fifty years of indian democrac y

8/11/2019 Fifty Years of Indian Democrac y

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FIFTY YEARS OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY: AN ASSESSMENTAuthor(s): M. V. NaiduSource: Peace Research, Vol. 30, No. 3 (August 1998), pp. 1-14Published by: Canadian Mennonite UniversityStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607614 .Accessed: 06/09/2014 02:57

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FIFTY YEARS OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY: ANASSESSMENT

M. V. NaiduPolitical Science, Brandon University

Brandon, Manitoba, Canada

Introduction

India has many extraordinary features: 950 million people,spread over 3.3 million sq. km; the world's most multiracial,multireligious, multilingual society; a past that includes 150 years of

imperialistic victimization; an origin in the world's first nonviolent

revolution; and so on.

India has enjoyed 50 years of democratization without civil wars,coups, dictatorship and national disintegration. Her sister states

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lankathough much

smaller, have not.Most of the countries of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Latin

America, the former Soviet Union, and eastern and southern Europehave suffered authoritarian regimes of one kind or another during thelast five decades. Out of the 185 states in the world today, Indiaremains one of the dozen stable democracies.

Defining Democracy

In the simplest sense, democracy is a government of, by and forthe people; it is built upon the fundamental values of equality, libertyand fraternity. The ideal typology of democracy1 consists of the

following basic elements:

1. Eligibility: Citizens' eligibility for legislative, executive and

judicial roles on the basis of equality and non-discrimination.

2. Elections: Implies universal adult franchise, free and fairelections at regular intervals (2-5 years), the non-nullification

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of elections, and at least 50 years of continuity within anelectoral system.

3. Accountability: Government accountable to the legislature, tothe courts, to the press and to the people.

4. Freedom: Personal freedomsright to life, security, move

ment, speech, thought, association and assembly. Economic

rightsto food, land, housing, employment and decent income.Political rightsto vote, to candidacy, to political parties, to

protest or election campaigns, and to a free press.

5. Rule of Law: Non-arbitrary administration; independent and

approachable judiciary.

6. Civilian Supremacy: Non-politicization of the military and itssubordination to the civil authority; absence of civil war;avoidance of military coups.

7. Rationalism and Pluralism:2 State and political policies ofsecularism, multiculturalism, and mutual tolerance.

8. Nonviolence: Avoidance of violencephysical, structural andcultural; peaceful settlement of disputes in politics, in thecommunity and in the family.

9. Stabilized democracy: A minimum of 50 years of uninterrupted and stabilized political system based on the above factors.

Threats to Democracy

The most common negative forces that threaten a nation's

territorial integrity and democracy are the following:

1. Mass hunger and abject poverty 7. Ethnic-linguistic rivalries2. Exploitative feudalism 8. Separatist violence3. Crises of industrialization 9. Communist terrorism4. Militarization and militarism 10. Fascist authoritarianism5. Religious bigotry 11. Politicization of the militaiy6. Racial/caste hatreds 12. Foreign interventioncold war

and proxy war



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Indian Democracy

"Democracy" has been one of the most misused terms. Even antidemocratic communist and fascist systems have called themselvesdemocracies. The Soviet Union called itself a proletarian democracy.Communist East European states were labeled Peoples' Democracies.Mao named his Chinese dictatorship "The New Democracy." DictatorSukarno of Indonesia called his regime "guided democracy." Gen.

Ayub Khan tried to hide his military regime under the cloak of "Basic

Democracy." The Zionist theocracy of Israel claims to be a true

democracy.The South African

apartheid systemcalled itself a

Christian democracy.

Until 1975, Portugal under Salazar, and until 1978, Spain under

Franco, were fascist dictatorships. Democracy was imposed on

Germany, Italy and Japan after their defeat in 1945. Greece became a

republic in 1975. Turkey has periodically experienced military rule

during the last five decades. Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar havehad military coups and military regimes. Pakistan broke up throughcivil war; civil war in Sri Lanka may lead to the same result.

In contrast, India, since its independence in 1947, did not

generate civil wars, military coups, military regimes or territorial

disintegration. Rule of law has been maintained through non

discriminatory legislation and administration, and through guaranteeslike habeas corpus, justiciable rights, etc. Lapses in this are underconstant scrutiny of the independent and activist judiciary, the vigilantfree press and the unhindered opposition parties. The Indian secularstate guarantees to its citizens freedom of religion without imposing

and sponsoring one particular religion.3 Linguistic rights have beenprotected through constitutional and political provisions. India wasthe first country in modern times to provide in the constitution special

provisions, which we have now come to call affirmative action

programs, with respect to the so-called backward classes, scheduled

castes and tribes.4 The special provisions include reservation of seats

in the legislatures, in the educational institutions, in employment

opportunities and training, and so on. A constitutional amendment



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now under contemplation will guarantee women 30% of the seats in

the legislatures.In spite of strong opposition, within and without the country, the

Indian Constituent Assembly adopted universal adult franchise, whichis now available at the age of 18 years. The electorate now consists of600 million voters. All kinds of restrictions on voting and candidacy,based on race, religion, language, sex, class, caste, education and

wealth, that were promulgated in the Western democracies at different

times, were completely rejected in India right from the beginning.Elections held at regular intervals have been free and fair. During thelast 50 years, 12 national elections, some 300 state/regional elections,and 250 by-elections have been held. On an average there has beenone election every six months.5 In the recent February 1998 national

elections, some 400 million citizen voted to choose 543 MPs out of

6,000 candidates put up by 443 political parties and some

independents.6

Elected governments have been answerable to the legislatures(resigning upon no-confidence motion), to the electorate (by seeking a

regular mandate), to the courts (that pronounce on electoral resultsand officials' conduct and exercise judicial review of the executiveactions and the legislative enactments, etc.), and to the public at large(responding to protests, petitions and the press).

Challenges to Indian Democracy

Most states in the world have faced the challenges listed above,and many have succumbed to them. These factors are life-threateningto democracy. India has also faced these challenges, but has managed

to overcome them. How?

1. Poverty: When the British left India after 150 years of colonial

exploitation, the country was in a shambles politically and

economically. At independence India's national income was $26billion.7 After 40 years of independence the national income went upalmost 40 times to $773 billion.8 During 1900-46 the national incomerose by 0.8%.9 Between 1950 and 1990 India achieved an annualgrowth rate of 3.9%.10 During 1947-50 Indian food production was

only 50 million tons.11 By 1990, it rose to 170 million tons.12 By 1984



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Indian became a net exporter of food. All this economic growth was

achieved peacefully within the framework of democracy.2. Feudalism: Violent revolutions to end feudalism, and counterrevolutions to defend it, constitute the bloodiest chapter of human

history. India has the unique distinction of being the only country inthe world that has abolished a centuries-old feudal system throughdemocratic methods without bloodshed. The three factors that helpedthe peaceful end of feudalism were(a) Bhoodan; (b) legislation; and

(c) voting right. Vinoba Bhave, a disciple of Gandhi, through theBhoodan Movement, or land-gift movement, collected five millionacres of land from 100,000 donors by appealing to the conscience and

morality of the landowners.13 Bhoodan prepared the societypsychologically; thereupon the legislatures introduced land reforms

politically, and transferred millions of acres to the landless peasantry.Exercising franchise, the peasant quickly realized the power of thevote. Equipped with economic and political power, the communist

guerrillas abandoned violence and became participants in democracy.

3. Industrialization: Industrialization everywhere has been the

product of the following factors that cause suffering and that areantithetical to democracy: exploitative colonialism; dehumanized

science-technology; militarization; wars; thought control; ideologiesbased on race, religion or jingoism; and authoritarian state.14 In theWest full-fledged democratization15 came after 100-150 years of

industrialization, while industrialized communist and fascist states

only democratized in name.

India is the first country to combine full-fledged democracy with

industrializationright

from thebeginning.

So far this unique

experiment has proven successful. Under British rule, the industrial

base of India was only 5% of the GNP; by 1980 industries were

contributing 29% of the GNP.16 The growth rate of industrial

production during the 1950s was 6.7%;17 by 1990 the growth rate had

reached 8 .5%.18 Within 50 years India has become one of the 20 most

industrialized countries in the world, without sacrificing democracy.

4. Militarization: In the developed countries industrialization and

militarization have gone hand in hand. Militarization is rationalized



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through militarism (jingoism), and vice versa.19 Both lead to wars

domestic and foreignand authoritarian regimes.

Soon after its formation, Pakistan invoked militarism, resorted to

militarization, established dictatorial regimes, joined American

military alliances,20 and then waged three wars on India21 andintervened in the civil war of Afghanistan.22

In spite of being drawn into four wars, India refused to joinmilitary alliances, or to introduce conscription, or to sponsor war

hysteria or to give big boosts to its military budgets. During 1947-61

Indian military expenditures declined. After the Chinese invasion, thedefence budget averaged 3-4% of the GNP, which was then half ofthe world average of 7%.23 In 1987 the defence budget was 3.9% ofthe GNP, while the world average was 5.1%.24

Overemphasis on militarization and militarism are alwaysantithetical to democracy, as vindicated by Pakistan. Avoiding such

emphasis, India has been able to maintain its democracy for the last50 years.

5. Religious Bigotry: Religious bigotry has been responsible for thehighest bloodshed in human history. Religionism combined withmilitarization and jingoism generates an authoritarian theocratic state,which is, by definition, anti-democratic.

India has chosen to set up a secular state that builds a wallbetween state and religion.25 Pakistan created the theocratic state.While Islamic Pakistan had four military coups26 and a number ofunelected governments or authoritarian regimes, and it broke downinto two

pieces,secular India has maintained its

territorial integrityand its democracy, even though its Muslim population is the second

biggest in the world after Indonesia. Periodic appearances of religiousfundamentalist groups and religious riots have not impaired Indiansecularism.

6. Racial/Caste Hatreds: Like religionism, racism has always leftbehind it a trail of atrocities and inhumanity. As a country composedof all the major races of the world, India never had had the problem ofracism as prevalent in South Africa, Britain, Australia, New Zealand



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and the United States. However, sharing certain features of racism,

casteism, especially in the form of untouchability, has had a tragicimpact on the Indian society.

The Indian Constitution has abolished untouchability.27 Gandhiand Nehru campaigned against it for 30 years. Public education, legalprotection, a free press and affirmative action programs have

improved the situation of women, and the lower castes and the tribal

groups.28 Though its social and cultural stigmas have greatlyatrophied, the caste now stands politicized in terms of vote,

candidacy, partyand elections.

7. Ethnic-Linguistic Rivalries: While racism is based on physiological features, ethnicism is based on cultural, religious and linguisticloyalties. The contemporary world is saturated with ethnic conflicts.

Indian democracy faced and solved the ethnic-linguistic crises

through political, electoral and constitutional accommodations. Themost dramatic measure was the wholesale redrawings of the map ofIndia to create states on ethnic-linguistic lines.29 India now has 25such states.

Out of the 1652 languages of India, the constitution recognizes15 major languages,30 while maintaining Hindi and English as the twoofficial languages.31

Six million refugees entered Indian from Pakistan, 10 millionfrom East Pakistan,32 100,000 from Tibet, thousands from Myanmar,Nepal, Sri Lanka, Uganda, Fiji, etc. These refugees, along with the

people of the 562 Indian princely states that were integrated into

India,33 representedvarious

religious,ethnic and

linguistic groups.They were peacefully absorbed into Indian society without causing

any disruption. On the other hand, the Indian Muslims who migratedto Pakistan in 1947 are still called muhajirs (refugees) and are still

being treated as such.

Minority representatives and women have held importantpositions in Indiaas presidents, prime ministers, chief ministers,cabinet ministers, mayors and so on. Out of ten presidents of India

elected until 1996, three were Muslims, and one Sikh;34 the present



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president, K.R. Narayanan, comes from the Harijan (untouchable)

class. Sikhs constitute only 2%, Muslims only 11% and Harijans 25%of the Indian population.

8. Separatist Violence: Separatism or secessionism has causedterritorial disintegration and human deaths in many states in theworld. The most violent examples of separatism have occurred in

Katanga, Biafra, Eritrea, Sudan, Northern Ireland, the former

Yugoslavia, Chechnya, Sri Lanka, East Pakistan, and so on.

India also faced separatist movements in the south, the northeast,

the Punjab and Kashmir.35 But through constitutional changes,political accommodations and electoral settlement, separatism hasbeen defeated or atrophied, even though China, Pakistan, and someChristian missionaries have not stopped aiding and abetting the

separatists. While India as a subcontinent has remained united, themuch smaller state of Pakistan has broken up and the little island ofSri Lanka is facing a similar fate.

9. Communist Terrorism: Communists were successful in exploiting

peasantfrustrations and workers'

poverty,and in

launching guerrillamovements and civil wars in many Third World countries like China,Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Angola, Cuba,Nicaragua, and so on.

Indian communists tried to raise Maoist types of peasantguerrilla movements in Indiain the districts of Telangana in the

1950s, and in Naxalbari in the 1970s. But these movements fizzledout. Distribution of land among the landless and the award of votingrights to all have led the peasantry to an abandonment of the

communist guerrilla movements.

10. Fascist Authoritarianism: Fascism rises on the foundations ofirrationalism, dogmatism, intolerance, hate and militarism. Fascistparties and leaders in Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain and Portugalestablished authoritarianism in the name of anti-communism, antiliberalism, religionism, racism or jingoism. While Fascist type groupsand leaders have played key roles in Pakistan and Bangladesh, theIndian political parties under Gandhi, Nehru and others never



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espoused authoritarianism, racism, religionism or jingoism. So far the

Indian democratic environment has remained antithetical to fascism.

11. Politicization of the Military: A political movement may involvethe military in a revolution or a counter-revolution, or it may stage a

coup d'tat. The armed forces become politicized when they usurppolitical policy-making, the administration of courts, bureaucracy, the

economy and diplomacy, and conduct elections. Such politicization isdestined to create a dictatorshipmilitary or civilian. Once bullets,tanks and soldiers become the instruments of politics or social change,neither

political stabilitynor

genuine democracycan

survive,as has

been shown in the cases of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, SriLanka, and all other dictatorships around the world.

In spite of all kinds of challenges, India has remained steadfast

against the politicization of the armed forces. Civilian supremacy, thecornerstone of democracy, has remained supreme in the Indian polity.

12. Foreign Interventions: Foreign interventions through weapons,armed forces, military alliances, military and economic aid,

ideologies, propagandaand

diplomatic intrigues,have

constantlydisrupted democracies, have encouraged dictatorships, and have

sponsored civil wars and neighborhood wars. In the postwar era thetwo most disruptive foreign interventions were in the forms of theCold War and the "proxy war."36

Joining the American-sponsored military alliances of CENTOand SEATO, Pakistan received American military aid, succumbed to

military coups and waged civil wars. Refusing to join the Cold War,India enunciated its own policy of nonalignment which both the blocs

attacked, both ideologically and militarily.37 John Dulles callednonalignment a "sin against God" ; communists called Gandhi andNehru "the lap dogs of imperialism." Communist China aggressed onIndia in 1962, while Pakistan invaded India three times, and alsoacted as the proxy for the American attack on nonalignment. Alignedwith the West, Pakistan suffered national disintegration and set up aseries of dictatorships, both military and civilian. Adhering to

nonalignment, India reinforced its territorial integrity and its

democracy.



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Conclusion

How can one assess the overall success of Indian democracy,which is now 50 years old?

Irrespective of all its accomplishments discussed above, one maypoint out that unemployment and poverty have been reduced but noteliminated. Religious riots, however occasional, still challenge India'scommitment to secularism. The separatism of Muslim fundamentalistsin Kashmir has not been removed altogether. Administrative and

political corruption continue to slow down socio-economic progress.

The deep-seated hatred of Pakistan against India has not beenneutralized. China's aggressive designs have not been vacated.

But how much more could have been accomplished within 50

years by a multicultural society of 950 million people, and without

abandoning democracy and without military coups or dictatorships?

In terms of population, India is equivalent to three Europes or 36Caadas. In terms of territory India is about the size of Europe. But interms of races, religions, languages, cultures and history, India is

much more pluralistic and complicated than either Canada or Europe.The management of such a gigantic entity, without military conflictsand territorial breakups, is a Herculean task. To organize, run andmaintain such a gigantic democracy is nothing short of a miracle.

Among the Afro-Asian countries that became independent at thesame time as India, India remains unique in its adherence to

democracy. Further, a historical survey of the United States, France,the Soviet Union and Communist China shows that the promises of

democracy that their respective revolutions made were totallyabandoned in favor of "reign of terror" during the first 50 years oftheir post-revolution phase.38

Through its nonviolent revolution and democratization, India hasmade a unique contribution to human history, however unrecognizedthis contribution has remained

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NOTES1. For a concept of the ideal democracy see M.V. Naidu, "The EightFundamentals of Democracy: A Gandhian Analysis," in Legacy andFuture of Nonviolence, eds. Mahendra Kumar and Peter Low (New Delhi:Gandhi Peace Foundation, 1996), p. 31-87.

2. By rationalism I mean seeking knowledge and truth through the use ofthe thinking faculty that involves the use of the five senses plus reasoning,logic and facts. Thus rational truths are not theological or mystical beliefsbased on blind faith. See M.V. Naidu, Dimensions of Peace (Oakville,Ontario: M.I.T.A. Press, 1996), p. 65-67.

Pluralism, as opposed to monism, acknowledges many approaches toand concepts of truth. Pluralism implies human equality, freedom ofthought and mutual toleration. Multiculturalism is one reflection ofpluralism.

3. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution promises "to secure to all itscitizens. . . . Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. . . ."See Constitution of India (Lucknow, India: Easter Book Co., 1981), p. 1,9-10.

4. The Indian Constitution, under Part XV (Articles 330-342), makes"Special Provisions Relating to certain classes" like Harijans, "BackwardClasses," "Scheduled Castes and Tribes" and "Anglo-Indians." See

Constitution of India, op. cit, p. 116-121.

5. Tarun Basu, "Frequent elections a boon to democracy," India Abroad

(Weekly), Canadian edition, 6 April 1996, p. 6, and 12 April 1996, p. 9.

6. See India Abroad (Weekly), Canadian edition, 13 February 1998, p. 1,3-4.

7. See India 1965(New

Delhi:Ministry

of Information andBroadcasting,Government of India, 1965), p. 145.

8. See India 1990 (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,Government of India, 1990) p. 304.

9. See Subrata K. Mitra in Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell,Comparative Politics Today (New York: Harper Collins, 1996), p. 715718.10. See Robert L. Hardgrave and Stanley Kochanek, India: Governmentand Politics in a Developing Nation (U.S.A.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,

1986), p. 383.11



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11. See Subrata Mitra, op. cit.

12. Hardgrave and Kochanek, op. cit., p. 376.

13. See Mark Shepard, Gandhi Today (Arcato, Calif.: Simple Productions,1987), p. 21.

14. SeeM.V. Naidu, Dimensions of Peace, op. cit., p. 217-235.

15. By full-fledged democracy I mean universal adult franchise; universaleligibility for government offices; government answerability to thelegislature, the judiciary, the press and the people; full freedoms forindividuals, courts, political parties and the press.


17. Hardgrave and Kochanek, op. cit., p. 381.

18. Ibid., p. 382.

19. While militarization refers to the measures and the processes ofbuilding up military forces and power, militarism represents the valuesystem and the psychology that believes that military power and war arethe necessary and the best instruments for settling all disputes. Militarismand militarization feed on each other. See M.V. Naidu, War, Security,Peace (Oakville, Ontario. M.I.T.A. Press, 1996), p. 113-122.

20. In 1954 Pakistan joined the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization(SEATO), and 1955 it oined the Baghdad Pact, later renamed the CentralTreaty Organization (CENTO), both sponsored by the United States asanti-Communist alliances. See M.V. Naidu, War, Security, Peace, op. cit.,p. 172-177, p. 201-208.

21. Pakistan aggressed on Kashmir in 1949; it attacked the Rann of Kutchon the Indian west coast; it launched a blitzkrieg on western India in 1972in order to distract world attention from its

genocidein East Pakistan.

22. Pakistan became a proxy for fighting the American anti-Communistwar in Afghanistan. Recently Pakistan trained, armed and directed theMuslim fundamentalist Taliban movement, which is still engaged as aparty in the Afghan civil war.


24. See Ruth Sivard, World Military and Social Expenditures 1991(Washington, D.C.: World Priorities, 1991), p. 54.

12



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25. Declaring a secular democracy in India, the Preamble of the Indian

Constitution promises "to secure to all its citizens. . . . Liberty of thought,expression, belief, faith and worship. . . ." See Constitution of India, op.cit., p. 1, 9-10.

26. The four military coups wereby Gen. Iskander Mirza (1958); by Gen.Ayub Khan (1958); Gen. Yahya Khan (1969); and Gen. Ziaul-Haq (1977).

27. Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolished "Untouchability." Otherprovisions buttress Article 17 in various guarantees and affirmative action

steps under Articles 15, 19, 25, 29, 46, 164, 244, 330, 332, 334, 335, 338and the Fifth and Sixth Schedules. See India 1965, op. cit., p. 118. Laws

have been passed to operationalize the constitutional provisions, e.g., theUntouchability (offenses) Act of 1955, amended in 1976 and retitled asProtection of Civil Rights Act (1955). See India 1990, p. 234-235.

28. The Indian Constitution, under Part XV (Articles 330-342), makes"Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes" like Harijan, "BackwardClasses," "Scheduled Castes and Tribes," and "Anglo-Indians." SeeConstitution of India, op. cit., p. 116-121.

29. See Hardgrave and Kochanek, op. cit., p. 123-133.

30. Eighth Schedule. See Constitution of India., op.cit.

31. Article 343, ibid.

32. See Hardgrave and Kochanek, op. cit., p. 51-52, 208.

33. See V.P. Menon, The Study of the Integration of the Indian States

(Bombay: Longman, 1956).

34. Zakir Hussain (1967-69); M. Hidayatullah (1969); Fakhruddin AliAhmed (1974-77); Giani Zail Singh (1982-87).

35. Most of the Sikh separatist terrorist forces in the Punjab have now been

brought back into the electoral processes. See India Today, 15 April 1996,

p. 42-44, and 30 April 1996, p. 42.

Similarly, many of the Muslim fundamentalist separatists in Kashmirhave also abandoned their terrorism and have participated in the May 1996and November 1998 elections. For statements of the leaders of Al-Fateh

and Muslim Mujahideen, see India Abroad, 12 April 1996, p. 10.

36. Since 1945 there have been no direct wars between the Western powersor between the Cold War blocs. However, there have been 250 wars in

which 40 million people have been killed, all in the Third World. These13



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wars were aided and abetted by the Western capitalist and the Communist

powers. See Nicholl Ball, "Demilitarization of the Third World," in WorldSecurity, eds. Michael Klare and Daniel Thomas (New York: St. Martin's

Press, 1994), p. 216-217.

37. Mao Tse-tung (1949): "One either leans to the side of imperialism or tothe side of socialism. Neutrality is a mere camouflage and a third way doesnot exist." See A Democracy History of Chinese Communism (HarvardUniversity Press, 1952), p. 453-454. John Kennedy (1960): the Cold Waris "a struggle for supremacy between conflicting ideologies: Freedom andGod versus ruthless godless tyranny." See Cold War and CounterRevolution (Baltimore, Md.:

Penguin,1972),

p.9.

38. See M.V. Naidu, "The Gandhian Revolution and the IndianDemocracy," a paper presented at the International Symposium on

Mahatma Gandhi held in Calgary (Canada) 14-15 November 1997.

Radiation Experiment Case Settled

The Quaker Oats company and the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT) have agreed to pay $1.85 million to 30 victims ofradiation experiments they conducted in the 1940s and '50s. About130 developmentally disabled boys who were wards of the state at theFernald School in Waltham, MA, U.S.A., were poisoned with cerealcontaminated with radioactive iron and calcium "to prove thatnutrients in Quaker oatmeal" travel throughout the body. Quaker Oatspaid for the study and donated the cereal, while MIT committed thecrimes. None of the scientists were named or indicted. MIT dared tosay that the boys' exposure was "about equal" to the naturalbackground radiation to which people are exposed every year. [Thisoften heard palliative obscures the fact that ingested radiation dosesare far more harmful than external doses.]

[New York Times & The Washington Post, January 1, 1998.]

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