FINAL EXAM!!!FINAL EXAM!!!

December 17, 2005

12 pm – 3 pm

TERM PAPER!!TERM PAPER!!

Due next week10 pages MAX, including title and refs.

Part 1Part 1Schooling and CognitionSchooling and Cognition

Reading / Writing– Dyslexia

Math / ‘rithmaticEffects of school on cognition

Schooling and CognitionSchooling and Cognition

These are skills that are taught School curriculum http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/elementary/grade1.html

Primary 1st accomplishment in school is learning to read…

ReadingReading

Chall’s 5 stages:

0. Before grade 1; recognize some words, letters, know a few sounds

1. 1st year of formal reading instruction, phonological training

2. 2nd and 3rd grades, improving reading skills

3. Grades 4-8, now use reading to learn

4. High school, are now very proficient readers

2 themes in reading acquisition2 themes in reading acquisition

1. The centrality of reading comprehension as the goal of reading

2. Need for efficient word identification so that sufficient processing resources are available for comprehension

* Remember Case’s theory? Try to find the common ground!

Reading…Reading…

Prerequisites to word recognition:– Emergent literacy (9 principles or facets)– Letter knowledge and letter perception– Phonological awareness

9 Principles of Emergent Literacy9 Principles of Emergent Literacy

1. Language2. Conventions of print3. Knowledge of letters4. Linguistic awareness5. Grapheme-Phoneme correspondence6. Emergent reading: pretend reading7. Emergent writing: pretend writing8. Print motivation: child’s interest9. Other cognitive skills: e.g. memory, attentional

control

ReadingReading

Some knowledge absorbed effortlessly…

2 most difficult to learn:– Discriminating among letters– Dividing words into component sounds

Letter KnowledgeLetter Knowledge

Once they learn features of letters, must notice orientation

Letter reading in Kindergarten predicts later reading ability

Phonological AwarenessPhonological Awareness

Children unaware of sounds in language even after almost 4 years of using it

Phoneme awareness can be measured at onset or rime level, or at phonemic level…

Example of Phonological Awareness Example of Phonological Awareness TasksTasks

1. Phoneme segmentation• How many sounds make up the word h/o/t?

2. Phoneme deletion and substitution• If you take the /m/ sound from mat, what word is

left?• Take the /c/ sound from cat, and instead put in the /m/

sounds. What word is it?

3. Same/different judgments• Plea and Plank? (onset) • Spit and Wit? (rime)

Typical FindingsTypical Findings

4 and 5 year olds are not good at picking apart words – fail segmentation, deletion and blending tasks.– Can judge words as same or different at onset-

rime level but not at phoneme level (e.g. plea/prank)

Typical findingsTypical findings

By 6 (grade 1), ceiling on most PA tasksThis awareness seems to be related to the

fact that they are getting instruction in language sounds

How does phonological awareness help?

The Rhyme HypothesisThe Rhyme Hypothesis

Phonological skills at the onset-rime level might be important for progress in English reading

Very transparent languages (e.g. German, Spanish) do not require it

LATER READING SKILLS

EARLY LETTER KNOWLEDGE

EARLY INTEREST IN READING

PARENTAL INTEREST IN READING

EXPOSURE TO RHYME

PRACTICE WITH SOUNDS AT ONSET/RIME LEVEL

Rhyme / Reading RelationshipRhyme / Reading Relationship

Evidence that knowledge of nursery rhymes can help phonological awareness

Predicts later reading better than age, IQ, and mother’s education level

Little Miss MuffettLittle Miss Muffett

Little Miss MuffetSat on a TuffetEating her curds and wheyAlong came a spiderAnd sat down beside herAnd frightened Miss Muffett

away

Charming rhyme helps children remember words, and as a result, become more aware of the sounds

PA important for reading!PA important for reading!

1. Strong link between rhyme awareness and English reading, even with IQ controlled for

2. Reading disabled children have problems with rhymes

3. Training children with rhymes will improve reading (group words that sound alike together, like bat, mat, hat, cat)

LATER READING SKILLS

EARLY LETTER KNOWLEDGE

EARLY INTEREST IN READING

PARENTAL INTEREST IN READING

EXPOSURE TO RHYME

PRACTICE WITH SOUNDS AT ONSET/RIME LEVEL

Reading/identifying wordsReading/identifying words

2 processes:– Phonological Recoding– Visually-based retrieval

Examine printed word, and locate meaning in LTM

Recoding = extra step: translate visual information into speech code, and use this to identify word

Recoding (phonics) is heavily used in classrooms, although both methods have been shown to work

Phonological RecodingPhonological Recoding

Drill children on sounds and sounding out words (see spot run)

Eventually become familiar Can start to use visually-based word

recognition

Sounding out Using memory

Visually-Based RecognitionVisually-Based Recognition

Use more sources to aid in faster word recognition in a parallel process, such as:– Context– Info from letters individually– Info from whole word

All allow for quick and effortless word identification!

ContextContext

Influences word recognition from 1st year of instruction

Mistakes made in reading are relevant to context

Siegler’s Adaptive Strategy Choice Siegler’s Adaptive Strategy Choice Model for Word identificationModel for Word identification

Children will use recognition when they can– (with a great deal of contextual support)

Harder words are read with a more “overt” process, like sounding out word

0

20

40Strategy 1

Strategy 2

Strategy 3

Reading DisabilitiesReading Disabilities

Dyslexia:– Problems in coding, manipulation, and comprehension

of the sounds of spoken words

Becomes evident around 5 or 6 Have other, concomitant problems: Temporal

auditory processing difficulties, balance issues, non-letter visual processing problems

Source of difficulty unknown – important for treatment purposes

Pammer & Vidyasagar, 2005Pammer & Vidyasagar, 2005

Theoretical proposal for dyslexia:– Rel’ship btw reading and PA is an interaction– Reading requires synthesis of both auditory and

visual information– If these are not in sync, system never gets to

practice interaction of PA and letter recognition– Different subtypes of dyslexia may result from

different levels of impairment at each source

Visual contributions to dyslexiaVisual contributions to dyslexia

Magno-cellular pathway (smaller part of visual pathway) responsible for early, fast processing of motion and low contrast

Impairment in this system = difficulty visually coding parts of word

http://www.lea-test.fi/en/assessme/comenius/pathways.html

Auditory contributions to dyslexiaAuditory contributions to dyslexia

Dyslexics have difficulty differentiation rapid, sequential sounds, discriminating tones

Often have early delayed language development

Problems arise when these children attempt to synthesize sight and sound!

Precocious ReadersPrecocious Readers

Some 2 and 3 year olds read…why? How?

Characteristics of these kids:1. High, but not exceptional IQ

2. Reciting alphabet by 3

3. Identifying signs by 3

4. Reading simple books by 4

5. Can read new words by 5

Precocious Readers con’dPrecocious Readers con’d

Children very interested in reading, word meaning; main source of precocity

Parents have books, blackboards out all the time

From middle to upper class families

Teaching readingTeaching reading

2 viewpoints: listen, and ask yourself

1. What processes are important for reading?

2. Where should educators put efforts?

3. How can we help children who are having trouble reading?

(whole-word processes)

Top-Down Processes

Bottom-Up Processes

(phonological processes)

Context

Prior knowledge

Phonological Awareness

Must know meaning of word sounded out

Must deal with novelty

Can’t ignore importance of both to reading!

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once rather than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity of this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into their appropriate places. Eventually, they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

DOING LAUNDRYDOING LAUNDRY

Bransford and Johnson, 1972

ComprehensionComprehension

4 processes in comprehension:

– Lexical access: identify words– Proposition assembly: figure out

parts of text– Proposition integration: put them

together– Text modeling: Drawing inferences

and relating it to what is known

Comprehension con’dComprehension con’d

Things that help us with comprehension in particular– Automatization of lexical access– Greater working memory capacity– Expanded knowledge base– Better comprehension monitoring– Increasingly adaptive strategy choice

Reading is not one thing, it’s many – need to control many resources to do it well!

Number and Math AbilitiesNumber and Math Abilities

Must understand some basic concepts of numbers, like conservation

Number Conservation ProblemNumber Conservation Problem

Which line has more dots?

Have to understand they are the same

5 basic number principles5 basic number principles

1. The one-to-one principle

2. The Stable-order principle

3. The cardinal principle

4. The abstraction principle

5. The order-irrelevant principle

3 Types of competence needed to do 3 Types of competence needed to do math problemsmath problems

Procedural: solving problems through sequences of action (how?)

Conceptual: Understanding the principles that underlie these sequences (why?)

Utilizational: Know the right time for taking these actions (when?)

Very early math strategiesVery early math strategies

Children will use many strategies to solve basic adding problems:– Sum strategy:

3 + 4 = 1, 2, 3 on one hand, 1,2,3,4 on other,1,2,3,4,5,6,7….7!

– Min strategy:: 3 + 4 = 4 plus 5,6,7 on hand, = 7!

StrategiesStrategies……

For Subtracting:– Count down from larger # (e.g. 12 – 3)– Count up (e.g. 12 – 9)

For multiplication:– Retrieval from memory– Count out how many of each # they need, using

hatch marks…Strategies change with experience, esp. towards

memory retrieval

Adaptive Strategy Choice ModelAdaptive Strategy Choice Model

Child chooses between memory retrieval and back-up strategy

Will pick fastest one that they will do right 2 processes involved in this model:

1. Representation of knowledge about a particular problem

2. Process operating on this knowledge to produce performance

How model works:How model works:Problem: 1 + 2 = 3Problem: 1 + 2 = 3

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Answer

Ass

oci

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Confidence criterion set at 0.2

ASCMASCM

Each answer associated with a strength – e.g. 3+4 = 6 has a strength of .19

Confidence is based on distribution of strengths for a given answer

Child will set a confidence criterion, which is a threshold that must be exceeded by associative strength of retrieved answer for that answer to be given

Less peaked distribution:Less peaked distribution:Problem: 3 + 4 = 6Problem: 3 + 4 = 6

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Answer

Ass

ocia

tive

Str

engt

h

Weight

Confidence criterion set at 0.2

ASCMASCM

More peaked distribution = More likely to use

Every time they give an answer, association between problem and answer strengthens – Kids who do this better at retrieval

1 + 2 can have more peaked distribution due to frequent finger counting, whereas 3 +11 will not

Try to apply similar ASCM principles to reading strategies!

MathMath……

Understanding certain arithmetic principles will help us solve problems faster, like knowing:– A + B – B– A * 0 – A / 1

ContextContext

Context and wording affect how problems are solved:– Joe has 23 marbles. He has 7 more marbles than

Bill had yesterday before he gave Joe half his marbles. How many fewer marbles does Bill have today than yesterday?

Math BugsMath Bugs

Consistent errors that always result in a mistake, but hard to identify

Kids make these up when at an Impasse, where knowledge is not sufficient to complete problem

Job of teachers is to identify the bug

Math in class: Math BugsMath in class: Math Bugs

Find the bug:

307 856 606 308 835

-182 -699 -568 -287 -217

285 157 168 181 618

Programs like this presented to teachers make them more likely to pick up errors children are making, and help them fix these errors

Effects of schoolingEffects of schooling

Some things are greatly enhanced by education (rote reading, math problem solving)

Some things develop on their own: story recall, arithmetic strategies, vocabulary

1 year of school has more cognitive benefits than 1 year of age

Schooling influences IQ