final project sustainable
TRANSCRIPT
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Technical Content
Fuel Cell
Introduction
Fuel cells are, in principle, continuously operating batteries, producing direct
current by electrochemical cold combustion of a gaseous fuel, usually hydrogen. Thus,
hydrogen is oxidized to protons in gas diffusion electrodes, releasing electrons,
according to the reaction:
H2 2 H+
+ 2 e-
(1)
On the opposite electrode, also gaseous diffusion, considering the cell proton
exchange membrane (acidic), we have the reaction:
2 H++ 2 e-+ O2 H2O (2)
The overall reaction, which is accompanied by heat release, can be written asfollows:
H2+ 1/2 O2 H2O (3)
The figure 1 shows the scheme of a fuel cell and the reactions that occur inside it.
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Figure 1. Fuel cell scheme
Gas diffusion electrodes are permeable to electronic conducting reactant gases
and are separated from each other by an electrolyte (ionic conductor) in a way that the
gases do not mix. The electrolyte can be a liquid, a conductive polymer cation,
saturated with a liquid or a solid (zirconium oxide). For a hydrogen/oxygen the working
cell potential is between 0.5 and 0.7 V. Open circuit potentials are between 1.1 and 1.2
V. Due to its high reactivity, hydrogen is now day, the most suitable choice for fuel,
however, there is a lot of researches testing methanol and even ethanol as an
alternative fuel.
Fuel Cells types
Table 1 shows the different types of fuel cells, as well as its main features.
Currently, AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cell) have an important role only in space travel, showing
no land application due to the fact that you use only ultra-pure hydrogen and oxygen.
Further, work at a low operating temperature and require a relatively complicated
process to remove the water from the electrolyte. However, this cell type is the
precursor of the most modern cells.
Currently, the development of cells not demand the same dependence for pure
gas fuel, but, for example, natural gas or methanol. In turn, for the oxidizing agent, the
use of atmospheric air is preferable to pure oxygen.
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Table 1. Fuel cells types.
Type Electrolyte Temperature
Range (oC)
Advantages Downfalls Applications
Alkaline Fuel
Cell (AFC)
OH- 6090 High efficiency
(83% theoretical)
-Sensible to
CO2
-Ultra pure
gases, without
reform of fuel
- Spacecraft
- Military
applications
Proton
exchange
membrane
fuel cell
(PEMFC)
Polymer:
Nafion
(H3O+)
8090 Flexible
operation
- Sensible to
CO
-High
membrane
cost
- Spacecraft
- Mobility
- Motor Vehicles
and catalyst
Phosphoric
acid fuel cell
(PAFC)
H3O+ 160 - 200 Further
technological
development
- Need to
control the
porosity of the
electrode
- Sensible to
CO
- Efficiency
limited bycorrosion
- Stationary units
- Cogeneration
electricity / heat
Molten
carbonate fuel
cell (MCFC
CO32- 650 - 700 - Tolerance to
CO / CO2
- Ni-based
electrodes
- Need to
recycle CO2
- Three-phase
interface
unwieldy
- Stationary units
of several
hundred kW
- Cogeneration
electricity / heat
Solid oxide
fuel cell
(SOFC)
O2- 800900 - High efficiency
(favorable
kinetic)
-The reform of
the fuel can be
made on the cell
- Thermal
expansion
- Need for pre-
retirement
- Stationary units
from 10 to
several hundred
kW
- Cogeneration
electricity / heat
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Reactions inside the fuel cell
The anodic reactions (1) and cathode (2) are, in general, breakage of the
chemical bond between two atoms of hydrogen and oxygen respectively. The rupture of
the diatomic molecules H2 and O2 require an activation energy of the same order of
magnitude of their formation energies, when the reactions are homogeneous and occur
in the gas phase. In fuel cells, however, both reactions are heterogeneous and occur at
the electrode / electrolyte interface, being catalyzed at the electrode surface. Due to this
fact, it is used in cells with low operation temperature, platinum as a catalyst in both the
anodic and cathodic reaction (Appleby et al., 1989). Platinum is scattered randomly in
nanometrics particles on the inner surface of activated charcoal. The catalytic effect on
the anode summarized at break by chemical adsorption of H2, meanwhile at the
cathode the catalytic effect is just in weakening the bond oxygen / oxygen also by
chemical adsorption of O2 molecule. The steps (4a) (4b) and (4c) describe
electrochemical breakdown of hydrogen.
H2 H2, ads(4a)
H2, ads
2 Hads(4b)Hads+ H2O H3O
++ e
-(4c)
The steps involved in reducing oxygen are significantly more complicated, with
the formation of hydrogen peroxide as an intermediate product, and are shown below:
O2 O2, ads(5a)
O2, ads + H++ e
- O2Hads(5b)
O2Hads+ H++ e
- H2O2(5c)
H2O2+ 2 H++ 2 e
- 2 H2O (5d)
For fuel cells with high-temperature operation there is no need for the use of
noble metals as catalysts, since in this temperature range, the metal of the electrode
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itself becomes sufficiently active. Thus, for molten carbonate cells, is used as the
electrode material - while electrocatalyst - nickel for the anode and nickel oxide inlaid
with lithium to the cathode, which is a semiconductor p. In the case of ceramic cells, we
use a cermet of Ni / ZrO2 as the anode material, or an array of metallic nickel
synthesized with finely distributed zirconium oxide. As the cathode material is used
Lanthanum strontium manganite La(Sr)MnO3.
Gas diffusion electrodes
Gas diffusion electrodes are a porous structure of that conduct electrons. The
construction of this electrode has the function to maximize the gas-liquid-solid (except
for the SOFC, which have solid electrolyte) phase interface, greatly increasing the
speed of electrodic processes. The gas diffusion electrodes must satisfy at least two
important requirements: (1) must have high catalytic activity in order to obtain high
current densities and; (2) the pores of the electrode during operation, may not have
strong capillary forces, not to suck all the electrolyte, and the gas pressure should not
be too high, so that the electrolyte is not completely expelled from the pores. In these
two extremes the electrode becomes inefficient. The inner surface of the pores of the
electrode is contacted by a thin film electrolyte, so that relatively large pores (diameter
0.1 to 1mm) are free for the circulation / distribution of the working gas. The gas
diffusion electrodes are extremely thin and can have, for example, thicknesses of 0.1
mm in cells of low temperature operation or 0.5 mm high cell operating temperature.
In cells with low operation temperature, the electrocatalyst particles are in the
nanometer range of size distribution of dispersed, generally, activated charcoal particles
with a diameter between 30 and 100 nm. In fuel cells with high-temperature operation
the electrocatalyst particles (the electrode itself) are of the same order of magnitude or
larger than the particles of activated charcoal. The manufacture of these electrodes is
based, in most cases, in the manufacture of precursor films, which are obtained from a
slurry as in traditional ceramic processes (doctor-blade). This directory contains, in
addition to the catalyst, a pore former and an appropriate organic binder, for example a
polyvinyl alcohol. The binder gives intermediate support to the film, which later
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evaporated by heating. For the manufacture of a gas diffusion electrode for membrane
cells, one should first put the catalyst with an electrolyte solution (Nafion). When the
electrolyte is in liquid form, as is the case of the phosphoric acid cells and molten
carbonate, it is not possible, obviously, form a portable solid film. In this case, the
electrolyte is sucked by a porous matrix fixed between the electrodes. In phosphoric
acid cells, silicon carbide with an average diameter of 0.1 mm is used as material for
this matrix. In molten carbonate cells a matrix of particles of LiAlO2is used. The matrix
is also manufactured in the form of films, thereby obtaining units electrode / matrix /
electrode (MEA: Membrane / Electrode Assembly Matrix).
After assembling the electrode / matrix unit cell in PEM, proceeds removal of
organic polymeric binder matrix by heating. In the case of cells carbonate, the
electrolyte is introduced in the form of a film composed of the mixture of lithium
carbonate and potassium, which is subsequently molted. In other types of fuel cells,
after the introduction of the electrolyte, proceeds to the final configuration of the cell.
Unit cells have a potential open from 1 to 1.2 V and release, upon request from
0.5 to 0.7 V DC. These values are, in a practical point of view, very low. The need for
serial stacking of multiple units of cells (200 to 300), it becomes obvious in order to
obtain practical potential of the order of 150 to 200 V.
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
In the late '60s began the development of the phosphoric acid cell, by the
company United Technology Corporation, a fact which represented a significant
technological progress. This type of cell, unlike the alkaline cells are not sensitive to the
carbon dioxide from the air and even less sensitive to carbon monoxide, which poisons
the catalyst, allowing a content of up to 1% CO in the feed gas at 200oC. The
development of this cell had, from the outset, the goal of conquering the important
market of methane-burning power plants.
In the 80's was performed in the United States, the first field trial with a system of
40 units of phosphoric acid cells, fed with natural gas, with an electric power of 40 kW.
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An important condition for this experiment was the miniaturization of reform and
conversion of natural gas technology, reactions (6) and (7):
CH4+ H2O CO + 3 H2(6)
CO + H2O CO2+ H2 (7)
While a process of industrial reforming consumes 30,000 m3/h of natural gas, a
battery of cells 200 kW fuel, with a total efficiency of 40%, consumes only 50 m3/h of the
same fuel.
Cells of high temperature operation
Cells of high temperature operation are classified into two types: MCFC (Molten
Carbonate Fuel Cell) and SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell). These cells present certain
advantages over other types of fuel cells, such as ease of management of the
electrolyte (SOFC) and no need for the use of noble metals as catalysts (Kordesch et
al., 1996). They also have higher values of theoretical conversion efficiency, and have
a high capacity for coproduction electricity / heat. The high operating temperature
favors the kinetics of electrochemical reactions and allows reformation of the fuel (eg .:
hydrocarbons or natural gas) in the body of the cell. So energy systems based on fuel
cells ceramic (SOFC) can potentially be simple to operate and more efficient than the
others. It should also be noted another important characteristic of these cells is the fact
that all its components are solid and can be used in manufacturing processes thin and
compact layers with flexible configurations, thereby increasing the performance of this
cell type in particular. Technologically, the use of these cells is some design limitations
on the selection and processing of the materials involved. This is due mainly to the
high temperatures used, which promote corrosion processes, thermal stresses, fatigueof different components and others problems. These aspects have motivated
unremitting efforts by the scientific community to study and develop materials and
processes that can meet the specifications for this application.
The steps involved for the SOFC cell are:
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CO + H2O CO2+ H2 (anode) (8)
O2-
+ H2H2O + 2 e- (interface anode/electrolyte) (9)
O2+ 4 e-2 O2- (catode) (10)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
H2 + 1/2 O2H2O (11)
CO + 1/2 O2CO2 (total) (12)
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Fuel cells that has a low operating temperature, which use a polymer membrane
as electrolyte, also called PEMFC (Proton Exchange fuel cell membran) are the most
promising as an alternative to combustion engines, and to be robust and easy to drive
off, apart from the advantages inherent high efficiency and low emission of pollutants.
Due to the low operating temperature, and even when using air as the cathode power
has become zero NOx emission. This kind of fuel cells also apply to stationary units.
Currently, the determinant for market entry factor, though, is its cost (Wang et al., 1996)
Fuel cells that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte are known since the
early days of space research. However, only with the introduction of the membrane
Nafion, more chemically resistant, success was obtained with respect to long-term
performance.
Applications and new researchs.
The Fuel cells presents various applications of commercial interest, highlighting
the applications as stationary power generators. As already showed, there are several
types of fuel cells, among them are the proton exchange membrane (PEMFC), which is
the most promising for use in city vehicles and stationary sources. (Wendt et al., 2000).
Typically, the fuel used in the PEMFC is hydrogen, but the fuel still has some
disadvantages and operational infrastructure (Wendt et al., 2002). So come by studying
new forms of fuel that can supply hydrogen to the oxidation reaction. In recent years,
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There researches are now focused in to find a multifunctional electrocatalyst.
Different components are being used in the electrocatalyst, such as Pt, Sn, Zn, Au,
however, the Pt/Sn eletrocatalyst is presenting the best results for now.
Batteries
Introduction
Batteries and cells have become indispensable to the present day, more and
more mobile devices require a power source. It is very difficult to find someone who
does not use a cell phone, watch or laptop, and this number is growing, become
obvious the limitations of these sources. The most common problems noted by users of
these devices are short periods of time to keep the batteries charged, the fact that the
batteries gradually lose their ability to recharge and the difficulty in disposing the
batteries because they have environmentally harmful materials.
The growing energy demand requires more modern and efficient and at the same
time environmentally friendly equipment. This involves in-depth studies on new
materials and technologies that can simultaneously extend the useful life of the
equipment, without harming the environment after disposal, and without increasing the
final cost to the consumer.
Today we can see the use of some alternative materials, but large-scale
production is still based on traditional models. The higher cost and availability of finest
materials to manufacture the most modern and efficient batteries seem to be the main
barrier, and lack of financial incentive to develop alternative technologies. Traditional
brands are more concerned with accumulating gains than to propose solutions.
Material limitation
The current production of cells is based on two main types: those of Leclanch
and alkaline. The alkaline already use more durable and less harmful to the
environment, with the advantage that they can be used as secondary batteries
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(rechargeable) materials simply by small changes in structure. The production of
batteries of the metal hydride / nickel oxide type and lithium ions, has a lesser
environmental risk than nickel cadmium batteries, even so, the large worldwide
production is still based on the traditional model nickel cadmium (BRODD et al., 1999).
The materials currently used have limitations as regards the capacity of energy
storage for long periods. Others have a deficiency in the process of electrolysis forced
(recharge) and finally, all pose a great risk to the environment, because when unused
can impair gravely soils, if not properly treated and disposed.
.
Batteries types and operating principle
The chemical process of electron exchange, known as redox, is responsible for
the operation and properties of the batteries. The primary function of a battery is to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy through a spontaneous reaction of
electron exchange between two species (electrodes), usually metal. Formed when an
electrode that has a metallic fragment immersed in a solution of its ions. In this case,
this can be called galvanic cell, or simply electric cell stack device. There are two
different types of batteries, the primary and secondary. The primary battery are
essentially non-rechargeable and some examples are: zinc / manganese dioxide
(Leclanch), zinc / manganese dioxide (alkaline), zinc silver oxide, lithium / sulfur
dioxide, lithium / manganese dioxide. The main difference between the Leclanch and
alkaline battery is that in the alkaline battery is that the electrolyte is a concentrated
aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (~ 30 wt%) containing a given amount of zinc
oxide; hence the name for this alkaline battery. Moreover, this outer container is made
of sheet steel to better ensure sealing and thus preventing the risk of leakage of highly
caustic electrolyte (BRO et al., 1995).
In a secondary battery its half-reactions are all reversible, so this way during the
recharging, the battery will operate as a receiver of power by an external generator and
then all the half-reactions will be reversed by this external source of energy, allowing the
redox reaction to happen again. The big advantage of this type of battery is that it can
be recharged thousands of times, while maintaining the potential difference (1,44V)
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fairly constant during discharge. The main types of secondary batteries are: nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMh), Lead-Acid, Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion
polymer (BENNET et al., 1995).
Daniell battery
The Daniell battery operated with two interconnected electrodes. Each electrode
was a system consisting of a metal immersed in an aqueous solution of a salt formed by
two of the metal cation.
In such a system a dynamic balance between the metal element and its
corresponding cation is established.
The model Daniell uses zinc as electrode. The zinc electrode is a system
consisting of a plate of metallic zinc immersed in a solution containing zinc cations,
Zn2+(aq). This solution is obtained by dissolving a salt, such as zinc sulphate, ZnSO4 (s)
in water. At this electrode the following phenomena occur: the zinc metal (plate) loses
two electrons to the zinc cation (solution) and becomes Zn2+(aq).
Zn(s)Zn2+
(aq)+ 2e- (oxidaxion) (13)
The zinc cation (in solution) receives two electrons from metallic zinc and turns
into Zn(s).
Zn2+
(aq)+ 2e- Zn(s)
(reduction) (14)
As it is a continuous and uninterrupted process, write the overall equation
symbolized by the dynamic equilibrium:
Zn(s)Zn2+
(aq)+ 2e-
(equilibrium) (15)
Now consider an copper electrode, analogous to the zinc electrode, compound
by a plate of metallic copper immersed in a solution of copper sulphate, CuSO4 (aq),
which thus contains copper cations Cu2+(aq) in which the equilibrium is established as
follows:
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Cu(s)Cu2+
(aq)+ 2e-
(equilibrium) (16)
In his research Daniell realized that if he did an interconnection between two
electrodes, made of different metals, the most reactive metal would transfer their
electrons to the cation of the least reactive metal instead of transferring them to your
own cations in solution.
As zinc is more reactive than copper, if electrodes of zinc and copper are
connected through a wire, zinc metal will transfer its electrons to the cation copper
Cu2+(aq) instead of transferring them to the zinc cation , Zn 2+(aq). Thus a passage of
electric current through the wire conductor is established.
Lithium batteries
Batteries that have lithium as the main constituent has as one of its
characteristics the fact that they are very light, because lithium is the least dense metal
discovered so far. There are two main types of batteries or lithium batteries, one of
which is called a lithium-iodine battery. It was developed especially for use in cardiac
pacemakers, since it is quite light, safe (does not release gases, it is airtight) has a good
durability (about 8 to 10) provides a voltage of 8 V and a high charge density (0.8 Wh /
cm3).
The electrodes are formed by lithium and iodine complex, which are separated
by a layer of crystalline lithium iodide which allows the passage of electric current. The
lithium metal serves as the anode in the battery and the iodine complex as the cathode.
The reactions inside this type of battery are:
2 Li(s)2 Li+
(s)+ 2e-
(anode) (17)
In2(s)+ 2e
- In
-(s) (catode) (18)
2 Li (s) + In2(s) LiI (s) (total) (19)
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The other type of cell or battery is a lithium ion battery. It takes its name precisely
because its operation is based on the movement of lithium ions (Li +). It is currently
widely used in the batteries of mobile phones and its potential varies between 3.0 and
3.5 V.
The anode and the cathode are formed by atoms arranged as if they were on
planes blades with spaces where lithium ions are inserted. The anode consists of
graphite with metal and copper ions are intercalated in the plans of hexagonal carbon
structures, forming the following substance LiyC6. The cathode is formed by lithium ions
intercalated in the lamellar structure (LixCoO2). Thus, the lithium ions have to leave the
anode and migrate through a non-aqueous solvent for the cathode (VINCENT et al.,
1984).
The reactions inside this type of battery are:
LiyC6 (s)C6(s)+ y Li+
(solv) +y e- (anode) (20)
LixCoO2(s)+ y Li+
(s) +y e- Lix+yCoO2(s) (catode) (21)
LixCoO2(s)+ LiyC6 (s) Lix+yCoO2(s)+ C6(s) (total) (22)
These batteries are rechargeable just by using an electrical current that causes
the migration of lithium ions in the opposite direction, from the oxide to the graphite.
Sustainability discussion
Batteries and Sustainability
Batteries are divided into two groups,primary and secondary. The first group of
batteries (single-use or "disposable") are used once and discarded and Secondary one
(rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times. The firstgroup is a non-sustainable use of energy that can be inferred because of the many toxic
and not environmental friendly chemical substances contained within the batteries, such
as Mercury and cadmium. On the other hand, the rechargeable batteries presents a
lifecycle and eventually will need to be discharged too. A better way to apply it using
sustainable approach is to recycle the batteries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_batterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_batterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_battery -
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The second group includes storage batteries, and present sustainable appeal if
merged to renewable sources of energy, such as wind and solar energies system. The
storage battery work as energy accumulator carrying electrochemical energy within. It
presents less environmental impact than disposable batteries and lower total cost.
The recycling process is based on the battery being broken apart in a hammer
mill, machine that hammers the battery into pieces. The broken battery pieces are then
placed into a vat, where lead and heavy materials fall to the bottom and the plastic
floats. At this point, polypropylene pieces are scooped away and the liquid is drawn off,
leaving lead and heavy metals. Each compound of the battery is used in a different
recycling stream.
For the Cadmium based batteries, the plastics are firstly separated from the
metal components. The low-melt metals (i.e. zinc and cadmium) separate during the
melting, the metals and plastic are then returned to be reused in new products. These
batteries are 100% recycled. To mercury batteries, the heavy metals are recovered
through a controlled-temperature process and then properly disposed.
Figure 2. Battery as a recycling leader
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that has its operation principles very close
to the batterys one. The fuel, hydrogen gas, is combined with oxygen between an
electrolyte to produce electric energy and heat with only one waste: water, with that
factor the fuel cells are considered clean, environmentally friendly and an efficient
power source. Among its uses, this energy source has been used to power spacecraft,
as Space Shuttle, Apollo and Gemini.
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Figure 3. Use of Battery in cars and the displaces of gasoline/CO2
In a comparative study realized by theAir and Energy Technology Case Studies
at a hospital in Rhode Island, when compared to a regular natural gas cell system the
reduction of - the primary greenhouse gas emitted by human activities in the USA -
is about 17,000 tons per year. And replacing the gas cell systems to produce one-third
of hospitals electricity during peak hours will save from $60,000 to $90,000 dollars per
year.
Using hydrogen fuel cells for electric vehicles (FCEV) is a well-appliedsustainable use of fuel cells. The estimate for the entire lifecycle cost range from $7,360
to $22,580, whereas those for regular battery electric vehicles (BEV) range from $6,460
to $11,420. Therefore, predictions from the Georigia Tech Research Industrysays that
in about 15 years electric vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells could achieve cost
parity with conventional gasoline vehicles.
A study published in 2001 from California Air Resources Board concluded that
when electricity for BEV generated from a mix of a fossil fuel and a non-fossil fuel can
be about 8% more energy efficient than fuel cell vehicles. This happens because the
hydrogen for the FCV are mostly reformed from natural gas nowadays.
Environmental importance of correct disposal of batteries
Batteries have inside, chemicals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, zinc and
manganese considered highly dangerous to health and the environment. To launch
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such waste in the trash, his fate will be, almost always, the dump, because they are not
biodegradable - does not decompose, contamination is certain.
These substances can cause, among other things, neurological damage such as
memory loss, respiratory problems and contribute to the development of cancers.
Contact with soil, these substances reach groundwater - groundwater reservoir, used by
animals and plants that can reach us. If they are burned, releasing toxic fumes that
pollute the air.
But the best solution to the environmental hazard that used batteries is
awareness and reducing the consumption of batteries containing these heavy metals. It
is also necessary that manufacturers invest in research to replace metals by other
substances less harmful to the environment and greater durability.
Recycling Batteries and Disposal
Due to new environmental policies and laws that regulated the disposal ofbatteries in different countries of the world some processes were developed for the
recycling of these products. To promote the recycling of batteries, it is necessary first
knowledge of its composition. Unfortunately, there is no correlation between the size or
shape of cells and their composition. In different laboratories research has been
conducted in order to develop processes to recycle used batteries or, in some cases,
treat them for safe disposal.
The process of recycling batteries can follow three distinct lines: based on
mineral processing operations, the hydrometallurgical or pyro metallurgical. Sometimes
these processes are specific for recycling batteries, the batteries sometimes are
recycled along with other types of materials.
Some of these processes are described below:
SUMITOMO - Japanese fully pyro metallurgical process in a very high cost is used in
the recycling of all types of batteries, less Ni-Cd type.
RECYTEC - Process used in Switzerland in the Netherlands since 1994 that combines
pyro metallurgical and hydrometallurgical. It is used in the recycling of all types ofbatteries and fluorescent lamps and also several tubes containing mercury. This
process is not used for the recycling of Ni-Cd, which are separated and sent to a
company that does this type of recycling. The investment in this process is smaller than
the SUMITOMO. However operating costs are higher.
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ATECH - Basically based in mineralogy and therefore with less than the previous cost
processes used in the recycling of all batteries.
SNAM-SAVAM - French Process, totally pyro metallurgical recovery of battery types Ni-
Cd.
SAB-NIFE - Swedish Case, fully pyro metallurgical recovery of battery types Ni-Cd.
Inmetco - North American Process INCO (Pennsylvania, USA), was initially developed
with the aim of recovering metal dust from electric arc furnaces. However, the process
can also be used for recovering metal from waste of other processes and Ni-Cd
batteries fit these other types of waste.
Waelz - pyro metallurgical process for recovering metals from dusts. Basically the
process is done through rotary kilns. It is possible to recover metals like Zn, Cd, Pb.
The Ni-Cd batteries often are recovered separately from each other due to two major
factors, one is the presence of cadmium, which provides some difficulties in recovering
zinc and mercury by distillation; the other is difficult to separate iron and nickel.
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Figure 4. Battery recycling process
Recycling batteries and the economic impact
Batteries are made for good performance and long life at a low price. Recycling
is an afterthought and manufacturers invest little to simplify the retrieving of precious
metals. The recycling business is small compared to the vast battery industry, and to
this day only lead acid can be recycled profitably. Nickel-based batteries might make
money with good logistics, but Li-ion and most other chemistries yield too little in
precious metals to make recycling a viable business without subsidies. The true cost to
manufacture a modern battery is not only the raw materials but preparation, purificationand processing into micro- and nano-structures. Recycling brings the metal to ground
zero from which the preparations must start anew.
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Figure 5. Cost of some Battery components
To make the recycling business feasible, subsidies are needed by adding a tax to
each cell sold. Perhaps more importantly than earning a profit is preventing toxic
batteries from entering landfills. Soil contamination can be harmful to health and is
difficult to reverse. The key to reduce the battery wasteland is in respecting batteries by
treating them well and only discard them when no salvage remedy exists. Better charge
methods, modern battery monitoring systems (BMS) and advanced battery test devices
help get the full life out of a battery. Too many batteries are replaced as a way to
troubleshoot an apparent problem. Advanced diagnostic devices help in eliminating trial-
by-error so that only faded batteries and those with valid deficiencies are replaced.
Achievements
There are a lot of researches about batteries and fuel cells and the high demand
for systems with high efficiency and low environment impacts will lead the companies to
adopt in the next 20 years actions to help the development of those researches and
facilitate the entry of those new technologies to the market.
The batteries are more promising as a solution to energy storage, because thistechnology is further developed, while fuel cells are still facing problems in primary parts
such as electrocatalyst and control of the electrolyte concentration during the energy
production.
Level of contributions
Forcelini, Mateus.: 25%
Nascimento, Marcus P.:25%
Garbin, Gregorio R.: 25%
Cardoso, Igor S.: 25%
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