final integrative project...

Running Head: FINAL INTEGRATIVE PROJECT PROPOSAL 1

Exploration of the Relationship between Student-to-School-Counselor

Ratios and Student Outcomes

by

Tory E. Akerman

Presented in Fulfillment

Of the Requirements of COUN6915 – School Counseling Integrative Project

Tory E. Akerman

December 13, 2013

FINAL INTEGRATIVE PROJECT PROPOSAL

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Abstract

The proposed study will attempt to answer the questions, how does a school’s student-to-

school-counselor ratio affect the school counselor’s ability to successfully perform his or her job

effectively and how does it affect student outcomes? The intended methodology is a quasi-

experimental simple time series experiment design with the expected results from the reduction

of the student-to-school-counselor ratio being significantly positive effects on the variables of

school counselor’s effectiveness and student outcomes. This proposal will also examine the

study from a theoretical viewpoint through a school-based social capital conceptual framework

lens. The existing literature addressing the effect of student-to-school-counselor ratios on student

outcomes will be assessed and analyzed. The proposed study will also be evaluated for ethical

concerns and implications for diverse populations, and finally there will be an appraisal of the

potential leadership opportunities that could arise as a result of the study.


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Table of Contents

Introduction 4

Background 4

Statement of Problem 5

Research Questions 6

Rationale 6

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 7

Literature Review 9

Current Research 9

Currently Available Programs and Services 11

Gaps in Research 13

Research Methods 13

Resulting Social Change 15

Proposed Methodology 15

Expected Results 16

Implications for Research and Practice and Ethical Concerns 18

Leadership in the Profession 19

Conclusion 21

References 22


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Introduction

This research proposal will examine the concept of the student-to-school-counselor ratio and

attempt to identify the effects of this ratio on a school counselor’s ability to perform his or her

job responsibilities as well as on student outcomes. This will achieved through the use of a

quantitative research method; specifically a quasi-experimental simple time series method. This

method will examine the variables, student outcomes and program implementation with a higher

student-to-school-counselor ratio in place. One or more additional school counselors will be

added to the same school (through the use of pre-service school counseling interns), thus

resulting in a lower student-to-school-counselor ratio and after a pre-determined amount of time

the same variables, student outcomes and program implementation will be measured again. The

reasoning behind this methodology is to compare data in the same school with two different

student-to-school-counselor ratios rather than comparing student outcomes among different

schools with different ratios as other studies have done. The study’s background, problems,

research questions and the rationale for the study will be covered in order to provide a more

complete picture of the proposed study. A discussion of the theoretical and conceptual

framework and a review of current literature will follow. The proposed methodology and

expected results will then be covered in more detail and finally the implications for research and

practice as well as ethical concerns and opportunities for leadership in the profession will be

discussed.

Background

The student-to-school-counselor ratio is a fairly simple concept; it is the number of students

that a school counselor serves or in the case of a school with multiple school counselors, the


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number of students divided by the number of school counselors (i.e. 600 students/2 school

counselors = 300:1 student-to-school-counselor ratio) even if one school counselor serves more

students than the other based on how they divide the caseload. When calculating state-wide

student-to-school-counselor ratios, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 2011)

takes the total number of students in the state and divides it by the total number of school

counselors in the state, thus it is not an average of the student-to-school-counselor ratio at each

school in the state. If for example, if the state has an absence of school counselors at the

elementary level, it may have a fairly low average student-to-school-counselor ratio at the high

school level but the statewide ratio will be skewed higher because of the absence of school

counselors in elementary schools.

As an example, the state of Minnesota has one of the highest average student-to-school-

counselor ratios (lower only than Arizona and California) in the United States, 782 to 1 as of the

2010/2011 school year according to ASCA (2011). It appears that this is attributable to the lack

of state mandates requiring school counselors to be present in all schools, thus allowing

individual school districts to determine their own school counseling needs or lack thereof.

Leaving such decisions up to the individual school districts appears to result in employment

decisions based on budgetary reasoning rather than out of consideration for the students, their

needs or the support they require. The state’s school districts’ tendencies seem to be to have

adequate school counselor coverage at high school level, with at least one per school, mediocre

coverage at the middle school level (a school counselor presence in larger school districts) and a

minimal to non-existent school counselor presence at the elementary and primary levels.

Problem Statement


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The problem that will be explored in this study is the lack of school counselors employed in

some schools and if the resulting high student-to-school-counselor ratios (or complete lack of a

school counselor) detrimentally affects the student population the school counselors serve and to

take it a step further, in what ways are the students affected. In other words, does a ratio higher

than 250 students per school counselor as recommended by ASCA (2012) prevent a school

counselor from being able to adequately perform his or her job responsibilities and as a result

does he or she fail to meet the needs of the students?

Research Questions

For further clarification, the research question that will be addressed by this study is: how

does a school’s student-to-school counselor ratio affect a school counselor’s ability to

successfully perform his or her job responsibilities including effectively implement a

comprehensive school counseling program? And in turn how does affect student outcomes?

Related questions include: do lower ratios result in identifiably better outcomes for the students,

and in the extreme does the absence of a school counselor all together have significant and

noticeably detrimental effects on students?

Rationale

Conducting the proposed research study could provide very important information to the

school counseling field as well as contribute valuable evidence to back up ASCA’s (2012)

recommendation of a 250 to one student-to-school-counselor ratio in schools. It appears that

ASCA’s recommendation was not derived from research or concrete evidence but was rather

somewhat arbitrary. Recently there has been an increase in studies of statewide school

counseling programs, some of which have considered student-to-school-counselor ratio among

other variables, but there seems to be an absence of studies that have focused solely on the


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repercussions of high student-to-school-counselor ratios, the benefits of low student-to-school-

counselor ratios or the development of data and evidence to identify the optimal student-to-

school-counselor ratio. Thus this study has the potential to provide solid data to support ASCA’s

suggestion and give it more weight when lobbying for mandated ratios with governments or

school districts.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Earlier authors, such as Bourdieu (1967), Coleman (1990), and Bourdieu and Coleman

(1991) focused on the social environment that is a school, what social capital is and its

importance and finally how American society has shifted a classic family role on to the school.

While more recent authors such as, Bryan, Moore-Thomas, Day-Vines, and Holcomb-McCoy

(2011) and Fram and Altshuler (2009) have related social theory and the concept of social capital

to the school counselor’s (and other support staff’s) role in the school environment. Bourdieu

(1967) discusses the tendency of individuals educated in the same school setting to be like-

minded and have similar thought patterns based upon the philosophy of the school they attended.

This can be linked to the school counselor’s presence of (or lack there of) in that his or her

influence on the school can have a profound impact the culture and attitude of the student body

and how they interact with each other; students in a school without or with minimal access to a

school counselor may be lacking certain citizenship skills (that are typically taught by school

counselors) such conflict resolution, respecting differences among peers, or being able to handle

and process life-changing events. Coleman (1990) goes into the detail of social capital and

describes it as “facilitating the achievement of goals that could not be achieved in its absence or

could be achieved only at a higher cost” (Ch. 12, para. 17) through the building of intentional

relationships and the creation of social obligations to others. Finally Bourdieu and Coleman


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(1991) discussed the social differences of schools in the United States in comparison to schools

in another country and found that unlike schools elsewhere, American schools are expected to be

concerned with the “development of children’s self-esteem and general emotional well-being”

(p. 201), an area in which a school counselor is instrumental.

Taking social capital a step further, it can be examined specifically in the school setting as it

relates to school counselors; Bryan, Moore-Thomas, Day-Vines, and Holcomb-McCoy (2011)

consider social capital to be “the social relations or social networks in schools that can be used to

improve one’s life outcomes” (p. 190). Families are typically viewed as the primary source of

social capital in a child’s life but because students spend so much time in the school environment

Bourdieu and Coleman (1991) decried, it is society’s expectation that schools are also primary

sources of social capital, and are to attend to the social and emotional needs of students. Fram

and Altshuler (2009) assert, “a social capital perspective acknowledges that different

relationships have different values, depending on what resources, information, and opportunities

an individual can access through them” (p. 5). In other words students can build social capital

with different individuals in the school setting (i.e. teachers, principal, school counselor, etc.)

and it is critical that the school counselor develops a meaningful and purposeful relationship with

the students through which he or she can provide valuable and appropriate resources, information

and opportunities to improve their future. In order for a school counselor to build this social

capital, they must have the time to interact with and build a relationship with each student, and

this cannot be done if the student-to-school-counselor ratio is too high not allowing the school

counselor to feasibly interact with all students on a regular basis. While Bryan et al. (2011)

address a school counselor’s ability to build social capital as it relates to college counseling and

college application rates, there appears to be a need for the school-based social capital concept to


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be investigated in relation to other aspects and outcomes of a comprehensive school counseling

program as well as whether or not a school would fare any less by being without a school

counselor and the social capital they would build or having one with such a large caseload that

they are not able to effectively build social capital.

Literature Review

Current Research

The exploration into the correlation between the number of students a school counselor

serves and his or her effectiveness seems to be gaining ground in recent years, specifically since

the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) first introduced its National Model

framework for school counseling programs, including school counselor to student ratio

recommendations in 2003. Due to the relative youth of this concept, current research on the topic

is still somewhat limited, but there appears to a growing number of studies on the topic with

every passing year and it would be reasonable to assume that more literature will become

available as the concept continues to increase in prominence. Recently Carey and Dimmitt

(2012) compiled a summary of six studies of statewide school counseling programs and the

related student outcomes. Four of the six studies looked into the relationship between student-to-

school-counselor ratios and student outcomes. The positive student outcomes related to lower

student-to-school-counselor ratios in multiple instances included improved attendance rates,

improved graduation rates, and reduction in disciplinary action.

Each of the four studies mentioned in Carey and Dimmitt’s (2012) summary article

provided valuable insights into the effects of lower or more favorable student-to-school-

counselor ratios. Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Hoffman (2012) found, “a more favorable

student-to-school-counselor ratio was associated with an increase in student attendance, an


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increase in students’ technical proficiency in career and technical education, and an increase in

students’ program completion rates in career and technical education programs” in rural and

suburban high schools in Nebraska (p. 105). A study of high schools in Utah determined lower

ratios resulted not only in a decrease in disciplinary action and increase in attendance rates as

previously mentioned but also in more completely implemented comprehensive school

counseling programs, and consequently, higher academic achievement and improved career

planning by students (Carey, Harrington, Martin, & Stevenson, 2012). Lapan, Gysbers, Stanley,

and Pierce (2012) conducted a study of Missouri school counseling programs and determined

that more favorable ratios positively affect graduation rates, disciplinary rates, and students’

academic success but not necessarily attendance rates or ACT composite scores, especially in

schools in high poverty areas. The fourth state included in Carey and Dimmitt’s summary is

Connecticut, where Lapan, Whitcomb, and Aleman (2012) specifically focused on student-to-

school-counselor ratios and college and career counseling services (i.e. at the high school level).

They found that schools with lower ratios had significantly lower rates of disciplinary incidents

including lower rates of suspension and the counselors at those schools were able to more

effectively focus on college and career counseling.

Carrell and Carrell (2006) focused on the schools in one county school district in Florida and

the disciplinary records for a five-year span. They found more favorable student-to-school-

counselor ratios reduced both the number of recurring disciplinary problems as well as the

number of students involved in disciplinary incidents. McIntosh (2009) examined the correlation

between student-to-school-counselor ratios and schools’ success in achieving adequate yearly

progress (AYP) for all high schools in Mississippi and found that higher ratios result in the

likelihood that the school will not achieve its AYP. The presence of a school counselor ideally


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with a low student-to-school-counselor ratio is particularly important in schools in rural areas

especially in schools with higher poverty levels (Hines, 2002; Lapan, Gysbers, Stanley, & Pierce,

2012).

Pham and Keenan (2011) were not able to identify a significant adverse effect of higher

student-to-school-counselor ratios on college matriculation by students whose parents had

attended college but found that the ratio was significantly critical for those students who would

be the first in their families to attend college. The authors presumed that this is because first-

generation students need more assistance from their school counselor as their parents are

unfamiliar with navigating the perplexing college application and financial aid journey that is

necessary to matriculate to college. On the other hand, Zimchek (2009) found no significant

relationship between student-to-school-counselor ratios and attendance rates, but could not say

with certainty whether there was in fact no relationship or if there were just too many external

factors to be able to successfully discern a connection.

Unlike the rest of the studies discussed, this final study does not examine the relationship

between student-to-school-counselor ratios and student outcomes directly but rather the possible

correlation between the ratio and school counselor burnout. Moyer (2011) discusses that high

ratios can adversely affect a school counselor’s performance, can cause school counselors

considerable frustration and feelings of being overwhelmed over not being able to adequately

address the needs of their entire caseload, and cause them to neglect vital professional

development activities. Ultimately, Moyer determined that while high student-to-school-

counselor ratios can have the previously mentioned effects on counselors, they are not a

significant predictor of school counselor burnout.

Currently Available Programs and Services


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The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB; 2007) recommends that school districts work toward

achieving a student-to-school-counselor ratio of ASCA’s (2012) recommendation of 250:1.

There are many states that recognize that school counselors are necessary and have taken steps to

implementing comprehensive school counseling programs statewide, including Missouri, Iowa,

Wisconsin, and West Virginia, though they often only require one counselor per school

(regardless of size) or recommend (but do not require) a ratio that is often greater than that which

ASCA’s recommends or do not include a student-to-school-counselor ratio recommendation at

all (Missouri Department of Elementary & Secondary Education, 2013; Iowa Department of

Education, 2013; West Virginia Department of Education, n.d.; Wisconsin Department of Public

Instruction, n.d.). There are a few states (3) that have adequately low (under ASCA’s

recommendation) ratios, though it appears to be due simply to lower student populations rather

than deliberate efforts by the states’ departments of education to provide an optimal school

counseling presence in all schools (ASCA, 2011). On the other end of the spectrum, there are

states like Minnesota that have no school counseling program guidelines or framework and have

no school counselor requirements, which is demonstrated in its very high student-to-school-

counselor ratio (782:1 statewide as of 2011) exceeded by only two other states in the country

(California and Arizona; ASCA). It can be inferred that there is a relationship between states

requiring comprehensive school programs in all schools, state departments of education valuing

school counselors and what they can contribute to schools, and consequently school districts

employing more school counselors and thus lower student-to-school-counselor ratios.

ASCA (2008) also encourages school counselors to develop and implement comprehensive

school counseling programs through their Recognized ASCA Model Program (RAMP)

designation program that identifies and applauds schools that are committed to providing quality


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school counseling services to its students. The scoring rubric for RAMP status does not explicitly

judge a school on its student-to-school-counselor ratio but it does include items related to

providing services to all students (which cannot effectively be done if the ratio is too high).

Gaps in Research

Small scale and fairly focused studies have been conducted in various school districts (Pham

& Keenan, 2011; Carrell & Carrell, 2006), or at the largest, statewide (McIntosh, 2009; Zimchek,

2009; Carey & Dimmitt, 2012) but to date no nationwide research on the effects of a high

student-to-school-counselor ratio on student outcomes has been conducted or published to be

able to generalize these findings to the national population. Lapan, Gysbers, Stanley, and Pierce

(2012) assert that among research conducted regarding comprehensive school counseling

programs, the student-to-school-counselor ratio is the least researched aspect of said programs.

While Carey and Dimmitt (2012) determined that lower student-to-school-counselor ratios do

appear to have a favorable effect on student outcomes, they assert additional research is needed

to be able to better enumerate the specific relationship between ratios and student outcomes. And

similarly, Carrell and Carrell (2006) determined more studies are needed “to further assess the

total costs and benefits of reducing the student to counselor ratio. Evidence on outcomes such as

student academic performance, attendance, and school climate would provide a more in-depth

assessment of school counselor effectiveness on student outcomes” (p. 14). More research is also

needed to determine if there is a correlation between student-to-school-counselor ratios and low

academic achievement by students (Pham & Keenan, 2011). McIntosh (2009) makes many

suggestions for future research, including: investigating the relationship between ratios and

dropout rates, as well as comparing the effect of ratios between different states.

Research Methods


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There are many ways to collect data, but there are a few that are more common for research

in the human services field. One of those is utilizing surveys sent out to the desired respondents

either by mail or e-mail. Surveys can be used in either qualitative or quantitative research studies

depending on the questions asked. When utilizing surveys, especially for collecting quantitative

data, researchers often make use of pre-existing surveys as they are or modify them to meet their

needs rather than going through the process of creating and validating a survey from the

beginning. For example, Moyer (2011) utilized the Counselor Burnout Inventory (CBI) with

some additional questions regarding the amount of time participants spend on non-guidance

activities, how many hours of supervision they receive each month, and the number of students

per counselor at their campus.

Many researchers choose to forgo the process of sending out and processing surveys and

rather rely completely on already available data that they can collect and analyze in order to

answer their research questions. This was the method of choice for McIntosh (2009), Zimchek

(2009), Lapan, Gysbers, Stanley, and Pierce (2012), and Carrell and Carrell (2006); all of which

collected data either from state departments of education or individual school districts. Pham and

Keenan (2011) collected data from multiple different sources including from a survey conducted

by the Education Policy Improvement Center, as well as matriculation data from the National

Student Clearing House and the individual school district. Utilizing a combination of survey data

with already available data is also common; Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Hoffman (2012) and

Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Stevenson (2012) utilized a combination of the School

Counseling Program Implementation Survey (SCPIS) as well as collecting data from the

respective departments of education. Lapan, Whitcomb, Aleman (2012) used a similar combined

method of data collection but with the Principal and Counselor Survey rather than the SCPIS.


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Resulting Social Change

The goal of research is often to better understand a phenomenon or to prove or disprove a

hypothesis. In achieving this goal, new information is available to guide professional policy and

decisions and consequently create social change. The goal of most of the studies discussed

previously is to prove that the student-to-school-counselor ratio does significantly affect an

important outcome, typically relating to the students, such as attendance rates, graduation rates,

disciplinary action, technical proficiency, AYP, college matriculation or school counselor

burnout (Carey & Dimmitt, 2012; Carey, Harrington, Martin, & Hoffman, 2012; Carey,

Harrington, Martin, & Stevenson, 2012; Carrell & Carrell, 2006; Lapan, Gybsers, Stanley, &

Pierce, 2012; Lapan, Whitcomb, & Aleman, 2012; McIntosh, 2009; Moyer, 2011; Pham &

Keenan, 2011; Zimchek, 2009). By proving that the student-to-school-counselor ratio does

indeed affect these critical student outcomes, groups like ASCA and state school counselor

organizations have evidence that they can then take to their state governments or school districts

to lobby for ratio requirements and more comprehensive school counseling programs as it would

be in the best interest of the students and their education.

Proposed Methodology

Leedy and Ormrod (2013) very concisely define quantitative and qualitative research;

quantitative research examines variables that can be numerically measured and then uses

statistical functions to analyze them, where as qualitative research explores qualities that cannot

be described with numbers and instead are explained through words and the identification of

themes. Within the realm of quantitative research there are many different research designs,

including descriptive research, experimental, quasi-experimental, ex post facto, and mixed

method, quantitative and qualitative methods (Leedy & Ormrod).


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For this research proposal a quantitative research method will be employed because the

purpose of this study is to prove a relationship exists between the student-to-school-counselor

ratio and student outcomes not to describe or explain a phenomenon, which is typically what is

achieved with qualitative research. And while there may be more than one method that is valid

and appropriate for answering the proposed research questions, the quantitative method that has

been chosen to be most appropriate at this time is a quasi-experimental simple time series

experiment design. The descriptive research method and the use of surveys was also considered

but it was determined that there would be no way to reduce confounding variables and the

reliance on people’s opinions (in surveys) may minimize the strength of the results. Where as the

simple time series design will utilize school outcome data to determine the effectiveness of

reducing the student-to-school-counselor ratio.

Specifically, this method will examine the variables, student outcomes and program

implementation prior to treatment when there is a higher student-to-school-counselor ratio and

then one or more additional school counselors will be put into in the same school (the

“treatment” through the use of school counseling interns) thus resulting in a lower student-to-

school-counselor ratio and after a pre-determined amount of time the same variables will again

be measured. The hypothesis for this study is that there will be a significantly positive change in

the student outcomes and program implementation once the ratio has been reduced, where as the

null hypothesis would be that there is no identifiable change in variables between prior to the

treatment and after the treatment.

Expected Results

There are three conclusions the potential results for the proposed study could support:

student-to-school-counselor ratios have a significant effect on student outcomes and student


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counselor effectiveness, student-to-school-counselor ratios have no measureable effect on

student outcomes or student counselor effectiveness, or the study’s results are inconclusive and it

is impossible to determine if any favorable results are a result of the student-to-school-counselor

ratio. The ideal, most logical and expected results would affirm the hypothesis that a lower

student-to-school-counselor ratio will have a significantly more favorable effect on student

outcomes and school counselor effectiveness than that of a higher ratio, based on the simple

logic that more manpower would result in more time to complete tasks as well as more time to

spend with students, which in turn would result in higher graduation rates, attendance rates and

test scores as well as reduced disciplinary action, though there is minimal research from which to

draw this inference.

A few studies, including those conducted by Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Hoffman (2012);

Carey, Harrington, Martin, and Stevenson, (2012); Lapan, Gysbers, Stanley, and Pierce (2012);

and Lapan, Whitcomb, and Aleman (2012) identified a connection between lower ratios (among

other factors) and better student outcomes (for some but not all outcomes), thus making the

expected results feasible. Unlike the experimental nature of the proposed study, the four

previously mentioned studies compared ratios and outcomes among different schools in the same

state via surveys and available school data, thus there is a higher chance that confounding factors

played a role in the identified results. Where as Carrell and Carrell (2006) employed a similar

method to the one proposed in this study and found within school reductions in disciplinary

action when a second school counselor (in the form of an intern) was utilized at the site. The

proposed study would build on their success and aim to examine student outcomes beyond

disciplinary action as well school counselor effectiveness in hopes of successfully identifying the

importance of low student-to-school-counselor ratios.


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Implications for Research and Practice and Ethical Concerns

All studies, including the proposed study are more effective when ethical considerations are

incorporated. Many ethical considerations, such as protecting the participants from harm, and

making sure that participants are participating voluntarily and have been informed of then nature

of the study are basic and necessary to all studies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2013, ACA, 2005). But

there are other ethical considerations, more specific to experimental research, that are not

required, but when incorporated help to improve the authority of a study and consequently the

impact that the study will have on the field of study, school counseling in this instance. Wester

(2007) describes this adherence to high ethical standards as research integrity, and studies

conducted with integrity and their findings will have more credibility and carry more weight in

their field.

When creating and making decisions related to the study, professional ethical standards,

specifically the American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA, 2010) Ethical Standards and

American Counseling Association’s (ACA, 2005) Code of Ethics were incorporated. ASCA’s

ethical standards do not cover research studies extensively, though they do implore school

counselors to “conduct appropriate research, and report findings in a manner consistent with

acceptable educational and psychological research practices. School counselors advocate for the

protection of individual students’ identities when using data for research or program planning”

(2010, F.1.c). Some of ASCA’s other ethical standards can be applied to research, such as

treating the students with respect, upholding their welfare, encouraging their development, not

imposing one’s values onto students and being knowledgeable about laws and students’ rights –

all of which are important considerations when conducting research with integrity. Whereas the

ACA Code of Ethics has entire section devoted to research and publication, and covers such


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topics as research responsibilities, rights of research participants, relationships with research

participants, reporting results, and publication.

Diversity is incorporated into the design of the proposed study primarily through the schools

chosen to participate in the study. ACA (2005) asserts that research goals should be

multiculturally sensitive to diverse participants. In an effort to have wide representation of

populations, schools from varying geographic areas (urban, suburban, and rural) with students

from a variety of socioeconomic statuses as well as different ethnic and cultural backgrounds

will be chosen in order to make the study’s results applicable across many populations. While

this strategy will represent diverse populations, it will also possibly make it difficult to determine

if the results are an effect of the study’s treatment or of the school’s specific demographics.

With this specific study, there is also no need for randomly sampling as the control situation

is the school in its original state with its typical number of counselors, and the proposed

treatment in the study is adding another school counselor to the school to reduce the ratio, which

should be neither intrusive nor contrived but instead beneficial to the students. As far as

deception, it seems plausible that the students should not know the exact goal of the study rather

that it just relates to the school’s school counseling program so that they do not skew their

behaviors in order to “do better” in the study, but as soon as the study is complete and data has

been collected they should be debriefed on the true reason for the presence of an additional

school counselor for an extended period of time as laid out by the ACA (2005) Code of Ethics.

Leadership in the Profession

The proposed study is very relevant to leadership opportunities for the individual researcher,

as well as for the school counseling profession as a whole. For the individual researcher,

favorable results of the proposed study of student-to-school-counselor ratios could be beneficial


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in lobbying for one’s employment in the job search process by being able to effectively prove the

benefit of a school counselor’s presence and of a lower ratio in the school. It could also be a

valuable asset when assuming leadership roles in school counseling organizations at both the

state (Minnesota School Counselor Association) and national level (ASCA). ASCA (2012)

recommends a ratio of 250 students for every counselor, but there has been minimal research

(more as of late) to back up this recommendation. Favorable results of the proposed study would

confirm their assertion and give it more credence. This proof would also give ASCA more

credibility when lobbying for mandated student-to-school-counselor ratios with state and federal

governments, which in turn would improve school counselors’ ability to be effective nationwide.

The ASCA (2010) Ethical Standards affirm school counselors have a responsibility of

staying up to date on current research and maintaining their professional competence in

leadership along with many other proficiencies that are critical to a school counselor’s success.

They also state school counselors should work to be school leaders that establish equity and

close achievement gaps (ASCA). In order to effectively meet these expectations, school

counselors must have a student-to-school-counselor ratio that is low enough that they are not

overwhelmed by their caseloads. Shillingford and Lambie (2010) determined that development

of school counselors’ leadership practices significantly improved their ability to deliver

programmatic services. It reasons that even if a school counselor is employed in a school with a

relatively low ratio, the counselor also needs to be competent in leadership practices in order to

be effective in implementing comprehensive school counseling programs. While Dollarhide,

Gibson, and Saginak (2008) emphasize that successful leadership requires persistent effort and

long-range vision, and that efforts within four ascribed frames increase the likelihood of success;

they are structural, human resource, political, and symbolic leadership.


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Conclusion

In an effort to wrap up and summarize this research proposal, the primary points and

findings will be reviewed. The proposed study set out to answer the questions, how does a

school’s student-to-school-counselor ratio affect a school counselor’s ability to successfully

perform his or her job effectively and how does it affect student outcomes? The intended

methodology was a quasi-experimental simple time series experiment design with the expected

results being a significantly positive effect on the variables of school counselor’s effectiveness

and student outcomes with the reduction of the student-to-school-counselor ratio. This study was

based on a school-based social capital conceptual framework and the existing literature on the

effect of student-to-school-counselor ratios on student outcomes was reviewed and analyzed.

Finally, the proposed study was evaluated for ethical and diversity concerns and implications as

well as assessed for potential leadership opportunities.


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References

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