MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Q.1 “Today managers need to perform various functions”: Elaborate the statement?

A Manager is the person responsible for planning and directing the work of a group of individuals, monitoring their work, and taking corrective action when necessary. For many people, this is their first step into a management career. Managers may direct workers directly or they may direct several supervisors who direct the workers. The manager must be familiar with the work of all the groups he/she supervises, but does not need to be the best in any or all of the areas. It is more important for the manager to know how to manage the workers than to know how to do their work well. A manager may have the power to hire or fire employees or to promote them. In larger companies, a manager may only recommend such action to the next level of management. The manager has the authority to change the work assignments of team members. A manager's title reflects what he/she is responsible for. An Accounting Manager supervises the Accounting function. An Operations Manager is responsible for the operations of the company. The Manager of Design Engineering supervises engineers and support staff engaged in design of a product or service. A Night Manager is responsible for the activities that take place at night. There are many management functions in business and, therefore, many manager titles. Regardless of title, the manager is responsible for planning, directing, monitoring and controlling the people and their work.

Functions of Managers:

Managers just don't go out and haphazardly perform their responsibilities. Good managers discover how to master five basic functions: planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling.

Planning: This step involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal. Say, for example, that the organization's goal is to improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are necessary to accomplish that goal. These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving company sales.

Organizing: After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize her team and materials according to her plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing.

Staffing: After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A manager in a large organization often works with the company's human resources department to accomplish this goal.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 1

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Leading: A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and problem solve with employees.

Controlling: After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.

All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization.

Roles performed by managers:

A manager wears many hats. Not only is a manager a team leader, but he or she is also a planner, organizer, cheerleader, coach, problem solver, and decision maker — all rolled into one. And these are just a few of a manager's roles.

In addition, managers' schedules are usually jam-packed. Whether they're busy with employee meetings, unexpected problems, or strategy sessions, managers often find little spare time on their calendars. (And that doesn't even include responding to e-mail!)

In his classic book, The Nature of Managerial Work, Henry Mintzberg describes a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories:

Interpersonal: This role involves human interaction.

Informational: This role involves the sharing and analyzing of information.

Decisional: This role involves decision making.

Business and management educators are increasingly interested in helping people acquire technical, human, and conceptual skills, and develop specific competencies, or specialized skills that contribute to high performance in a management job. Following are some of the skills and personal characteristics that the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) is urging business schools to help their students develop.

Leadership — ability to influence others to perform tasks

Self-objectivity — ability to evaluate yourself realistically

Analytic thinking — ability to interpret and explain patterns in information

Behavioral flexibility — ability to modify personal behavior to react objectively rather than subjectively to accomplish organizational goals

Oral communication — ability to express ideas clearly in words

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 2

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Written communication — ability to express ideas clearly in writing

Personal impact — ability to create a good impression and instill confidence

Resistance to stress — ability to perform under stressful conditions

Tolerance for uncertainty — ability to perform in ambiguous situations

Category Role Activity

Informational Monitor Seek and receive information; scan periodicals and reports; maintain personal contact with stakeholders.

Disseminator Forward information to organization members via memos, reports, and phone calls.

Spokesperson Transmit information to outsiders via reports, memos, and speeches.

Interpersonal Figurehead Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties, such as greeting visitors and signing legal documents.

Leader Direct and motivate subordinates; counsel and communicate with subordinates.

Liaison Maintain information links both inside and outside organization via mail, phone calls, and meetings.

Decisional Entrepreneur Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas and delegate idea responsibility to others.

Disturbance handler

Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environments.

Resource allocator

Decide who gets resources; prepare budgets; set schedules and determine priorities.

Negotiator Represent department during negotiations of union contracts, sales, purchases, and budgets.

Although all three categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 3

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The Essentials of control activities are:

Setting performance standards.

Determining the yard-stick for measuring performance.

Measuring the actual performance.

Comparing actuals with the standard.

Taking corrective actions, if actual do not match with standards.

The Levels of Management

Management can be classified into three levels. They are top management, middle management and supervisory or first-level management. The number of managerial jobs in an organization varies with the level of management.

Top management sets the goals of the organization, evaluates the overall performance of various departments involved in selection of key personnel and consults subordinate managers on subjects or problems of general scope.

Middle level management is responsible for developing departmental goals and initiate actions that are required to achieve organizational objectives.

Supervisory management takes charge of day-to-day operations at the floor level and is involved in preparing detailed short-range plans.

THREE FACES OF A MANAGER

The manger of a small team has three major roles to play:

Planner

A Manager has to take a long-term view; indeed, the higher you rise, the further you will have to look. While a team member will be working towards known and established goals, the manager must look further ahead so that these goals are selected wisely. By thinking about the eventual consequences of different plans, the manager selects the optimal plan for the team and implements it. By taking account of the needs not only of the next project but the project after that, the manager ensures that work is not repeated nor problems tackled too late, and that the necessary resources are allocated and arranged.

Provider

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 4

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The Manager has access to information and materials which the team needs. Often he/she has the authority or influence to acquire things which no one else in the team could. This role for the manager is important simply because no one else can do the job; there is some authority which the manager holds uniquely within the team, and the manager must exercise this to help the team to work.

Protector

The team needs security from the vagaries of less enlightened managers. In any company, there are short-term excitements which can deflect the work-force from the important issues. The manager should be there to guard against these and to protect the team. If a new project emerges which is to be given to your team, you are responsible for costing it (especially in terms of time) so that your team is not given an impossible deadline. If someone in your team brings forward a good plan, you must ensure that it receives a fair hearing and that your team knows and understands the outcome. If someone is in your team has a problem at work, you have to deal with it. I believe anyone can be a good manager. It is as much trainable skill as it is inherent ability; as much science as art. Here are some things that make you a better manager:

As a person:

You have confidence in yourself and your abilities. You are happy with whom you are, but you are still learning and getting better.

You are something of an extrovert. You don’t have to be the life of the party, but you can’t be a wallflower. Management is a people skill - it’s not the job for someone who doesn’t enjoy people.

You are honest and straight forward. Your success depends heavily on the trust of others.

You are an include not an excluder. You bring others into what you do. You don’t exclude other because they lack certain attributes.

You have a ‘presence’. Managers must lead. Effective leaders have a quality about them that makes people notice when they enter a room.

On the job:

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 5

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

You are consistent, but not rigid; dependable, but can change your mind. You make decisions, but easily accept input from others.

You are a little bit crazy. You think out-of-the box. You try new things and if they fail, you admit the mistake, but don’t apologize for having tried.

You are not afraid to “do the math”. You make plans and schedules and work toward them.

You are nimble and can change plans quickly, but you are not flighty. You see information as a tool to be used, not as power to be hoarded.

Q.2 “Skills are the tool for performance”-Explain various management skills. ?

All managers need to understand the nature of the job they are in. This material will help identify the activities you carry out in your role of manager. This will provide a basis for considering your strengths and weaknesses. Any weaknesses identified should be used as improvement opportunities and careful thought will need to be given to identifying how these could be addressed through the opportunities available for training and development. The questions below will help you focus on your own job and start to develop a picture of what your job is all about. You will then use this to identify areas you regard as strengths and potential weaknesses. By knowing your strengths and weaknesses you will be able to determine areas for improving your personal effectiveness.

The manager with regard to the job:

Below is a list of the types of activities that managers undertake with regard to the job. Read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific example related to your experience as a manager.

A manager: Makes forecasts. Analyses. Thinks creatively and logically. Calculates and weighs risks. Makes decisions. Determines goals. Sets priorities. Prepares plans.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 6

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Schedules activities. Establishes control systems. Sets and agrees budgets. Monitors progress. Exercises control. Determines information needs. Establishes and uses management information systems. Manages his or her time. Copes with stress. Adjusts to change. Develops his or her skills and knowledge.

The manager with regard to the team:

Having looked at the manager with regard to the job you can now consider activities that a manager may carry out with regard to the team. Read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific example related to your experience as a manager.

A manager: Builds and maintains the team. Selects staff. Sets performance standards. Designs jobs. Improves the quality of working life. Identifies team needs. Provides opportunities for training and development. Monitors and appraises performance. Resolves conflicting objectives. Adopts appropriate management styles. Communicates effectively. Negotiates, persuades and influences. Makes presentations. Conducts and participates in meetings. Writes reports and correspondence. Interviews. Counsels and advises. Appraises staff. Develops team members.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 7

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

The manager with regard to the organization.

Now turn your attention to activities that a manager may carry out with regard to the organization. Again read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific example related to your experience as a manager.

Many of these activities are attributed to senior managers. Don't worry if you are unable to relate some of these to your current role.

A manager: Identifies organizational opportunities. Sets organizational goals. Identifies organizational problems. Creates conditions for change. Implements, manages and copes with change. Designs new organization and team structures. Establishes reporting lines. Develops internal communication systems. Takes account of environmental factors affecting the organization (economic,

technological, social, and political).

CORE SKILLS IN MANAGEMENT & SUPERVISION ===

1. Define the problemThis is often where people struggle. They react to what they think the problem is. Instead, seek to understand more about why you think there's a problem.

2. Look at potential causes for the problema. It's amazing how much you don't know about what you don't know. Therefore, in this phase, it's critical to get input from other people who notice the problem and who are affected by it. b. It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time (at least at first). Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering their impressions of the real causes of problems.c. Write down what your opinions and what you've heard from others.d. Regarding what you think might be performance problems associated with an employee; it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor in order to

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 8

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

verify your impression of the problem.

3. Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problema. At this point, it's useful to keep others involved (unless you're facing a personal and/or employee performance problem). Brainstorm for solutions to the problem. Very simply put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as possible, and then screening them to find the best idea. It's critical when collecting the ideas to not pass any judgment on the ideas -- just write them down as you hear them. (A wonderful set of skills used to identify the underlying cause of issues is Systems Thinking.)

4. Select an approach to resolve the problem When selecting the best approach, consider: a. which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long term?b. Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now? Do you have the resources? Are they affordable? Do you have enough time to implement the approach?c. What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative? (The nature of this step, in particular, in the problem solving process is why problem solving and decision making are highly integrated.)

5. Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your action plan)a. Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem is solved?"b. What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to solving the problem? What systems or processes should be changed in your organization, for example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort to solutions where someone is "just going to try harder". c. How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (These are your indicators of the success of your plan) d. What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities? e. How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a schedule that includes the start and stop times, and when you expect to see certain indicators of success. f. Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the plan?g. Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as your action plan.

6. Monitor implementation of the planMonitor the indicators of success: a. Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators?b. Will the plan be done according to schedule? c. If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider: Was the plan realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on schedule? Should more priority be placed on various aspects of the plan? Should the plan be changed?

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 9

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

7. Verify if the problem has been resolved or notOne of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved or not is to resume normal operations in the organization. Still, you should consider: a. what changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in the future? Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc. b. lastly, consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider new knowledge, understanding and/or skills. c. Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the problem solving effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with your supervisor, peers and subordinates.

A. Technical Skills:

Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in certain specialized field, such as engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower level management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the organizational work. Solid technical skills are becoming increasingly important, and I don’t see that changing any time soon.  While computers have become easier to use in many ways, the leading edge is more complicated than ever.  This complexity scares many people away from developing their technical skills, but let’s considers some of the reasons you may want to go beyond the basics. This skill requires the ability to use a special proficiency or expertise to perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers, market researchers, and computer scientists, as examples, possess technical skills. Managers acquire these skills initially through formal education and then further develop them through training and job experience. Technical skills are most important at lower levels of management. These skills include the knowledge of and proficiency in activities involving methods, processes and procedures. This includes the abilities of a manager in using the knowledge, tools, and techniques of a specific discipline or field such as accounting, engineering, manufacturing etc. Examples of such skills also include the preparation of financial statements, the ability to develop a new code for the computer program. These skills are needed for the first line managers, since they are responsible for delivering the actual performance. First line managers also spend a considerable amount of their time in training their subordinates.

1. Enjoy significantly higher paying work.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 10

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Whether you’re employed or self-employed, strong technical skills allow you to leverage technology to the hilt, and that leverage pays.  The better you understand the technology you use, the more value you can efficiently extract from it.  People gladly open their wallets to pay those with in-demand technical skills.

2. Save money.

You’ll save money every time you can solve a technical problem on your own instead of having to hire someone at a high hourly rate.  This can add up to substantial savings over time. You can also save money by taking advantage of low-cost, high-tech solutions.  For example, using VOIP Internet phone service will save you a bundle over traditional phone service, and it only takes a minor amount of technical skill to install.   I actually disconnected my whole house from the telephone company’s lines, so I could use all the inside jacks for VOIP.

3. Save time.

You’ll save time by solving technical problems quickly instead of scratching your head in confusion.  There are many technical problems that baffle novices but which require only a quick fix from someone with adequate technical skills. 

4. Prevent problems.

You’ll prevent problems before they occur by intelligently maintaining and upgrading your technology.  Even a simple skill like keeping your video and sound drivers up-to-date can prevent compatibility problems down the road, especially if you play computer games.

5. Reduce frustration.

Technology isn’t particularly frustrating if you understand how it works.  A lack of understanding is frustrating.  If something breaks, and you know how and why it broke, then it’s just a fact to be dealt with rather than an act of divine cruelty.

6. Make intelligent technology purchases.

I don’t know many geeks who buy their computers at retail stores.  It’s a lot smarter to buy online if you know what to look for.  You’ll get better value, higher quality components, and more control over the final product.

A fun project I did in 2004 was to build my own PC from scratch.  I handpicked each component and ordered everything online.  I built the equivalent of a $2000 retail PC for

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 11

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

about $900.  I used Price Watch to find great deals on all the components, and I followed the step-by-step assembly instructions from My Super PC.  I’ve been very pleased with its performance over the past couple years.

Since technology depreciates so rapidly, and since component quality can vary widely, knowing how to buy great value at a great price is a very practical skill.  With most rapidly advancing components like CPUs, hard drives, and video cards, there’s a fairly narrow price-performance sweet spot.  Spend too little, and you’re throwing money away on obsolescent goods.  Spend too much, and you’re overpaying for imperceptible performance gains.  Decent technical knowledge can help you target those sweet spots with all your technology purchases, so you get the best bang per buck.

7. Empower yourself.

I remember thinking how great it was in high school when I began using a decent word processor while many other students were still using typewriters.  Editing was certainly much easier, so I got more done in less time.

8. Access information efficiently.

Whenever you want to know something now, you can go online and get the information in seconds.  Sites like Google, Wikipedia, and Wiki How truly place information at your fingertips, but it still takes a bit of technical skill to craft intelligent queries when you’re searching for something obscure.

Need to buy a new suit?  Want to see what movies are playing near you?  Want to become an early riser?  If someone has figured it out, it’s probably online.  With an internet connection at hand, we all become walking Wikipedia’s.

9. Earn money online.

This is one of the coolest benefits of technical know-how.  With the right technical skills, you can build your own income-generating web site.  Your computer (or some online server) will work tirelessly to make you money 24/7.  Even if it just pays for your coffee, that’s still better than buying your own coffee, isn’t it?  If it fails, at least you learned something, and you can certainly try again.  But what if it really works?  You might not need a job for the rest of your life.  That seems like a pretty good reason to go for it.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 12

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Given how disgustingly cheap technology is, I think it’s silly not to devote at least one of the millions of machines on this planet to the task of paying your bills.  Most computers are just sitting there idle waiting for something to do, so put some of those resources to good use.  I’m not talking about getting VC money and trying to make the next Google.  My suggestion is to start a simple web business you can run by yourself in your spare time with no expenses except web hosting (no more than $20/month).

I’ve been earning income online since 1995, and I love it.  It does require some technical skill to build an income-generating web site, but those skills are highly learnable, and it’s a lot easier today than it was 10 years ago.  (For example, see How to Make Money from Your Blog).  Sure I can write well enough, but without the technical skills to build traffic, this site would be a ghost town.  I do the creative work, technology handles the grunt work, and visitors benefit from the value provided.  It’s a pretty nice system.

10. Feel more confident and comfortable with technology.

Competence builds confidence.  As you develop your technical skills, you’ll feel more comfortable with all forms of technology.  This will encourage you to branch out and leverage technology even more.  You can listen to audio books on your portable MP3 player, take pictures with your digital camera, and so on.  You’ll feel in control of technology instead of intimidated by it.

The more technical experience you gain, the faster you’ll adapt to new technology.  You may fall behind the curve at some point, but you’ll quickly catch up with a few days’ research.

B. Human Skills:

Human skills also referred to as human relation skills or interpersonal skills are one’s ability to work effectively with others on a person-to-person basis and to build up cooperative group relations to achieve specified objectives. In the group discussion situation, your human skills will be reflected in your following actions. includes his/her ability to understand other people and interact effectively with them. Examples of such skills include leading, motivating and communicating, with subordinates, peers and outsiders. Possession of these skills is essential for managers, working in all levels. The human skills are also important in creation of an environment in which people feel secure and free to express their opinions.

A. The basic tenets of human skills are that treat everyone in the group as equal, not inferior, to you. This must be reflected by your words as well as body language.

B. Have positive attitudes towards fellow candidates. Your positive attitude will not only be

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 13

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

appreciated by other candidates but by evaluators too as people with positive attitudes are appreciated by everyone. Though each of the candidates is your competitor, do not treat them as your competitors but treat them as your colleagues and have respect for them and their views.

C. When you listen to views of anyone, evaluate these empathetically, that is, putting yourself in his position so that you can understand why he has those views. If you look at the views from this perspective, you can appreciate the views in a better way though it is not necessary that you agree with others’ views either totally or partially.

D. Show emotional maturity while interacting with others. If someone criticizes yours views, do not take it on personal basis but take it on professional basis and keep yourself cool and do not lose your temper.

E. If someone’s view seems to be absurd or irrelevant to the topic, do not let him down by saying such words which are not in accordance to the etiquette of gentlemen.

C. Conceptual Skills:

Conceptual skills refer to the ability to form concepts. These are various levels of cognitive (mainly verbal) abstractions beginning with the exercise of detonating simple physical objects (e.g. a cat) to higher level abstractions which go beyond the physically visible (e.g. truth). In everyday use, we also say someone has conceptual skills that are able to look at patterns of objects and events and label them (with a concept word), which identifies, organizes and makes sense of the pattern, trend, or configuration of objects or events, with a putative explanatory intent.

Conceptual Skills are the skills managers must have to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. These skills are most important at the top level management. This refers to the ability to think and conceptualize abstract situations. These abilities are required for making complex decisions. Such skills are inclusive of the diagnostic skill, which enables an understanding of the `cause-effect' relationship. Further, it helps to see the situation as a whole, as well as in parts. (i.e., individually). These skills are essential for the top management as they have to understand how the various parts of the organization relate to one another and associate the organization with the external environment.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 14

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

D. Design Skills:It enables a manager to handle and solve any kind of unforeseen problems that may crop up in the organization. Top management should posses design skills, in plenty. It is basically their job to handle/tackle any unforeseen consequences that may occur in the organization. Such problems could arise due to internal factors or external factors and/or both.

Q.3 What is Negotiation? Explain the process of Negotiation?

A) Introduction:

Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations and government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. The word "negotiation" is from the Latin expression, "negotiatus", and past participle of negotiate which means "to carry on business".

B) Approaches to negotiation:

Negotiation typically manifests itself with trained negotiator acting on behalf of a particular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It is also related to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding,

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 15

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

both sides make an argument as to the merits of their "case" and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.

There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a greater understanding of the essential parts. One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process, behavior and substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play out. Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between them and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end.

Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process and tools, and tactics. Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the final outcome. Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in both preparing for and negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and responses to others' statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that these have become integral to modern day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted.

TYPES OF NEGOTIATION IN ORGANIZATIONS:

TYPES PARTIES INVOLVED EXAMPLES

Day-to-day/ Managerial Negotiations

1) Different levels of Management.

2) In between colleagues.

3) Trade unions.

4) Legal advisers

1. Negotiation for pay, terms and working conditions.

2. Description of the job and fixation of responsibility.

3. Increasing productivity.

Commercial Negotiations1. Management.2. Suppliers.3. Government.4. Customers. 5. Trade unions. 6. Legal advisors.

1. Striking a contract with the customer.

2. Negotiations for the price and quality of goods to be purchased.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 16

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

7. Public. 3. Negotiations with financial institutions as regarding the availability of capital.

Legal Negotiations1. Government 2. Management

3. Customers

1. Adhering to the laws of the local and national government.

1. Day-to-day / Managerial Negotiations:

Such types of negotiations are done within the organization and are related to the internal problems in the organization. It is in regards to the working relationship between the groups of employees. Usually, the manager needs to interact with the members at different levels in the organization structure. For conducting the day-to-day business, internally, the superior needs to allot job responsibilities, maintain a flow of information, direct the record keeping and many more activities for smooth functioning

2. Commercial Negotiations:

Such types of negotiations are conducted with external parties. The driving forces behind such negotiations are usually financial gains. They are based on a give-and-take relationship. Commercial negotiations successfully end up into contracts. It relates to foregoing of one resource to get the other.

3. Legal Negotiations

These negotiations are usually formal and legally binding. Disputes over precedents can become as significant as the main issue. They are also contractual in nature and relate to gaining legal ground.

IS NEGOTIATION NECESSARY?

Negotiation, at times can be a lengthy and cumbersome process. By asking whether it is necessary, time may sometimes be saved and unnecessary compromise avoided. On occasions, a request to negotiate may best be met by pointing out that the party making the request has no standing in the matter. If a manager has the undoubted authority to act, making a decision rather than negotiating about it may be the best tactic.

C) Other Negotiation Styles:

Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation. Individuals can often have strong dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a negotiation depends on the

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 17

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

context and the interests of the other party, among other factors. In addition, styles can change over time.

1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party places little emphasis on the relationship.

2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as tactful and diplomatic.

3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They can, however, create problems by transforming simple situations into more complex ones.

4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of relationships.

5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however, compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make concessions too quickly.

D) 10 Ways to Generate More Ideas:

1. Establish common goals of what this "collaboration" would create. A more workable deal? Some common long term goals? A closer partnership?

2. Establish the rules of engagement. The purpose of the exercise is to resolve differences in creative ways that work better for both parties. All ideas are possibilities, and research shows that combining ideas from different cultures can result in better outcomes than those from a single culture.

3. Trust is key, and difficult to establish in many cultures. Certain techniques might speed that process a little. Being offsite, for example. Establishing physical proximity that unconsciously signals intimacy.

4. Add diversity (gender, culture, extroverts, different work specialties, experts, outsiders) to the group. Indeed, the diversity associated with international teams and alliances is the real goldmine of creativity in negotiations.

5. Use storytelling. This both helps establish who you are and what point of view you are bringing to this collaboration.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 18

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

6. Work in small groups. Add physical movement. Tell the participants to relax, play, sing, have fun, and silence is ok.

7. Work holistically and using visuals. If, for example, there are three sticking points where neither side is happy, agree to work on those points by spending a short time – 10 minutes – on each point where both sides offer "crazy" suggestions. Use techniques of improvisation. Neither side should be offended by the crazy ideas. No one should criticize. Explain that by exploring crazy ideas that better ideas are often generated.

8. Sleep on it. This enables the unconscious to work on the problems, and gives negotiators time to collect opinions before meeting again the next day. Other kinds of breaks, coffee, etc. are also helpful. The overnight part is particularly important. Anthropologist and consumer expert Clotaire Rapaille [9] suggests that the transitions between wakefulness and sleep allow new kinds of thinking “…calming their brainwaves, getting them to that tranquil point just before sleep” (page 8).

9. Doing this process over several sessions allows both sides to feel that progress is being made, and actually generates better and more polished ideas that both sides can invest in.

10. It is the process of creating something together, rather than the specific proposals, which creates bonding around a shared task and establishes new ways of working together. Each side feels honored and all can feel that something is being accomplished.

E) Process of Negotiation: 

 There are eight stages in the process of negotiation.

This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value and slower negotiations.

1. Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them. 2. Open: Put your case. Hear theirs. 3. Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs. 4. Explore: Seek understanding and possibility. 5. Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together. 6. Package: Assemble potential trades. 7. Close: Reach final agreement. 8. Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 19

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is designed to break down important activities during negotiation, particularly towards the end. It is an easy trap to try to jump to the end with a solution that is inadequate and unacceptable.

Note also that in practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may be loops back to previous stages, stages overlapping, stages running parallel and even out of order.

The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to help you negotiate, but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitute for thinking. If something does not seem to be working, try to figure out why and either fix the problem or try something else. Although there are commonalities across negotiations, each one is different and the greatest skill is to be able to read the situation in the moment and adapt as appropriate.

1) Prepare:

The overall action in preparation is to be ready for every stage of the actual negotiation. In preparation, you may walk through many scenarios and prepare for many eventualities.

How much time should you spend in preparation? As much as is appropriate. If you are buying a fridge, you may read a few reviews. If you are buying a house or a business, then much more serious preparation is needed. The sections below are rather long, especially if you follow all the links. This reflects how useful it can be to think through the whole negotiation process before you start.

a) Identify your boundaries:

What will be your opening offer? If it is too high, you might insult the other person or frighten then off. If it is too low, you may lose out. To do this, you may need to consider the agreement zones that might occur. Your opening offer will be based on a combination of the range of 'reasonable value' of the things that you want, the situation of the other person and the dynamics that you want to cause within the negotiation itself. In practice, if the other person makes an opening offer first, which can be a useful action, you may revise your opening offer. Nevertheless, it is still worth deciding where you will start.

b) Count your resources:

Look at everything you have at your disposal that you can bring to bear on this negotiation. What do you have that the other person might value? When buying

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 20

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

something, what extra money could you bring to the table? Do you have people you can call on for support? Can you use time in any way? Finding variables is a key activity that can significantly increase your options. Look to the variables in the resources that you have. What could you increase or decrease? What could be expanded? What could be exchanged?

c) Develop your concession strategy:

When you know where to start, you can now develop the concession strategy, whereby you will make exchanges in order to gain final agreement. This will include the use of variables where you can made trades in many different areas.

d) Set up the meeting:

Finally, set up the negotiation meeting itself, if this is appropriate. If you can choose the time and the place, you can add further control over the tone of the meeting. Choose a right time for the negotiation can be very useful. Finally, invite the other person to join you. In a surprise negotiation, you might invite them to a 'meeting' in which you spring the negotiation on them, hoping to gain advantage from their confusion. Being personally prepared includes knowledge of the situation and others as described above. It also includes mental and emotional preparation. If it is a big negotiation, then you may want to catch up on any lost sleep or maybe take a day or two to wind down. Preparation also includes your appearance. As necessary get your hair styled, buy new clothes and ensure you are clean and well-groomed on the day. A smart appearance signals a smart mind, which can make all the difference.

2) Open:

The purpose of the opening stage of negotiation is to position yourself and your needs, letting the other person know what you want, both as a outcome and in the process of negotiation.

a) The importance of opening:

The first few seconds

The beginning of any relationship is critically important as each person sizes up the other, categorizing them against stereotypes and other internal models. The negotiation thus effectively starts well before the talking starts in earnest. When meeting the other

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 21

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

person, you should thus seek to create the desired impression right from the start. If you want to negotiate collaboratively, then you might start with an agreeable and friendly greeting, whilst for a competitive approach, you may take a strongly assertive or even aggressive position in order to intimidate and dominate the other person.

Be confident

Whatever style you use, it is important to be confident and show that you know what you are doing and where you are going. If you seek to be collaborative, then this encourages the other person to trust you. If you intend to be competitive, it positions you as capable of doing whatever it takes.

State your case

The context around a negotiation provides information that justifies and explains the need. Thus, for example, when selling your car, you might start by explaining how your wife is pregnant and will be giving up work soon, thus setting the context for your explaining later how you cannot accept a low price. Be careful with this to legitimize your later arguments whilst not showing that you are in a weak negotiating positions, for example that you are desperate to sell the car. Also match the length of the story to the negotiation -- if it is a quick exchange, and then keep it to a few words. If you are expecting to negotiate all day, then a somewhat longer explanatory preamble may well be appropriate.

State the need

Explain what you need as a result of the contextual situation. Show that your need is real and legitimate. Make it clear what you want from the other person. In some situations this is clear and simple, whilst in others you may have multiple needs, for example if you are negotiating an employment contract then there may be many terms and conditions to consider.

Listen to their case

When it is your turn to listen, do so actively. Listening is not just being polite -- there are many reasons why you should listen, especially in a negotiation. Showing respect and interest will get them to give you more information, and in negotiation information really is power. The first stage of listening is, basically, to listen without interruption. The only interaction you have with them is active listening methods that encourage them to talk. You can pause them to paraphrase back what you have heard and you can ask them for clarification, but keep such interruptions to a minimum.

Then probe for understanding

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 22

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

When they have made their case, you can then ask deeper questions to probe for further information. If they have left out areas that you might have expected them to cover, it may be because they are not comfortable talking about this. Sustain a gentle approach of interest, curiosity and general inquiry. If you make it sound like an audit or inquisition, then they may well stop talking. Your goal is to make it easy for them to tell you more about their situation.

Understand the person

Think about the person with whom you are negotiating. Listen to the inner person, discovering their beliefs, values, preferences and schemas. Find out what power they have and how they might use it.

I can see that you do not take risks lightly...

Find what they really want

Understand how they prefer to satisfy their needs. Identify their interests and goals that underlie the positions they are taking. When you know what is driving them, you will have many alternative routes to satisfying them.

3) Argue:

In the argument stage, the serious exchange of views begins. This can be uncomfortable as the goal is to strengthen your own position whilst weakening the other person's position. Note that in a collaborative negotiation, the argument may be gentile and polite to the point where it does not seem like argument. Nevertheless, the points may still apply to some extent.

a) Erode their position:

Respond to the positions and claims of their opening statements and subsequent arguments, pointing out the limitations, falsehoods and irrelevancies. Depending on your approach, your attack on their position may be aggressive, rational, empathetic or apologetic. Overall, you are seeking to refute their argument, and the way you do this will set the tone for the rest of the negotiation. Note that erosion of their position is effective only when they feel less certain or that they have less to bargain with. Simply asserting that they are wrong may only serve to annoy them and make them more determined.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 23

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

b) Minimize benefits to you

If they are claiming that something they have is of value to you, you can show how what is on offer is not that important. This is relatively easy to do as only you determine value of what you might get.

c) Weaken their truth

When they make assertions, question them more closely. Change probabilities. Show how things asserted as always true are only sometimes true. Probe for the evidence behind asserted truths. Test the reasoning they are using. Then use what you discover to undermine what they are proposing as unquestionable truth.

d) Manage their needs

When they tell of the things that they want from the negotiation and you would find it difficult to give them this, then show how they cannot possibly get these or otherwise reduce what they will ask for. Show how requirements are not legitimate. Indicate how they can get what they want elsewhere. Hint that what they want is not yours to give.

e) Strengthen your truth

Where you have stated something as true in your opening argument, add rationality and cause. Use clear forms of reasoning that show how you are speaking the whole truth, and that anything else is falsehood. Demonstrate objective evidence that proves your case. Show your impartiality by considering the (weakened) arguments against your case.

4) Explore:

So far, no agreements have been made, and early positioning may have made the way forward difficult to see. Having established what you each want, however, you can now move towards one another, seeking a way forward. It is generally a mistake to go fast during a negotiation and taking time to explore can pay back significantly later. Exploration not only gains you more information about the other person and their needs, it also builds the relationship between you, making it easy to reach agreement.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 24

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Discover areas of agreement and difference

In many negotiations it can be surprising how much both parties may agree. It is easy for areas of difference to overshadow that the people involved are not that different after all.

Find areas of similarity

Particularly when you are far apart, a good first step in getting together is to find those things where you agree with the other person.  Finding agreement with the other person demonstrates similarity and hence creates bonding with them. This may also be done during earlier stages.

Find areas of agreement

When you are negotiating, the focus on what you want as opposed to what they want can make it seem like you are miles apart, when in fact you may be quite near to an equitable solution. Finding areas of agreement helps to shrink the areas where you have to negotiate. By saying 'we agree on this and that', you can find the specific areas where negotiation is needed.

Find areas of difference

When you know where you agree, then finding where you really disagree is easier. The fact that you agree makes it easier to work together and accept areas of difference.

An effective way to enable others to accept differences is to accept the person, even though you do not agree with what they want. At the very least, you can accept that they have the right to have different views and wants to you.

A common source of difference is that is not always clear is that people are driven by fundamentally different goals.

5) Signal:

Signaling is a relatively short phase of activity in which (usually) both parties prepare to move from their initial position. After early positions and explorations, signaling is a conciliatory move that indicates a willingness to negotiate.

Show readiness to move

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 25

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

A signal is a subtle indicator to the other person that you may be willing to negotiate. This is seldom done openly as this would contradict the opening and argument. Signaling is not making a verbal statement and effectively saves face, providing an excuse to subsequently move from your original position (or to backtrack if the other person is not ready to collaborate).

Qualify statements

Add qualifiers that indicate how you might just be persuaded to do something that you would not normally do or that you may agree to something other than what you originally wanted.

Indicate possibility

Use words that indicate possibility, opening out the potential for a different future that you may have painted in your opening statement.

Use open body language

Open body language sends even more subtle signals of readiness, with indications of welcome (such as open arms) and relaxed, smiling face. Body signaling can be enhanced by starting with closed body language and then moving to an open position at the same time that you use verbal signaling. Use gestures that move in time with your signals. Match the other person's movements to show empathy.

Wait for their signal

When you have signaled to the other person, the next step is to wait for them to signal in return. Watch their face when you signal. Are there signs of hope appearing? Do they seem to have recognized that you have gone from arguing your case towards moving towards them? Also watch their body language. When you signal, does their stance change? When you move from matching their body language to a more open position, do they follow you?

Hear the signals

Listen for their verbal signals. Hear the tone of voice that they use. Is it more relaxed? Are they using qualifiers and indicating possibility?

Do not concede

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 26

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

If they do not signal, it can be tempting to try something more overt, such as conceding on something. It can seem that they are blind to signals and if you move to concession, then they will get this signal and concede in return. But what you have actually done by this is to show that if you make a move and they do not reciprocate, then you will give something more. This is simply encouragement for them to wait for more concessions.

Respond to their signals

When they signal in return (or maybe they signaled first), respond by opening your body language further and responding with a further encouraging signal. Show that you approve of their movement by rewarding them with more attention and acceptance.

6) Package:

In this stage, the goal is to build potential solutions. The final agreement is not yet being hammered out and you are still dealing in possibilities. By sustaining an atmosphere of openness, you make it possible for both you and them to consider alternatives exchanges without feeling obliged to complete the exchange.

Identify agreeable trades:

In putting together potential agreements, start by looking for things that you can exchange and where they might concede to you.

Trade in variables:

When looking for things to exchange, find the variables of the things in which you are dealing. If you are talking about action, consider when and where it will occur. If you are talking about money, consider who pays what to whom when and how often. If you are dealing in physical items, consider size, quantity, weight and other attributes.

Use elegant negotiable

Your elegant negotiable are those things that you have that you do not value very highly, but the other person finds particularly attractive. They are thus easy for you to give away but are valued by the other person. The danger with elegant negotiable is that you give them away without realizing that you can use them to get something

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 27

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

valuable in exchange. This is one reason why you should do lots of listening before diving into making trades.

Help them think

Use the Columbus technique and Socratic questioning to draw them out. Help them understand variables and elegant negotiable. Support them in problem-solving, clarifying the problem on which you are working together, identifying causes and why things have happened, finding focus for resolution and creatively identifying possible solutions.

7) Close:

Move to closure

As your packaging reaches a complete solution, you can move towards the idea of closing on a final deal.

Signal readiness to close

Show your own readiness by using signals to indicate that you want to reach agreement. Use words like 'right' and 'ok'. Use ready body language that aligns with your words. Watch their response, and if they signal in return, move further towards closure.

Attempt closure

When things seem ready, you can use a trial close to nudge the other person closer to agreement. If they do not seem ready, probe for reasons and return to packaging or handle objections as appropriate.

Summarize the exchange

A good thing to do at closure is to summarize what you believe has actually been agreed. This assures that the other person also agrees and that there is a common understanding of who will do or give what.

Handle final objections and doubts

The realization of impending closure can cause people to panic in case they have forgotten something. This may occur as sudden appearance of objections and other reasons why they might not want to complete the deal. You can use objection-handling techniques to manage such situations.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 28

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Handle last-minute tricks

Tricky tactics such as the quivering quill may be used just before the close as the other person attempts to squeeze a few more drops of blood out of you. Handle opposition such as this with professional aplomb, showing that you are immune to deception or coercion.

Confirm the agreement

The final step of closure is to confirm the agreement and sign on the dotted line. 'It's not over until the fat lady sings' is a common saying. In negotiation, it is not over until the ink is dry and the exchange has irrevocably been made.

Shake hands

Although you may not literally shake hands, it can be a very effective thing to do at the point of agreement. It symbolizes the closure and is such a powerful social symbol in many different cultures that the other side will think twice about backing out.

8) Sustain:

When the deal is closed and seems to be complete, the end may not yet be in sight. Many negotiations have a future element, where the main agreement is for future action. 'There's many a slip twixt cup and lip', as they say, and an earlier commitment might not be delivered as promised.

Sustaining commitment is thus about making sure that people stay closed and that what was agreed in the Close stage stays agreed and gets delivered as promised.

Sustain their commitment

When commitments were made in the excitement and pressure of the negotiation, they may look a little less attractive in the cold light of day. Particularly if there is a longer delay until the promises are completed, the situation may change and the negotiated agreement may move from being rather attractive to being rather unattractive. And sometimes commitment just wanes, all by itself. Understanding strong and weak commitment is thus important.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 29

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

There are many techniques for sustaining commitment, such as:

Burning bridges: Ensure there is no way back. Evidence stream: Show them time and again that the change is happening. Golden handcuffs: Keep key people with delayed rewards. Involvement: Give them an important role. Reward alignment: Align rewards with desired behaviors. Rites of passage: Use formal rituals to confirm change.

Keep your promises

You too have made promises in the negotiation, which you must scrupulously keep. If you break promises, you will likely cause betrayal effects and lose any commitment.

Remember Kano's needs: deliver basic needs solidly, performance needs carefully, and then add icing to the cake with some excitement needs. These need not (and should not) be over the top. The formula is 'delight = expectation + 1'. If you deliver just a little more than is expected, you can create a very happy and loyal customer. 'Under-promise and over-deliver' is an effective motto.

Renegotiate as necessary

If the situation changes and the agreement are really not worth keeping in its current form, then rather than pull out without saying anything, it is better to go and talk to the other party. Where possible and appropriate, re-negotiation the deal, sealing commitment in a newer, more appropriate agreement. If the other person also benefits from this, they will be doubly committed to the new arrangements.

It is good to follow the general rule:

Do not negotiate unless you have to – or unless you can obtain some direct or indirect advantage by doing so.

Q.4 Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

A) Introduction:

Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.[1] The typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 30

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

does not result in an overt behavioral response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).

Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear conditioning, eye blink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of Hermissenda crassicornis.

B) Pavlov's experiment:

One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, Pavlov Museum, 2005. The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he called the unconditioned response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog’s surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 31

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a metronome to call the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the metronome.

Thus, a neutral stimulus (metronome) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US - meat powder in this example). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a conditional reflex (now called conditioned response).

C) Types:

Forward conditioning:

Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to right.

During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 32

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Delay Conditioning:

In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the US.

Trace conditioning:

During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may also be called the "conditioning interval"

Simultaneous conditioning:

During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at the same time.

Backward conditioning:

Backward conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response tends to be inhibitory. This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal that the unconditioned stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Temporal conditioning:

The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval between US presentations. The background, or context, can serve as the CS in this example.

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 33

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Unpaired conditioning:

The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as sensitization.

CS-alone extinction:

The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done after the CR has been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually, the CR frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.

D) Procedure variations:

In addition to the simple procedures described above, some classical conditioning studies are designed to tap into more complex learning processes. Some common variations are discussed below.

Classical discrimination/reversal conditioning:

In this procedure, two CSs and one US are typically used. The CSs may be the same modality (such as lights of different intensity), or they may be different modalities (such as auditory CS and visual CS). In this procedure, one of the CSs is designated CS+ and its presentation is always followed by the US. The other CS is designated CS- and its presentation is never followed by the US. After a number of trials, the organism learns to discriminate CS+ trials and CS- trials such that CRs are only observed on CS+ trials. During Reversal Training, the CS+ and CS- are reversed and subjects learn to suppress responding to the previous CS+ and show CRs to the previous CS-.

Classical ISI discrimination conditioning:

This is a discrimination procedure in which two different CSs are used to signal two different interstimulus intervals. For example, a dim light may be presented 30 seconds before a US, while a very bright light is presented 2 minutes before the US. Using this technique, organisms can learn to perform CRs that are appropriately timed for the two distinct CSs.

Latent inhibition conditioning:

In this procedure, a CS is presented several times before paired CS-US training commences. The pre-exposure of the subject to the CS before paired training slows the

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 34

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

rate of CR acquisition relative to organisms that are not CS pre-exposed. Also see Latent inhibition for applications.

Conditioned inhibition conditioning:

Three phases of conditioning are typically used:

Phase 1: A CS (CS+) is not paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached. Phase 2: CS+/US trials are continued, but interspersed with trials on which the CS+ in compound with a second CS, but not with the US (i.e., CS+/CS- trials). Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but suppress responding on CS+/CS- trials. Phase 3: In this retention test, the previous CS- is paired with the US. If conditioned inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS- should be impaired relative to organisms that did not experience Phase 2.

Blocking:

This form of classical conditioning involves two phases.

Phase 1: A CS (CS1) is paired with a US. Phase 2: A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US. Test: A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect is observed in a lack of conditioned response to CS2, suggesting that the first phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 35

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Q.5 How are culture and society responsible to built value system?

The Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map of the World, created by political scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel based on the World Values Survey. Groups, societies, or cultures have values that are largely shared by their members. The values identify those objects, conditions or characteristics that members of the society consider important; that is, valuable. In the United States, for example, values might include material comfort, wealth, competition, individualism or religiosity.

The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect. In the US, for example, professional athletes are honored (in the form of monetary payment) more than college professors, in part because the society respects personal values such as physical activity, fitness, and competitiveness more than mental activity and education. This may also be the case because the society takes its education for granted and repays its teachers with non-tangible honors of relatively equal value with that of the athlete.

Surveys show that voters in the United States would be reluctant to elect an atheist as a president, suggesting that belief in God is a value. There is a difference between values clarification and cognitive moral education. Values clarification is, "helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. Students are encouraged to define their own values and understand others' values. Cognitive moral education is based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.

Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more general and abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Flying the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 36

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. They reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family. Different cultures reflect different values.

Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others. Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of college students.

Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.

If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its members. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social norms that have been established as law.

Q.6 Write short notes on

A) Locus of control:

1. Introduction:

Locus of control is a term in psychology which refers to a person's belief about what causes the good or bad results in his or her life, either in general or in a specific area such as health or academics. Understanding of the concept was developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, and has since become an important aspect of personality studies.

Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe that events result primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with a high external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or chance primarily determine events. Those with a high internal locus of control have better control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more political behaviors, and are more likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a high external locus of control; they are more likely to assume that their efforts will be successful. They are more active in seeking information and knowledge concerning their situation.

2. Locus of control personality orientations:

Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances. For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control may believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts, whereas those with a strong

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 37

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

external locus of control may believe that their grades are the result of good or bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades capriciously; hence, they are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less likely to work hard for high grades.

Internals were believed by Rotter (1966) to exhibit two essential characteristics - high achievement motivation and low outer-directedness. This was the basis of the locus of control scale proposed by Rotter in 1966, although this was actually based on Rotter's belief that locus of control is a unidimensional construct. Since 1970, Rotter's assumption of unidimensionality has been challenged, with Levenson, for example, arguing that different dimensions of locus of control, such as belief that events in one's life are self-determined, are organized by powerful others and are chance-based, must be separated. Weiner's early work in the 1970s, suggested that, more-or-less orthogonal to the internality-externality dimension, we should also consider differences between those who attribute to stable causes, and those who attribute to unstable causes. This meant that attributions could be to ability (an internal stable cause), effort (an internal unstable cause), task difficulty (an external stable cause) or luck (an external, unstable cause).

3. Scales to measure locus of control:

The most famous questionnaire to measure locus of control is the 13-item forced choice scale of Rotter (1966), but this is not the only questionnaire - indeed, predating Rotter's work by five years is Bialer's (1961) 23-item scale for children. Also of relevance to locus of control scale are the Crandall Intellectual Ascription of Responsibility Scale (Crandall, 1965), and the Nowicki-Strickland Scale.[3] One of the earliest psychometric scales to assess locus of control, using a Likert-type scale in contrast to the forced-choice alternative measure which can be found in Rotter's scale, was that devised by W.H. James, for his unpublished doctoral dissertation, supervised by Rotter at Ohio State University, although this remained an unpublished scale. [4] Many measures of locus of control have appeared since Rotter's scale, both those, such as The Duttweiler Control Index (Duttweiler, 1984), which uses a five-point scale, and those which are related to specific areas, such as health. These scales are reviewed by Furnham and Steele(1993), and include those related to health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology and those specifically for children, such as the Stanford Preschool Internal-External Control Index,[5] which is used for three to six year olds. Furnham and Steele (1993) cite data which suggest that the most reliable and valid of the questionnaires for adults is the Duttweiler scale.

4. Applications of locus of control theory:

Locus of control's most famous application has probably been in the area of health psychology, largely thanks to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to measure locus of control in the health domain are reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993). The most famous of these would be the Health Locus of Control Scale and the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC (Wallston, Wallston, &

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 38

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

DeVellis, 1976; Wallston, Wallston, Kaplan & Maides, 1976). The latter scale is based on the idea, echoing Levenson's earlier work, that health may be attributed to three possible outcomes - internal factors, such as self-determination of a healthy lifestyle, powerful others, such as one's doctor, or luck. Some of the scales reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) relate to health in more specific domains, such as obesity (for example, Saltzer's ) (1982) Weight Locus of Control Scale or Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs Scale), or mental health (such as Wood and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of Control Scale or the Depression Locus of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond and Price, 1987)and cancer (the Cancer Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et alia, 1988).

In discussing applications of the concept to health psychology, Furnham and Steele also refer to Claire Bradley's work, linking locus of control to management of diabetes mellitus. Empirical data on health locus of control in various fields has been reviewed by Norman and Bennett (1995). These authors note that data on whether certain health-related behaviours are related to internal health locus of control have been ambiguous. For example, they note that some studies found that internal health locus of control is linked with increased exercise, but they also cite several studies that have found only a weak or no relationship between exercise behaviours (such as jogging) and internal health locus of control.

They note similar ambiguity for data on the relationship between internal health locus of control and other health-related behaviours, such as breast self-examination, weight control and preventative health behaviours.

Norman and Bennett argue that a stronger relationship is found when health locus of control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures of locus of control are taken. ("Overall, studies using behaviour-specific health locus scales have tended to produce more positive results (Lefcourt, 1991). Moreover, these scales have been found to be more predictive of general behaviour than more general scales, such as the MHLC scale" (Norman & Bennett, 1995). Norman and Bennett cite several studies which have used health-related locus of control scales in specific domains, including smoking cessation (Georgio & Bradley, 1992), diabetes (Ferraro, Price, Desmond & Roberts, 1987), tablet-treated diabetes (Bradley, Lewis, Jennings & Ward, 1990), hypertension (Stantion, 1987), arthritis (Nicasio et al., 1985), cancer (Pruyn et al., 1988) and heart and lung disease (Allison, 1987). They also argue that health locus of control is better at predicting health-related behaviour if studied in conjunction with health value, i.e. the value people attach to their health, suggesting that health value is an important moderator variable in the health-locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and Larsen (1990) (cited in Norman & Bennett, 1995) found increased relationship between internal health locus of control and health when health value was assessed. Despite the importance that Norman and Bennet (1995) attach to use of specific measures of locus of control, there are still some general textbooks on personality, such as Maltby, Day and Macaskill (2007), which continue to cite studies linking internal locus of control with improved physical health, mental health and quality of life in people undergoing conditions as diverse as HIV, migraines, diabetes, kidney disease and epilepsy (Maltby, Day & Macaskill, 2007).

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 39

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Other fields to which the concept has been applied include industrial and organizational psychology, sports psychology, educational psychology and the psychology of religion. Richard Kahoe has published celebrated work in the latter field, suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively, extrinsic religious orientation correlates negatively, with internal locus.[6] Of relevance to both health psychology and the psychology of religion is the work prepared by Holt, Clark, Kreuter and Rubio (2003), in preparing a questionnaire to assess spiritual health locus of control. These authors distinguished between an active spiritual health locus of control orientation, in which "God empowers the individual to take healthy actions"[7] and a more passive spiritual health locus of control orientation, where people leave everything to God in the care of their own health.

5. Locus of control and age:

is sometimes assumed that as people age, they will become less internal and more external, but data here have been ambiguous. Longitudinal data collected by Gatz and Karel (cited in Johnson et al., 2004 imply that internality may increase up to middle age, and thereafter decrease. Noting the ambiguity of data in this area, Aldwin and Gilmer (2004) cite Lachman's claim that locus of control is ambiguous. Indeed, there is evidence here that changes in locus of control in later life relate more visibly to increased externality, rather than reduced internality, if the two concepts are taken to be orthogonal. Evidence cited by Schultz and Schultz (2005), for example Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) or Ryckman and Malikosi, 1975 (cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2005), suggests that locus of control increases in internality up until middle age. These authors also note that attempts to control the environment become more pronounced between the age of eight and fourteen. For more on the relationship between locus of control and coping with the demands of later life, see the article on aging.

6. Gender-based differences in locus of control:

As Schultz and Schultz (2005) point out, significant differences in locus of control have not been found for adults in a U.S. population. However, these authors also note that there may be specific sex-based differences for specific categories of item to assess locus of control - for example, they cite evidence that men may have a greater internal locus for questions related to academic achievement (Strickland & Haley, 1980; cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2005).

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 40

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

7. Self-efficacy:

Self-efficacy is another related concept, introduced by Albert Bandura. Although someone may believe that how some future event turns out is under their control, they may or may not believe that they are capable of behaving in a way that will produce the desired result. For example, an athlete may believe that training eight hours a day would result in a marked improvement in ability (an internal locus of control orientation) but not believe that he or she is capable of training that hard (a low sense of self-efficacy). Self-efficacy has been measured by means of a psychometric scale [11] and differs from locus of control in that whereas locus of control is generally a measure of cross-situational beliefs about control, self-efficacy is used as a concept to relate to more circumscribed situations and activities. Bandura has emphasised how the concept differs from self-esteem - using the example that a person may have low self-efficacy for ballroom dancing, but that if ballroom dancing is not very important to that person, this is unlikely to result in low self-esteem.

8. Summary, critique and the future:

Locus of control has been a concept which has certainly generated much research in psychology, in a variety of areas. Usefulness of the construct can be seen in its applicability to fields such as educational psychology, health psychology or clinical psychology. There will probably continue to be debate about whether specific or more global measures of locus of control will prove to be more useful. Careful distinctions should also be made between locus of control (a concept linked with expectancies about the future) and attribution style (a concept linked with explanations for past outcomes), or between locus of control and concepts such as self-efficacy. The importance of locus of control as a topic in psychology is likely to remain quite central for many years.

B) Machiavellianism

1) Introduction”

Machiavellianism is, according to the OED, "the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct", deriving from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince) and other works. Machiavellian and variants became very popular in the late 16th century in English, though "Machiavellianism" itself is first cited by the OED from 1626. The word has a similar use in modern psychology.

Machiavelli, according to the popular view, although this is disputed at least in part by most Machiavelli scholars, held that people were by nature untrustworthy,

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 41

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

malevolent and self-serving, and thus those in power could only maintain their position through exploitative and deceitful actions.[1]

2) In Political Thought:

Machiavellianism was seen as a foreign virus infecting English politics, originating in Italy, and having already infected France. It was in this context that the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572 in Paris came to be seen as a product of Machiavellianism, a view greatly influenced by the Huguenot Innocent Gentillet, who published his Discours contre Machievel in 1576, which was printed in ten editions in three languages over the next four years.[2] Gentillet held, quite wrongly according to Sydney Anglo, that Machiavelli's "books [were] held most dear and precious by our Italian and Italionized [sic] courtiers" in France (in the words of his first English translation), and so (in Anglo's paraphrase) "at the root of France's present degradation, which has culminated not only in the St Bartholemew massacre but the glee of its perverted admirers".[3] In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism that so infuriates scholars of his actual thought, who assert it is inaccurate and distorted.[4]

The English playwright Christopher Marlowe was an enthusiastic proponent of this view. In the Jew of Malta (1589-90) "Machievel" in person speaks the Prologue, claiming to not be dead, but to have possessed the soul of (the Duke of) Guise, "And, now the Guise is dead, is come from France/ To view this land, and frolic with his friends" (Prologue, lines 3-4)[5] His last play, The Massacre at Paris (1593) takes the massacre, and the following years, as its subject, with the Duke of Guise and Catherine de' Medici both depicted as Machiavellian plotters, bent on evil from the start.

The Anti-Machiavel is an 18th century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting The Prince, and Machiavellianism. It was first published in September 1740; a few months after Frederick became king, and are one of many such works.

3) In Psychology:

Machiavellianism is also a term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. In the 1960s, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis developed a test for measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism. This eventually became the MACH-IV test, a twenty-statement personality survey that is now the standard self-assessment tool of Machiavellianism. People scoring above 60 out of 100 on the MACH-IV are considered high Machs; that is, they endorsed statements such as, "Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so," (No. 1) but not ones like, "Most people are basically good and kind" (No. 4). People scoring below 60 out of 100 on the MACH-

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 42

MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

IV are considered low Machs; they tend to believe, "There is no excuse for lying to someone else," (No. 7) and, "Most people who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives" (No. 11). Christie, Geis, and Geis's graduate assistant David Berger went on to perform a series of studies that provided experimental verification for the notion of Machiavellianism.

Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the dark triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. Some psychologists consider Machiavellianism to be essentially a subclinical form of psychopathy, although recent research suggests that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap, they are distinct personality constructs

RAHUL GUPTA, MBAHCS (1ST SEM), SUBJECT CODE-MBOO22, SET-1 Page 43