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Chapter 2
The Research Enterprise in Psychology – 8th Edition
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The Scientific Approach: A Search for Laws
Empiricism
Basic assumption: events are governed by some
lawful order
Goals:
– Measurement and description
– Understanding and prediction
– Application and control
Goal of theory testing in science: refutation not
proving – Karl Popper
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Table of Contents
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Figure 2.2
Five steps of
the Scientific
Method
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The Scientific Method: Terminology
Operational definitions are used to clarify precisely what is meant by each variable
Participants or subjects are the organisms whose behavior is systematically observed in a study
Data collection techniques allow for empirical observation and measurement
Statistics are used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported
Findings are shared through reports at scientific meetings and in scientific journals – periodicals that publish technical and scholarly material
– Advantages of the scientific method: clarity of communication and relative intolerance of error
Research methods: general strategies for conducting scientific studies
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Peer Review of Scientific Articles
The process of publishing scientific studies
allows other experts to evaluate and critique
new research findings.
They carefully evaluate each study’s
methods, statistical analyses, and
conclusions, as well as its contribution to
knowledge and theory.
The purpose of the peer review process is to
ensure that journals publish reliable findings
based on high-quality research.
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Figure 2.4 The peer
review process for
journal submissions.
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Experimental Research: Looking for Causes
Experiment = manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed – Detection of cause-and-effect relationships
Independent variable (IV) = variable manipulated
Dependent variable (DV) = variable affected by manipulation – How does X affect Y?
– X= Independent Variable, and Y= Dependent Variable
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Experimental and Control Groups: The Logic of the Scientific Method
Experimental group – subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Control group – similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment – Logic:
• Two groups alike in all respects (random assignment)
• Manipulate independent variable for one group only
• Resulting differences in the two groups must be due to the independent variable
Extraneous and confounding variables
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Youmans and Jee ( 2007)
Fudging the Numbers
IV: Candy condition
DV: Nine question evaluation of instruction form
Overall rating scores
Results: Significant difference in overall rating
Questions? Other effects and limitations
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Figure 2.6 The basic elements of an experiment
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Experimental Designs: Variations
Expose a single group to two different conditions
– Reduces extraneous variables
Manipulate more than one independent variable
– Allows for study of interactions between variables
Use more than one dependent variable
– Obtains a more complete picture of effect of the independent
variable
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Figure 2.7 Manipulation of two independent variables in an experiment
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Experimental Research
Strengths: – conclusions about cause-and-effect can be drawn
– Probabilistic causality
Weaknesses:
– artificial nature of experiments
– ethical and practical issues
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Descriptive/Correlational Methods: Looking for Relationships
Methods used when a researcher cannot manipulate
the variables under study • Naturalistic observation – Table 2.2, Levine & Norenzayan
(1999) – ranking of pace of life in 31 cultures
• Case studies
• Surveys
– Allow researchers to describe patterns of behavior and
discover links or associations between variables but cannot
imply causation
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Figure 2.10
Sample from a case
study – a descriptive
research method
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Statistics and Research: Drawing Conclusions
Statistics – using mathematics to organize,
summarize, and interpret numerical data
• Descriptive statistics: organizing and summarizing
data
• Inferential statistics: interpreting data and drawing
conclusions – use of probability
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Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency = typical or average
score in a distribution
Mean: arithmetic average of scores
Median: score falling in the exact center
Mode: most frequently occurring score
– Which most accurately depicts the typical?
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XX 2.11
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Descriptive Statistics: Variability
Variability = how much scores vary from each other
and from the mean
– Standard deviation = numerical depiction of variability
• High variability in data set = high standard deviation
• Low variability in data set = low standard deviation
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Descriptive Statistics: Correlation
When two variables are related to each other, they are correlated.
Correlation = numerical index of degree of relationship – Correlation expressed as a number between 0 and 1
– Can be positive or negative
– Numbers closer to 1 (+ or -) indicate stronger relationship
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Table of Contents Figure 2.13 Positive and negative correlation
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Correlation: Prediction, Not Causation
Higher correlation coefficients = increased ability to
predict one variable based on the other
– SAT/ACT scores moderately correlated with first year
college GPA
2 variables may be highly correlated, but not causally
related
– Foot size and vocabulary positively correlated
– Do larger feet cause larger vocabularies?
– The third variable problem
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Inferential Statistics: Interpreting Data and Drawing Conclusions
Hypothesis testing: do observed findings support the
hypotheses?
– Are findings real or due to chance?
Statistical significance = when the probability that the
observed findings are due to chance is very low
– Very low = less than 5 chances in 100/ .05 level
– Other factors might account for the resultS
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Evaluating Research: Methodological Pitfalls
Sampling bias
Placebo effects – is not always uniform – cost
factors and perceived pain
Distortions in self-report data:
– Social desirability bias
– Response set
Experimenter bias
– the double-blind solution
– Research protocol of clinical trial for drugs – FDA in U.S.
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The Internet and Psychological Research
Internet-mediated research refers to studies in which
data collection occurs over the web.
Possible Advantages
– Samples that are much larger and much more diverse than
the samples typically used in laboratory research
– Have the potential to yield more diverse and representative
samples
Potential Disadvantages
– Sampling bias resulting from self-selection may be a more
troublesome issue in Internet-mediated research
• Web users tend to be younger, brighter, and more affluent than
nonusers
– Data are collected under far less controlled conditions than
in traditional studies
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Ethics in Psychological Research: Do the Ends Justify the Means?
Tuskegee Syphilis Study:
http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm
http://www.tuskegee.edu/global/story.asp?s=1207598
The question of deception
The question of animal research
– Controversy among psychologists and the public
Ethical standards for research: the American
Psychological Association
– Ensures both human and animal subjects are treated with
dignity
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Using databases
to access
research articles
PsychINFO –
psychological
literature 1887-
present
To access at UNA
http://www.una.edu/library
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Research Issues – Critical Thinking
Use of anecdotal evidence in psychology –
“I have a friend who…” p.74 – 75
Urban legends?
http://www.snopes.com