INTRODUCTION

A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving

widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the

ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.

In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk.

These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike

in areas with low vulnerability will never become disasters, as is the case in uninhabited regions.

Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all

deaths caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20

times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries.

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CHARACTERSTICS OF DISASTER

Disasters are  not  simply Scale  emergencies. Disasters  have  a  number  of  distinct  characteristics  

which are  normally  not  seen  during  emergencies.  

1.  THE SCOPE WILL NOT BE KNOWN  

With  most  emergencies,  you  can  look  at  the  situation  and  determine  what  happened,  what’s happening,  what  needs  to  happen  and  what  the  appropriate  response  would  Be.  With  a  disaster, the  death  and  utter  devastation  that  you  see  may  not  be  the  worst  hit  area.    As  a  matter  of  fact, disasters  often  see  that  the  hardest-‐hit  areas  are  the  last  to  be  responded  to  because  they  are unable  to  call  for  help.      If  you  don’t  know  the  ENTIRE  scope,  you  can’t  respond  appropriately.   Fire  departments  are  often  trained  to  drive  by  an  injured  child  after  an  earthquake;  if  you haven’t  checked  your  entire  area,  you  may  help  the  child,  but  miss  the  50  kids  trapped  in  a burning  school  further  along.

 2 COMMUNCIATIONS WILL   FAIL  

Every  disaster  report  includes  communications  failures.  Communications  failure  are  almost  a  

defining  characteristic  of  disasters  and  initial  communications  failures  often  indicate  you  are

About to  lose  control  of  the  situation.      Emergency  officials  fail  to  realize  that  simple

communications  failures  are  an  indication  that  things  are  likely  to  get  worse  and  continue  with

their  routine  emergency  response. The  problem  is,  there  are  multiple  types  of  communications

failures  that  can  be  experienced.    If  you  don’t  know  exactly  how  many  types  of  communications

failure  exist,  your  efforts  to  fix  communications  failures  may  not  work.      Millions  of  dollars  have

been  spent  to  increase  interoperability,  but  communications  failures  continue  because  the  one

failure  you  fixed  wasn’t  actually  the  main  problem.      

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3. SITUATION   CONSTANTLY   CHANGING  

In an emergency situation, the arrival of the emergency services generally makes an immediate and marked improvement in the situation. In a disaster, the initial emergency response may be entirely appropriate (or inappropriate if they scope isn’t known), but rapid changes in the situation may result in a need to rapidly change the direction or even the type of response. The emergency response may have been entirely appropriate for the crash of the jet into the World Trade Centre, but with the second crash, in one second, the response to the first tower now needs to be reoriented to multiple events. The incident at the Pentagon means your response must be reassessed again. The collapse of the first tower means your response has to completely change in an instant. The crash of the second tower results in further requirements to change. Every time the situation changes, you have to reorient yourself to the new situation, determine the scope, reorganize the response and redeploy.

 4. EMERGENCY   SERVICES   AFFECTED  

In  emergencies,  the  emergency  responders  are  unaffected  by  the  event  or  the  incident  only has  minor  impact.    The  fire  hall  is  still  standing,  the  police  are  responding,  and  the  ambulance service  has  all  their  gear.    In  disasters,  the  fire  hall  is  destroyed  (burned  by  a  wildfire,  destroyed by  the  tornado,  flooded  by  the  hurricane),  the  police  are  unable  to  respond  (roads  are  flooded, blocked,  washed  out  or  white-‐out  conditions  are  occurring),  and  the  paramedics  are  unable  to concentrate  on  their  job  (home  destroyed,  spouse  missing,  children  injured,  parents  missing,  co-‐worker  dead).    Assumptions  about  response  are  based  on  normal  conditions.    In  a  blizzard  with white-‐out  conditions,  the  ambulance  is  waiting  for  the  fire  department  to  assist  them,  the  fire department  is  overwhelmed  with  calls,  the  police  car  is  hung  up  on  a  windrow,  the  snow  plows can’t  deploy  because  they  might  hit  a  drifted-‐over  car  and  the  sanding  truck  has  slid  off  the  road. If  fire-‐fighting  aircraft  are  grounded    due  to  extreme  winds,  why  do  we  think  a  helicopter  can  be dispatched  to  rescue  people?      

 

 

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5. UNUSUAL   RESPONSE  

If  your  normal  response  is  not  working  and  lives  are  at  risk,  then  almost  any  alternative  wil be  considered.      Some  of  the  alternatives  can  be  quite  innovative;    elephants  to  assist  the  tow company,  front  end  loaders  and  busses  driven  by  fire  fighters,  beer  cans  to  provide  thousands of  people  with  water,    

 6.  UNUSUAL   LOCATIONS  

Along  with  the  unusual  response,  you  will  have  unusual  locations  being  used;  a  warehouse or school  room  becomes  an  Emergency  Operations  Centre.      A  playground for  sand-‐bagging.    An arena  for  volunteer  coordination.    A  church  for  pets  and  donations.    An  empty  parking  lot becomes  a  staging  area  or  a  triage  location  or  helispot  for  medical  evacuations.      A  destroyed building  becomes  a  rest  area  or  command  centre.      Some  locations  are  required  by  the Incident  Command  System  (Incident  Command  Post,  some  are  pre-‐planned  locations    (helibase,  parking  lot  outside  the  hospital  emergency  admitting,    or  evacuation  centre),  some are  ad-‐hoc  depending  on  the  needs  of  the  incident  (triage,  staging  area,  helispot)  and  some locations  simply  spontaneously  develop  (media  gather,  relatives  gathering,  memorials, volunteers  gathering).      

 

 7. USE OF VOLUNTEERS  

Normally, for  emergencies,  volunteers  are  sparingly  used  (i.e.  Victim Services)  or discouraged.      In  a  disaster  situation,  they  become  essential  to  the  response. Attempts  to  keep  volunteers  out  may  cause  frustration  and  anger.    In  some  cases the  volunteer  response  has  overwhelmed  the  emergency  responders.      If  you  don’t manage  the  volunteers  and  incorporate  them  in,  they  will  inadvertently  interfere  with the response  efforts.        

 

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TYPES OF DISASTERS

1. EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by the sudden breaking and movement of large

sections (tectonic plates) of the earth's rocky outermost crust. The edges of the tectonic plates are

marked by faults (or fractures). Most earthquakes occur along the fault lines when the plates

slide past each other or collide against each other..

2. FLOODS

A flood is an overflow of water that "submerges" land. The EU Floods Directive defines a flood

as a temporary covering by water of land which is usually not covered by water. [9] In the sense of

"flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tides. Flooding may result

from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows

causing the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or

other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a

significant flood unless the water covers land used by man like a village, city or other inhabited

area, roads, expanses of farmland, etc

3. TSUNAMIS

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Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. Out in the

depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in height. But as the waves

travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases. The

speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from the source of the

wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters, only slowing down when

reaching shallow waters. While tsunamis are often referred to as tidal waves, this name is

discouraged by oceanographers because tides have little to do with these giant waves.

4. Blizzards

Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high

winds stir up snow that has already fallen, it is known as a ground blizzard. Blizzards can impact

local economic activities, especially in regions where snowfall is rare. The Great Blizzard of

1888 affected the United States, when many tons of wheat crops were destroyed, and in Asia,

2008 Afghanistan blizzard and the 1972 Iran blizzard were also significant events.

5. Droughts

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Drought is the unusual dryness of soil, resulting in crop failure and shortage of water and for

other uses which is caused by significant low rainfall than average over a prolonged period. Hot

dry winds, shortage of water, high temperatures and consequent evaporation of moisture from

the ground can contribute to conditions of drought.

6. Sinkholes

When natural erosion or human mining makes the ground too weak to support the structures

built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. For example, the 2010 Guatemala

City sinkhole which killed fifteen people was caused when heavy rain from Tropical Storm

Agatha, diverted by leaking pipes into a pumice bedrock, led to the sudden collapse of the

ground beneath a factory building.

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7. Heat waves

A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather, which may be accompanied by

high humidity, especially in oceanic climate countries. While definitions vary,[1] a heat wave

is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for

the season. Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a

heat wave.

8. VOLCANIC ERUPTION

A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials are thrown out of a volcano. Lava, rocks, dust,

ash and gas compounds are some of the materials. Eruptions can come from side branches or

from the top of the volcano. Some eruptions are terrible explosions that throw out huge amounts

of rock and ash and kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more

complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists. These are often

named after famous volcanoes where that type of eruption has been seen.

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DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

MITIGATION

Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from developing into disasters altogether, or to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. The mitigation phase differs from the other phases because it focuses on long-term measures for reducing or eliminating risk  Personal mitigation is mainly about knowing and avoiding unnecessary risks. This includes an assessment of possible risks to personal/family health and to personal property. An example of personal non-structural mitigation would be to avoid buying property that is exposed to hazards, e.g. in a flood plain, in areas of subsidence or landslides. Homeowners may not be aware of their home being exposed to a hazard until it strikes. Real estate agents may not come forward with such information. However, specialists can be hired to conduct risk Assessment surveys. Insurance covering the most prominent identified risks are a common measure. Personal structural mitigation in earthquake prone areas include installation of an Earthquake Valve to instantly shut off the natural gas supply to your property, seismic retrofits of property and the securing of items inside the building to enhance household seismic safety such as the mounting of furniture, refrigerators, water heaters and breakables to the walls, and the addition

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of cabinet latches. In flood prone areas houses can be built on poles, like in much of southern Asia. In areas prone to prolonged electricity black-outs a generator would be an example of an optimal structural mitigation measure. The construction of storm cellars and fallout shelters are further examples of personal mitigate actions. PREPAREDNESS In the preparedness phase, emergency managers develop plans of action for when the disaster strikes. Common preparedness measures include:

The Communication plans with easily understood terminology and chain of command Development and practice of multi-agency coordination and incident command Proper maintenance and training of emergency services Development and exercise of emergency population warning methods combined with

emergency shelters and evacuation plans Stockpiling, inventory, and maintenance of supplies and equipment

An efficient preparedness measure is an emergency operations centre (EOC) combined with a

practiced region-wide doctrine for managing emergencies. Another preparedness measure is to

develop a volunteer response capability among civilian populations. Since, volunteer response is

not always as predictable and plan-able as professional response; volunteers are often deployed

on the periphery of an emergency unless they are a proven and established volunteer

organization with standards and training.

 

On the contrary to mitigation activities which are aimed at preventing a disaster from occurring,

personal preparedness are targeted on preparing activities to be taken when a disaster occurs, i.e.

planning. Preparedness measures can take many forms. Examples include the construction of

shelters, warning devices, back-up life-line services (e.g. power, water, sewage), and rehearsing

an evacuation plan. Two simple measures prepare you for either sitting out the event or

evacuating. For evacuation, a disaster supplies kit should be prepared and for sheltering purposes

a stockpile of supplies.

 

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RESPONSE

The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary emergency services and first

responders in the disaster area. This is likely to include a first wave of core emergency services,

such as fire-fighters, police and ambulance crews. They may be supported by a number of

secondary emergency services, such as specialist rescue teams.

 

We work in all Phases of Disaster management and through our supported teams we respond in

moments after a disaster hits as well as the other phases to try to reduce the chance of it

happening in the first place or to reduce the impact of a disaster.  We can respond worldwide to

LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) as well as MEDCs (More Economically

Developed Countries.

 

In addition volunteers and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the local Red

Cross branch or St. John Ambulance may provide immediate practical assistance, from first aid

provision to providing tea and coffee. A well rehearsed emergency plan developed as part of the

preparedness phase enables efficient coordination of rescue efforts. Emergency plan rehearsal is

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essential to achieve optimal output with limited resources. In the response phase, medical assets

will be used in accordance with the appropriate triage of the affected victims.

 

SURVIVAL LAW OF 3S

Sometimes it is useful to remember the survival law of 3’s is significant if you consider the

survival profile of the person and the situation and add that to the other important factors in a

survival situation.  This works in a displaced wilderness scenario or a disaster, such as

earthquakes in an urban or austere / mountainous environment.

The survival law of 3s is often quoted as:

1. Air    3 Minutes without air

2. Water  3 days without water

3. Food  3 weeks without food

Shelter  Finding shelter is important to keep warm or cool and protected.(Some say 3 hours

without shelter in harsh areas)

Health  Proper healthy living, nutrition, activity, medical, etc., is needed.

Company / Moral: Some add - 3 months without companny.

Where required, search and rescue efforts commence at a very early stage. Depending on injuries

sustained by the victim, outside temperature, and victim access to air and water, their location,

etc., the vast majority of those severely affected by a disaster may die within 72 hours after

impact.  Within a week of a major incident SAR Teams often leave and the incident enters a

‘Recovery phase’.  Medical response obviously has obvious important applications in the ‘Direct

Impact’ phase and the ‘Indirect Impact’ phase – as a secondary result of the incident.  (Llike

disease, infection and post trauma treatment.)

Individuals often feel compelled to volunteer directly after a disaster. Volunteers can be both a

help and a hindrance to emergency management and other relief agencies. A spontaneous,

unaffiliated volunteer can actually harm the effectiveness of coordinated agencies – some

earning the term ‘disaster tourists’ running into an event with preparation, coordination or even

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informing anyone – of their whereabouts and intentions.  However trained and prepared

volunteers under the direction of an organizing agency, such as mobile SAR Disaster Teams, can

provide many benefits to the troubling effects of a disaster.

 

The response phase of an emergency may commence with a search and rescue phase. However

in all cases the focus will be on fulfilling the basic needs of the affected population on a

humanitarian basis. This assistance may be provided by national and/or international agencies

and organisations. Effective coordination of disaster assistance is often crucial particularly when

many organisations respond and Local Emergency Management Agency (LEMA) capacity may

be over-stretched and diminished by the disaster itself.

 

On an individual or personal level, your decision / response can take the shape either of a home

confinement or an evacuation.  In a home confinement scenario a you and your family should be

prepared to fend for yourselves in their home for several days without any form of outside

support.

In an evacuation scenario, you and the family evacuates by a vehicle with the maximum amount

of supplies, including a tent for shelter. The scenario could also include equipment for

evacuation on foot with at least three days of supplies and rain-tight bedding a tarpaulin and a

bedroll of blankets, would be the minimum.

 

RECOVERY The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to its previous state. It differs from

the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are concerned with issues and decisions that

must be made after immediate needs are addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily concerned

with actions that involve rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other

essential infrastructure.

 

An important aspect of effective recovery efforts is taking advantage of a 'window of

opportunity' for the implementation of mitigative measures that might otherwise be unpopular.

Citizens of the affected area are more likely to accept more mitigative changes when a recent

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disaster is in fresh memory.  The recovery phase starts when the immediate threat to human life

has subsided. In the reconstruction it is recommended to reconsider the location or construction

material of the property.

 

In long term disasters the most extreme home confinement scenarios like war, famine and severe

epidemics last up to a year. In this situation the recovery will take place inside the home.

 

Planners for these events usually buy bulk foods and appropriate storage and preparation

equipment, and eat the food as part of normal life. A simple balanced diet can be constructed

from vitamin pills, whole-meal wheat, beans, dried milk, corn, and cooking oil. One should add

vegetables, fruits, spices and meats, both prepared and fresh-gardened, when possible.

 4 R’S OF RESCUE, RELIEF, REHABILITATION AND RECONSTRUCTION The standard time frame of rescue, relief and rehabilitation are usually defined as approximately

7 days, 3 months and 5 years respectively.   (This is an approximate rule.)

 

The rescue operation starts with the local residents, immediately after the earthquake / disaster. It

is usually supported by the trained and skilled staffs from the (Urban) Search and Rescue (SAR)

departments of the governments. These activities can be complemented by the non-government

organizations (NGO).

 

International Relief Teams arrive in the later stage, usually after 24 hours, depending on the

accessibility, and political relation with the country.

 

RESCUE PHASE Rescue phase usually lasts for the first 48 to 72 hours after a disaster when the rate of survival of

trapped victims is high. Rescue operations continue for much longer duration, however, after the

first 2 to 3 day, the resources allocated for rescue are comparatively low since other priorities

take over.  Initially Rescue may be 'self-rescue' or the rescue by bystanders or witnesses. 

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RELIEF PHASE Relief phase followed immediately after the Rescue phase. During the relief phase, the focus is

to provide basic necessities to victims of the earthquake and to restore social equilibrium.

Detailed assessment of human and other losses is also usually carried out during the relief phase,

which helps in optimal allocation of resources.

 

Relief phase may last between 1 to 3 months depending on the severity of the earthquake and the

resources of the government. Community, supported by government is usually the central point.

Added resources of the NGOs and the international organization substantiate this effort.

 

REHABILITATION / RECONSTRUCTION PHASE AIMS Rehabilitation/reconstruction phase aims to restore the communities to the pre-earthquake status. 

During this phase, the social and other infrastructure is restored and economy revitalised. The

rehabilitation/reconstruction phase typically starts at the end of relief phase and may last for

several years.

The short term plans of the recovery process are clearance of debris, building housing units,

restoration of the lifelines and infrastructures, while the long-term objective is to build a safer

and sustainable livelihood. Past experiences show that the efforts are sustainable only with

community / government partnership, while NGOs and international organizations role is

reduced after a certain period.

 

The Disaster Management Cycle:  Therefore, disaster management can be divided in several

phases, (depending on the perspective and definition of each phase).

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PHASAES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster Prevention

In most cases, disaster prevention doesn't involve trying to stop a disaster from happening, but

preventing it from having harmful effects on life and property. A flooding river can't be

prevented but an early response from volunteers and agencies such as the Red Cross. They may

evacuate nearby homes and shore the flood area with sandbags. For example, in July 2014,

firefighters in Skippack Township, Pennsylvania, detected an unidentified gas. Rather than wait

until the gas was identified -- a process that could take a full day -- firefighters evacuated 151

homes until the gas dispersed.

Disaster Preparation

Disaster preparation includes measures an organization uses to make sure people, money,

equipment and supplies are ready when a disaster hits. For this reason, agencies regularly train

volunteers and conduct preparedness drills for disasters that are likely to affect their regions.

They also have plans in place before a disaster strikes so volunteers know which buildings will

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be used as evacuation centers. Having food reserves and medical supplies in a safe and secure

area that can be quickly accessed are a part of preparation.

Disaster Relief

The purpose of disaster relief is to reduce the impact of a disaster on people and property and to

reduce its long-term consequences. Evacuating people before a hurricane hits is part of

prevention, while evacuating them after it has hit is part of disaster relief. Relief efforts may

include rescuing and relocating people, providing them with shelter, food, water and emergency

medical treatment. The restoration of vital services such as telecommunication systems,

electricity and road systems sometimes is part of disaster relief.

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Disaster Recovery

After a disaster has passed, victims are vulnerable to aftereffects and the changed circumstances

in their lives. The purpose of recovery is to reduce the risks that come after a disaster and to

restore communities. Depending on the scope of the disaster, recovery may take weeks or years.

After Typhoon Haiyan struck the Philippines in 2013, UNICEF reported that 3,200 schools had

been destroyed and 4.1 million people were displaced four months after the hurricane passed.

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CAUSES OF DISASTERS

Natural disasters happen all over the world, and they can be utterly devastating for people’s lives

and the environments in which they live. Although natural disasters are caused by nature and

there is nothing that we can do to prevent them happening, there are many different natural

causes that lead to natural disasters, and being aware of these causes enables us to be better

prepared when such disasters do arrive.

One common natural disaster is flooding, which occurs when a river bursts its banks and the

water spills out onto the floodplain. This is far more likely to happen when there is a great deal

of heavy rain, so during very wet periods, flood warnings are often put in place. There are other

risk factors for flooding too: steep-sided channels cause fast surface run-off, while a lack of

vegetation or woodland to both break the flow of water and drink the water means that there is

little to slow the floodwater down. Drainage basins of impermeable rock also cause the water to

run faster over the surface.

Earthquakes are another common natural disaster that can cause many fatalities. The movements

of the plates in the earth’s crust cause them. These plates do not always move smoothly and can

get stuck, causing a build-up of pressure. It is when this pressure is released that an earthquake

occurs. In turn, an earthquake under the water can also cause a tsunami, as the quake causes great

waves by pushing large volumes of water to the surface.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcanic eruptions. Volcanic eruptions are another

natural disaster, and they are caused by magma escaping from inside the earth. An explosion

takes place, releasing the magma from a confined space, which is why there are often also huge

quantities of gas and dust released during a volcanic eruption. The magma travels up the inside

of the volcano, and pours out over the surrounding area as lava.

One of the most common natural disasters, but also one of the most commonly forgotten, is

wildfires. These take place in many different countries all over the world, particularly during the

summer months, and can be caused by a range of different things. Some of the things that can

start the wildfires can be totally natural, while others can be manmade, but the speed at which

they spread is entirely down to nature..

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IMPACTS OF DISASTER

DeathsThe number of persons whose deaths were directly caused. When final official data is available,

this figure should be included with corresponding observations, for example, when there are

differences between officially accepted figures and those of other sources.

MissingThe number of persons whose whereabouts since the disaster is unknown. It includes people who

are presumed dead, although there is no physical evidence. The data on number of deaths and

number of missing are mutually exclusive and should not be mixed.

Injured, sickThe number of persons whose health or physical integrity is affected as a direct result of the

disaster. This figure does not include victims who die. Those who suffer injuries and or illness

if the event is related to a plague or epidemic, should be included here.

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AffectedThe number of persons who suffer indirect or secondary effects related to a disaster. This refers

to the number of people, distinct from victims, who suffer the impact of secondary effects of

disasters for such reasons as deficiencies in public services, commerce, work, or because of

isolation. If the information refers to families, calculate the number of people according to

available indicators

VictimsThe number of persons whose goods and/or individual or collective services have suffered

serious damage, directly associated with the event. For example, partial or total destruction of

their homes and goods; loss of crops and/or crops stored in warehouses, etc. If the information

refers to families, calculate the number of people according to available indicators.

EvacuatedThe number of persons temporarily evacuated from their homes, work places, schools, hospitals,

etc. If the information refers to families, calculate the number of people according to available

indicators.

RelocatedThe number of persons who have been moved permanently from their homes to new sites. If the

information refers to families, calculate the number of people according to available indicators.

Houses DamagedThe number of homes with minor damage, not structural or architectural, which may continue

being lived in, although they may require some repair or cleaning.

Houses destroyedThe number of homes levelled, buried, collapsed or damaged to the extent that they are no longer

habitable.

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Crops and woods (Hectares)The amount of cultivated or pastoral land or woods destroyed or affected. If the information

exists in another measurement, it should be converted to hectares.

LivestockThe number of animals lost (bovine, pig, ovine, poultry) regardless of the type of event (flood,

drought, epidemic, etc).

Educational centersThe amount of play schools, kindergartens, schools, colleges, universities, training centres etc,

destroyed or directly or indirectly affected by the disaster. Include those that have been used as

temporary shelters.

HospitalsThe number of health centres, clinics, local and regional hospitals destroyed and directly or

indirectly affected by the disaster.

Loss value $Sum of losses directly caused by the disaster in local currency.

Loss value US$The equivalent in dollars (US$) of the value of losses in local currency, according to the

exchange rate on the date of the disaster. This figure is useful for comparative evaluations

between databases.

Roads affected (Mts.)The length of transport networks destroyed and/or rendered unusable, in metres.

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Other lossesA description of other losses not included in the fields of the basic record. For example: religious

buildings and monuments, architectural or cultural heritage buildings, theatres and public

installations, public administration buildings relating to banks, commerce and tourism; vehicles

or buses lost, bridges.

Transport sectorQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to the

effects of the disaster on the transport sector: road networks (train or rail), transport stations,

airports, river and sea bridges, sea walls, etc, that have been affected or destroyed.

CommunicationsQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the communication sector: plants and telephone networks, radio and television

stations, post offices and public information offices, internet services, radio telephones and

mobile phones.

Aid organisation installationsQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the emergency response sector, specifically to the aid organisms’ installations: Fire

fighters and other aid organisms and to entities of public order.

Agriculture and fishingQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damaged to the Agriculture and Fishing sector: crops, granaries, pastoral zones.

Water supplyQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the aqueduct sector: water outlets, water treatment plants, aqueducts and canals

which carry drinking water, storage tanks.

23

SewerageQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the sewage sector: sewage systems and treatment plants.

Education Qualitative field in the databaseIt has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to damages to the Education sector:

everything relating to this sector – pre-schools, kindergartens, schools, colleges, universities,

training centres, libraries, cultural centres, etc.

Power/EnergyQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the Energy sector: dams, substations, transmission lines, generators, energy

processing plants and combustible stores, pipelines, gas lines, nuclear plants.

IndustryQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the Industrial sector: all types and sizes of industry, including agricultural and fishing

plants.

Health SectorQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages to the Health sector: everything related to the health sector, including communication

networks, emergency networks (ambulances), casualty centres, etc.

OtherQualitative field in the database. It has two options: Affected or Not Affected. It relates to

damages which do not correspond to any of the fields in the basic record.

24

ROLE PLAYERS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Mayor

The mayor is responsible at the administrative level for the smooth running of the response

effort. He/she convenes the representatives of the various public services who make up the

disaster management team. In view of the mayor’s administrative responsibility, the municipal

council may call him/her to account for the overall management of the response effort.

Fire service

The fire service is the linchpin in disaster response. The fire chief is charged with the operational

management of the response effort. Everything that occurs in the disaster area falls under his/her

authority. As a member of the disaster management team, the fire chief puts the team’s decisions

into practice. He/she also coordinates the work of the emergency services. In the disaster area,

the fire service’s first duty is to save people and animals. Firefighters also put out fires, of

course, and conduct tests to find out whether any hazardous substances have been released.

Regional accident and disaster medical teams

Anyone injured in a disaster will require medical assistance as soon as possible. Ambulance

paramedics will usually provide first aid and stabilise the injured so that they can be transported

to hospital.

Police

The police will ensure that the fire and ambulance services can do their job. They will cordon off

the disaster area, manage the traffic, and sometimes set up a safety zone around the disaster area.

If victims are difficult to identify, the police will deploy the disaster identification team,

consisting of experts convened on an ad hoc basis. The disaster identification team is part of the

Dutch Police Services Agency (KLPD).

25

Army

The Ministry of Defence can deploy military personnel to respond to a disaster. Around 4,600 of

them are available to do so. Their duties include evacuating people.

Municipal services

Behind the scenes, several municipal services play an important role in disaster response,

especially when it comes to the after-effects. If whole streets or neighbourhoods have to be

evacuated, for instance, the municipality is responsible for the residents’ immediate welfare.

Municipal services will assist in other practical ways, such as providing food and temporary

shelter; they may also offer psychological care. In addition, the municipality will register the

victims and may help them with uninsured damage.

Other services

Which services take part in the response effort will depend on the type of disaster. In the case of

flooding caused by burst dykes or heavy rainfall, the water authorities will play a role. If a

disaster occurs off the coast, the Coastguard will be involved. But other services will also often

take part. The Red Cross cares for the injured in disasters. Canine search-and-rescue teams are

deployed in the search for victims trapped under rubble. And the Salvation Army provides

victims and emergency workers with soup and sandwiches.

26

INTRODUCTION

Nepal is the world's 93rd largest country by area and the 41st most populous country. It is located

in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by China and to the south, east, and west by India.

Nepal is separated from Bangladesh by the narrow Indian Siliguri Corridor and from Bhutan by

the Indian state of Sikkim. Kathmandu is the nation's capital city and largest metropolis.

The mountainous north of Nepal has eight of the world's ten tallest mountains, including the

highest point on Earth, Mount Everest (Nepali: सगरमाथा Sagarmāthā). More than 250 peaks over

20,000 ft (6,096 m) above sea level are located in Nepal.[11] The southern Terai region is fertile

and humid.

Hinduism is practiced by about 81.3% of Nepalis, the highest percentage of any country.

Buddhism is linked historically with Nepal and is practiced by 9% of its people, followed by

Islam at 4.4%, Kiratism 3.1%, Christianity 1.4%,[2] and animism 0.4%.[12] A large portion of the

population, especially in the hill region, may identify themselves as both Hindu and Buddhist,

which can be attributed to the syncretic nature of both faiths in Nepal.[13]

A monarchy throughout most of its history, Nepal was ruled by the Shah dynasty of kings from

1768—when Prithvi Narayan Shah unified its many small kingdoms]—until 2008. A decade-

long Civil War involving the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), followed by weeks of mass

protests by all major political parties, led to the 12-point agreement[14] of 22 November 2005. The

ensuing elections for the 1st Nepali Constituent Assembly on 28 May 2008 overwhelmingly

favored the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a federal multiparty

representative democratic republic. Despite continuing political challenges, this framework

remained in place, with the 2nd Nepali Constituent Assembly elected in 2013 in an effort to

create a new constitution.

On September 20, 2015, a new constitution (Nepali: नेपालको संवि�धान २०७२) was announced by

President Ram Baran Yadav in the Constituent Assembly. The Constituent Assembly was

transformed into a legislative parliament. The new constitution established Nepal as a federal

democratic country by making seven unnamed states

27

Nepal is a developing country with a low income economy, ranking 145th of 187 countries on

the Human Development Index (HDI) in 2014. It continues to struggle with high levels of hunger

and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal has been making steady progress, with the

government making a commitment to graduate the nation from least developed country status by

2022

Gorkha District, a part of Gandaki Zone, is one of the seventy-five districts of Nepal and

connected historically with the creation of the modern Nepal and the name of the legendary

Gurkha soldiers. The district, with Pokharithok (Gorkha), later known as Prithivi Narayan

Nagarpalika as its district headquarters, covers an area of 3,610 km² and has a population (2001)

of 288,134.[1] It is the location of the Manakamana Temple.[2] Also, the temples of great sage

Gorakh Nath and goddess Gorakh Kali temple is located in district, after which the district got its

name. Four major rivers run within and along it, they are Chepe, Daraudi, Marsyangdi and Budhi

Gandaki.

ABOUT DISASTER

The Gorkha (Nepal)earthquake(M

w7.8) occurred at 11:56 NST on 25 April 2015 with an epicentre 77 km (48 miles) northwest of

Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, that is home to nearly 1.5 million inhabitants, and at a

focal depth of approximately 10-15km (Figure 1). This earthquake was the one of the most

powerful earthquakes to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal-Bihar earthquake (Mw8.1). Based on

the information by the United Nations, eight million people have been affected by the massive

2015 earthquake in Nepal, more than a quarter of the Nepal’s population.

The April 25, 2015 earthquake occurred about 200 km west of the 1934 earthquake.Nepal

,which constitutesa part of Himalaya region, was also hit by other earthquakes occurred in 1964,

1988 during the instrumental period. The region belongs to Himalaya Arc, which was suffered

very large earthquakes with a moment magnitude of 7.5 or more in 1100, 1505, 1555, 1724,

1803, 1833, 1897, 2005, 1947, 1950,

2005, 1833 during the instrumental period and period, respectively (Bilham, 2004, 2009; Bilham

et al., 2001

28

The earthquake mainly resulted in about loss of more than 7400 people as of May 4, 2015and it

may rise again in the coming days as collapsed and heavy damaged structures cleared away.

Particularly in Nepal, historic buildings and temples were destroyed, leaving massive piles of

debris in streets.

Damage to buildings and historical monuments

This earthquake induced many mass movements in mountainous

areas and resulted in landslide lakes, which could be another cause of secondary disasters. The

mass movements and deformation of weathered soft soil cover are the main causes of the

collapse or heavy

damage to buildings and heavy casualties in mountainous areas (Figure 3a). In addition, the

earthquake also triggered a major avalanche on the south slopes of Mt. Everest, located

approximately 160 km east-northeast of the epicentre. The avalanche destroyed the base

29

camp of climbers. According to reports, the avalanche killed at least 17 people and injured 61

others. The earthquake also triggered avalanches in Himalayas, killing some people. Some other

adjoining countries such as India, China and Bangladesh were also affectedby the

Earthquake with causalities

Damage

Travellers waiting on airport tarmac for flights after aftershocks forced the airport to open all exit

doors.

Damage in the Basantpur Durbar Square. Before Earthquake

Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages

flattened, especially those near the epicenter.

The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the quake,

but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights.[95]

It subsequently shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks, and on 3 May was closed

temporarily to the largest planes for fear of runway damage. Strong aftershocks lead the airport

to open all boarding-lounge exit doors onto the tarmac allowing travellers who were waiting post

security and immigration to flee to the open spaces of the runway tarmac in aftershocks. Many

travellers remained outside as planes were delayed and the Airport swelled to capacity. The

airport facilities suffered damage and there was no running water for travellers waiting in airport

lounges nor operating toilets. Airport workers were not at their posts, either from becoming

earthquake casualties or because they were dealing with its after effects.

Flights resumed from Pokhara, to the west of the epicentre, on 27 April.

30

Building damage as a result of the earthquake

Several of the churches in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed. As Saturday is the principal

day of Christian worship in Nepal, 500 people were reported to have died in the collapses.[100]

Several pagodas on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed,[26] as

did the Dharahara tower, built in 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180

people,[102][103][104][105] Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, previously damaged in an earlier quake,

tilted several inches further. The northern side of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur was reported to have

been damaged.[106] Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of

the nine-story Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple and two dewals located behind the

Shiva Parvati temple were demolished by the quake. Some other monuments including the

Taleju Bhawani Temple partially collapsed.

The top of the Jaya Bageshwari Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath

Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar

High School have been destroyed

In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir, the statue of Yog Narendra Malla, a pati inside Patan Durbar

Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shankar, Uma Maheshwar Temple and the Machhindranath

Temple in Bungamati were destroyed. In Tripureshwar, the Kal Mochan Ghat, a temple inspired

by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered

significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Fasi Deva temple, the

Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple, were fully or partially destroyed.

31

Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchok

Bhagwati, in Kabhrepalanchok District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Churiyamai in

Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar

suffered varying degrees of damage. Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have

lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu,

Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They cannot be restored to their original states." The

northeastern parts of India also received major damage. Heavy shocks were felt in the states

Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and others. Huge damage was caused to the property

and the lives of the people.

32

Economic loss

Road damage in Nepal

Concern was expressed that harvests could be reduced or lost this season as people affected by

the earthquake would have only a short time to plant crops before the onset of the Monsoon rains

Nepal, with a total Gross Domestic Product of USD$19.921 billion (according to a 2012

estimate),[111] is one of Asia's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major

reconstruction effort on its own.[112] Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank

estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually on

infrastructure through to 2020 to attract investment.[112] The U.S. Geological Survey initially

estimated economic losses from the temblor at 9 percent to 50 percent of gross domestic product,

with a best guess of 35 percent. "It’s too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the

effect on Nepal’s GDP", according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official.

The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a USD$3 million grant to Nepal for immediate

relief efforts, and up to USD$200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation

33

Damaged house in ChaurikharkaRajiv Biswas, an economist at a Colorado-based consultancy,

said that rebuilding the economy will need international effort over the next few years as it could

"easily exceed" USD$5 billion, or about 20 percent of Nepal's.

Social effects

It was reported that the survivors were preyed upon by human traffickers involved in supply of

girls and women to the brothels of South Asia. It was the worst nightmare phase for the people of

Nepal who were in a state of fear.[114] The most affected were the poor communities who lost

their homes.[115]

Minorities/Racial element

Single women face daunting challenges in obtaining resources after the quake.

In bitter fight for supplies, single women have had very little access to post-quakes relief as

dropped or handed out supplies are hoarded by males, where rapes and fear of rapes block

material aid and healthcare services from reaching them, according to a report by the Inter-party

Women’s Alliance (IPWA).[116] Additionally, the earthquake has hit certain minorities, Tibeto-

Burman (Oriental) races were hardest hit as they tend to inhabit the higher slopes of mountains

as opposed to the central valleys, and thus are harder to access, less educated and connected, and

are considered lower caste within Nepali society. Malnutrition in children, where 41 percent of

children under five were stunted, 29 percent were underweight and 11 percent were emaciated

according to UNICEF before the quake, has worsened considerably some 3 months after the

quake according to a survey, with the most undernourished being Tamang and Chepang peoples.

34

Rescue and relief

About 90 percent of soldiers from the Nepalese Army were sent to the stricken areas in the

aftermath of the earthquake under Operation Sankat Mochan, with volunteers mobilized from

other parts of the country.[120] Rainfall and aftershocks were factors complicating the rescue

efforts, with potential secondary effects like additional landslides and further building collapses

being concerns. Impassable roads and damaged communications infrastructure posed substantial

challenges to rescue efforts.[121] Survivors were found up to a week after the earthquake.

As of 1 May 2015, international aid agencies like Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without

Borders) and the Red Cross were able to start medically evacuating the critically wounded by

helicopter from outlying areas, initially cut-off from the capital city, Kathmandu,[17] and treating

others in mobile and makeshift facilities.[125][126] There was concern about epidemics due to the

shortage of clean water, the makeshift nature of living conditions and the lack of toilets.

Emergency workers were able to identify four men who had been trapped in rubble, and rescue

them, using advanced heartbeat detection. The four men were trapped in up to ten feet of rubble

in the village of Chautara, north of Kathmandu. An international team of rescuers from several

countries using FINDER devices found two sets of men under two different collapsed buildings.

Volunteers used crisis mapping to help plan emergency aid work. Public volunteers from around

the world added details into online maps. Information was mapped from data input from social

media, satellite pictures] and drones of passable roads, collapsed houses, stranded, shelterless and

starving people, who needed help, and from messages and contact details of people willing to

help.[134] On-site volunteers verified these mapping details wherever they could to reduce errors.

First responders, from Nepalese citizens to the Red Cross, the Nepal army and the United

Nations used this data. The Nepal earthquake crisis mapping utilized experience gained and

lessons learned about planning emergency aid work from earthquakes in Haiti and Indonesia.[135]

India decided to donate Nepal with $1 Billion. This money was supposed to be donated this

much money directly and also via indirect sources like Materials to build it cities back. India's

External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj said”I am happy to announce Government of India's

pledge for Nepal's post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepali Rupees 10,000 crores, equivalent to

35

one billion US dollars, one fourth of it as Grant,”. The International Conference on Nepal's

Reconstruction has been organised by the Nepalese government to raise funds for rebuilding the

country devastated by a powerful earthquake that struck on April 25, killing about 9,000 people

and injuring around 23,000 others besides flattening over five lakh houses.[136]

Reports are also coming in of sub-standard relief materials and inedible food being sent to Nepal

by many of the foreign aid agencies.[137][138]

A United States Marine Corps helicopter crashed on 12 May while involved in delivering relief

supplies. The crash occurred at Charikot, roughly 45 miles (72 kilometers) east of Kathmandu.

Two Nepalese soldiers and 6 American Marines died in the crash.[139]

Need-fulfillment app, Getmii (app), launched a special pilot version in partnership with the Red

Cross to double daily blood donors at the Kathmandu donation center using the app.[140]

Imaging technologies such as satellites and smartphones, were instrumental to relief efforts in

Nepal

36

Repair and reconstruction

UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture began strengthening damaged monuments in danger of

collapsing before the monsoon season. Subsequent restoration of collapsed structures, including

historic houses is planned. Architectural drawings exist that provide plans for reconstruction.

According to UNESCO, more than 30 monuments in the Kathmandu Valley collapsed in the

quakes, and another 120 incurred partial damage.Repair estimates are $160 million to restore

1,000 damaged and destroyed monasteries, temples, historic houses, and shrines across the

country. The destruction is concentrated in the Kathmandu Valley. UNESCO designated seven

groups of multi-ethnic monuments clustered in the valley as a single World Heritage Site,

including Swayambhu, the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, and the Hindu

temples of Pashupati and Changu Narayan. Damaged in the quakes were the structures in the

three Durbar squares, the temple of Changu Narayan, and the 1655 temple in Sankhu. Drones fly

above cultural heritage sites to provide 3D images of the damage to use for planning repairs.

37

Precautions for earthquake

What to Do Before an Earthquake

Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight,

and extra batteries at home.

Learn first aid.

Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.

Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.

Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).

Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.

Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.

If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway,

or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside

doors.

If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall.

Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on

you).

Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.

If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.

Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

38

What to Do After an Earthquake

Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.

Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.

Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave

immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).

Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.

Stay out of damaged buildings.

Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from

cutting your feet.

Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).

Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has

stopped shaking.

Stay away from damaged areas.

If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in

charge.

Expect aftershocks.

Conclusion

39

Natural disasters were few and rare in the past, but has become more frequent and devastating

recently. This is mainly due to the 'Modern' man indulging in all sorts of practices which are

against natural laws. We human beings must learn how to respect Nature and should not meddle

with the forces of Nature. If we do, it will bring calamity sooner or later. This is one lesson that

we have not learnt so far. Even the modern scientist is sometimes blind to this idea. If you want

to cut down the forests and build houses, there will be famine. It rains too much in some other

part of the country or globe resulting in floods. Climate changes happen in the normal course, but

when we tinker with Nature we see that climate changes are unusual and monsoon advances

earlier than normal or later than normal months and this results in disaster again. Even the plants

start giving grains, pulses or fruits out of course and the quality of the products are greatly

affected. Man suffers again. 

So the lesson is not to interfere with Nature any time and lead a peaceful life

Natural disasters, however powerful and sudden they may be, are not incapable of being guarded

against. The modern technology has given enough gadgets to people for forecasting, and

lessening if not totally preventing heavy damages inflicted upon by the natural disasters. Only

requirement is that people must take interest in getting as much awareness as possible about the

safeguard measures. It is also important to see that we do not contribute to natural disasters by

polluting the environment and by not living in resonance with nature.

They are unpredictable and cause alot of damage and destruction to life and property but if they

are prepared for and people are aware of their consequences, the impact would be less.

BIBLIOGRAPHY40

https://en.wikipedia.org/

www.ndmindia.nic.in

www.wcpt.org 

www. disaster mgmt.org

cbse.nic.in/

www.geo.mtu.edu

www.hko.gov.hk

41