5-6).

151 "Fire" (page 138 and 143).

161 "New Zealand Standards".

171 "Consumer 275."

181 "Consumer 236."

191 "WRONZ Communication 73"

1101 "Saving your Skin" Fire Prevention 221 July/August 1989.

Additional Readings

* Aromatic High-strength Fibres. Yang, H.H. qTS 1548.5 .Y22

* Consumer Magazine No.- 176,236,(237),239,251 ,259,275 and 281. HF 1 .C758 (NOTE : EL #1 = > #266, ML #1 = > Present Month).

* Fatal Fires in New Zealand, Where, When, and Why They Occur. Cropp, David; Research Officer New Zealand Fire Service. qTH 9448 .948

* Fire. Lyons, John W. TP 265 .L991

* Fireproofing. Thiery, Pierre (translated by J.H. Goundry) TP 267 .T438

* Fire and Flammability Handbook. Schultz, Neil. TH 9145 .S387

* Fire and Materials - vol 1 (1976) to 10 ( 1986). qTH 1092 . F5235

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* Fire Protection Handbook - Section 4 I Chapter 3 and Section 2 I Chapter 3. qTH 9116 .N277 (1981)

* Great Britain Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. TS 1449 .G786

* How Do Burning Products Affect Life Safety ? ; (NFPA) Fire Journal September/October 1990. Clarke, Frederick B. (Ill) and Steele, Sharon. qTH 9111 .F5232

* Handbook of Fibre Science and Technology. Preston, Jack. TS 1510 .H236 vol 3 Part A.

* Man-made Textile Encyclopedia. Press, J.J. qTS 1548.5 .P935

* New Zealand Standards. On call at Reserves Desk Engineering Library.

* Textile Auxilliaries. Batty, J.W, TS 1449 .B336

Lewin, Menachem. and

* Textile Chemicals and Auxilliaries. Speel, Henry C. and Schwartz, E.W.K. TS 1449 .S742

* Textile Fibres. Matthews, J.M. TS 1540 .M439

* Textile Science. Hall, A.J. TS 1540 .H174

* The New Encyclopedia of Textiles. qTS 1445 .A512 1980

* Saving Your Skin (A review of flame retardent protective clothing) Fire Prevention Journal 221 July/August 1989. qTH 9111 .F5324

* Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ) Communication. No. 8,66, 72,73 and C88. qTS 1600 .W913

* WRONZ Report- No. 52,57,73,79,84,R111 and R140. qTS 1600 .W913

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* What's Burning in Home Fires ? ; National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Journal, September/October 1991. Miller, Allison. qTH 9111 .F5232

* The Hunt for Red Hot Home Hazards in October September/October 1990. Hall, John R. (Jr). qTH 9111 .F5232

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(NFPAl Fire Journal