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FINAL REPORT

BASEL CARIBBEAN SUB-REGIONAL CENTRE / CARIRI-UWI PROJECT ON USED LEAD-ACID

BATTERIES

Ivan Chang Yen, Ph.D.

Senior Lecturer, Analytical Chemistry The University of the West Indies

St. Augustine Trinidad

Undertaken as per Memorandum of Understanding

of October 19, 2001, between The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine

and the Basel Caribbean Sub-Regional Centre / CARIRI, St. Augustine.

For the Ministry of the Environment of

Trinidad and Tobago

January 12, 2002

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List of Contents jugaultv@unep.ch

Contents Page I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2 II. BACKGROUND 5 III. MACRO-ECONOMIC AND

LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS 8

IV. COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSPORT AND RECYCLING PRACTICES FOR DISCARDED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO 15

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

A NATIONAL PLAN OF ACTION 24

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 27 VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 28

VIII. APPENDIX 29

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I – EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The problems caused by discarded lead-acid battery wastes 1 and lead smelter wastes in Trinidad 2,3 and in Jamaica 4,5 are well recognized. In most cases, ignorance of the toxic effects caused by excessive exposure to lead resulted in many cases of childhood lead poisoning. In Trinidad, two fatalities and over 70 hospitalized cases 1, 2 were reported. The latter cases, while producing initial responses by local health and environmental authorities, have not been translated into sustained action to prevent further incidents. Lead pollution continues, in spite of recognition by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, of continued lead pollution of unknown magnitude at other sites 6.

Activities involving the repair and recycling of lead-acid batteries have been identified as major contributors to lead pollution at many sites in Trinidad 8. Similarly, the storage of discarded batteries around homes and workplaces has resulted in large amounts of lead being accumulated in places readily accessible to young children. The system used for the recycling of discarded lead-acid batteries is largely ineffective and presents a significant risk to the health of the local population, and particularly young children, who are most susceptible to the toxic effects of lead 7,8.

This project had as its major objectives the following:

��The estimation of the number of lead-acid batteries discarded annually by

automobiles in Trinidad and Tobago;

��The evaluation of the practices and identification of the deficiencies in the present recycling system;

��Provision of recommendations for improvement of the battery recycling system, based on information and data collected.

Information and data for the project were gathered in a desktop study, using information and data from official sources. Field visits were also made to a number of battery sales, repair and recycling sites in both Trinidad and Tobago, to provide information on current repair, recycling and disposal practices.

In addition, a survey of the local adult population was carried out, to determine their level of awareness of, and their attitudes towards the recycling of discarded lead-acid batteries. This information was considered essential in determining the most appropriate strategy for the recycling of discarded batteries in the country.

Our study has shown that, of the 160,000-170,000 batteries estimated to be discarded annually in Trinidad and Tobago, most are collected by the informal sector, and returned to a single recycling company in east Trinidad, for export to Venezuela.

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However, given our inability to differentiate between new and discarded lead-acid batteries that are imported and exported from trade data, it is difficult to estimate the quantity of batteries that remain uncollected. In addition, many totally knocked down (TKD) foreign-used vehicles imported for subsequent assembly locally, are usually classified as automobile parts and often include batteries which are likely to have short lifetimes (<6 months). The latter numbers are difficult to estimate, since the trade figures do not identify whether such batteries are included in used automobile parts shipments. A revision of the customs classification of lead-acid batteries is therefore required, to enable used or scrap batteries to be differentiated from new batteries and used car parts.

In Tobago, unlike Trinidad, many lead-acid batteries are discarded with domestic wastes and delivered to the landfill site at Studley Park. This practice has resulted in large numbers of batteries being buried at this site, and raises the possibility of leaching of lead from this site into groundwater. This site is also upstream of Barbados Bay, on the picturesque eastern coast of Tobago. Tobago thus has an urgent need for an efficient battery recycling system, to prevent continued burial of hazardous materials at this site.

Our awareness and attitudes survey also revealed that >50% of respondents know little of the environmental or health effects of used lead-acid batteries, although >40% of respondents came into regular contact with batteries (>once/week). Most respondents (67%) disposed of their batteries by giving them to recyclers or disposing of them together with domestic wastes, with 15% selling them to recyclers, and 17% storing them around in and around homes.

Recycling of batteries was strongly recommended, with 58% preferring an incentive, as against 45% for a penalty, to encourage / force the return of used lead-acid batteries. However, a majority (60%) simply wanted to get rid of the batteries, 32% for environmental reasons. Few respondents (< 7%) were aware of any public education programme or incentive systems for recycling of lead-acid batteries. What is clearly needed is a sustained public educational campaign on the hazards posed by lead-acid batteries to occupational, public and environmental health. A more efficient system of collection and recycling of discarded lead-acid batteries is also urgently required, to prevent their accumulation at locations accessible to young children and livestock. In addition, sites that have been used for battery repair and recycling are likely to be extensively polluted and require environmental assessment and remediation.

These measures are urgently and simultaneously required, to prevent further problems of lead pollution and poisoning. It will also prevent unnecessary suffering in sectors of the population that are least able to protect themselves.

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II- BACKGROUND.

BATTERY RECYCLING ACTIVITIES: PRACTICES AND DEFICIENCIES

(a) Collection / Recycling Systems for Discarded Lead-Acid Batteries:

Lead-acid battery collection for recycling in Trinidad and Tobago is still largely carried out by the informal sector, in collaboration with a single formal recycling company in East Trinidad (Automotive Components Ltd. or ACL). Whole discarded lead-acid batteries, lead scrap from battery repair shops and lead wastes from ACL’s own waste streams are plastic-wrapped and exported on pallets in sealed containers, to a recycling company in Venezuela. ACL is also the sole manufacturer of lead-acid batteries in Trinidad and Tobago and exports many of its products to other Caribbean countries and the U.K.

Unfortunately, many discarded batteries are not collected for recycling and remain stored in and around homes and workplaces for many years, often eventually to be discarded along with domestic garbage in local landfills. However, it is estimated that thousands of discarded batteries still remain stored around many households and workplaces in Trinidad.

In Trinidad, most discarded batteries are collected at the landfill sites by salvagers for return to ACL. In contrast, in Tobago, some batteries are returned to battery sales outlets, for return to Trinidad by ACL’s agents, while the rest remain in storage or are discarded with domestic garbage. However, unlike in Trinidad, the bulk of these batteries at the landfill site are buried on site, raising fears of subsequent leaching of lead into groundwater supplies.

(b) Public Awareness of and Attitudes Towards Recycling of Lead- acid Batteries:

The findings of our Attitudes and Awareness survey (Appendix I) may be summarized as follows:

(i) Of the 201 adults sampled (70% males: 30% females), two thirds were employed in non-technical posts, and with less than secondary school education.

(ii) Although 41% of respondents came into regular contact (>once / week) with batteries, >50% knew little of the environmental or human health risks posed by discarded lead acid batteries.

(iii) Most respondents (67%) disposed of their batteries by giving them to recyclers, or disposing of them along with domestic garbage, with 15% selling them to recyclers and 17% storing them in and around homes.

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(iv) Many respondents were in strong agreement with a recycling programme, with 58% preferring a financial incentive, as against 45% for a penalty, to encourage / force the return of discarded batteries.

However, 60% simply wanted to get rid of the batteries, with 32% expressing concerns for environmental pollution by discarded batteries.

(v) Few (<7%) were aware of any public education programmes or incentive systems on the recycling of lead-acid batteries.

(vi) Assessment of the data showed that educational background or gender had no effect on the responses obtained.

It is obvious that a majority of the local population was unaware of the risks posed to human or environmental health by discarded lead acid-batteries. The lack of educational programmes, or an organized recycling system for discarded batteries are deficiencies that require urgent correction.

(c) Occupational and Environmental Health Practices:

In general, at all battery repair and recycling sites visited in the informal sector, sanitation and occupational health practices left much to be desired. For example, non-use of protective gear (gloves, goggles or face shields), careless disposal or storage of leaded materials (discarded plates, terminals, battery cases), or whole batteries were clearly evident. In one case, batteries were incinerated on open land freely accessible to grazing animals and the general public (Plate 1).

Plate 1: Burnt batteries in pasture, Crown Point, Tobago.

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Ventilation was unregulated and no atmospheric filtration systems were evident. Washing and waste effluents were also connected to domestic waste effluent systems and work clothes were normally laundered with other family members’ clothes. Not surprisingly, none of the workers surveyed acknowledged ever having a blood lead analysis done, either due to lack of knowledge of the importance of blood lead testing, and/or no ready access to this service.

In contrast, our visit to Automotive Components Ltd.’s battery manufacturing and recycling plant showed clear evidence of use of protective gear (shoes, dust masks, hard hats, goggles) and dust filtration systems in the plant. Separate shower and clothes washing facilities were also provided, to minimize the transfer of lead from the workplace to homes. Blood lead monitoring of employees, along with examinations by the company’s doctor are part of the company’s stated policy on occupational health and safety. Plant waste effluent were reported to be controlled, although we did not view this aspect of the plant’s operations.

It is clear that the informal sector requires a great deal of improvement in occupational and environmental health practices, to minimize their impact on the surrounding environments and the health of their inhabitants. Provision of educational material and blood lead testing facilities, together with environmental monitoring by local regulatory authorities, can help this sector to protect its own health and environment.

Occupational and environmental health standards should be implemented and enforced, to control lead pollution from battery repair, recycling and manufacturing operations. Such standards will also reduce the risk to the health of the families of the recyclers, who often live in close proximity to these operations.

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III - MACRO-ECONOMIC AND LEGAL CHARACTERISTICS

(a) Battery-Related National Supply and Demand.

In order to estimate the number of batteries generated annually for recycling in Trinidad and Tobago, and the numbers imported and exported, a desktop study was conducted to collect data from the following sources:

��The Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Integrated Planning and Development; ��Licensing Office, Ministry of Transport; ��Automotive Components Limited; Sole Manufacturer and Formal Recycler of

Lead-Acid Batteries in Trinidad and Tobago; Neal and Massy Co. Ltd.; ��A survey of local motor vehicle owners to estimate the average lifetime of

batteries locally, and their average changeover time; ��Customs and Excise Division, Ministry of Finance.

The quantities of lead-acid batteries generated and recycled annually were calculated from the following data:

��Motor vehicles licensed annually; ��New and foreign-used vehicles licensed annually; ��Average lifetime of automobile batteries locally; ��Year when battery last changed.

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(b) Results of Desktop Study:

Table 1. Vehicles Licensed for Trinidad and Tobago.

Type of Vehicle Licensed No. of Vehicles Total # of

(# Batteries per vehicle) Batteries 1999 Motorcycle 2,860 (1) 715* Private 196,105 (1) 196,105 Rented 7,026 (1) 7,026 Hired 25,814 (1) 25,814 Goods (light trucks) 49,649 (1) 49,649 Tractors 3,978 (1) 3,978 Omnibus 317 (2) 634 Industrial 458 (2) 916

Total # of Batteries 284,837

New Vehicles Licensed 9,976 (1) 9,976 Foreign-Used Vehicles

Licensed 8,598 (1) 8,598 2000 Motorcycle 3,033 (1) 758* Private 214,139 (1) 214,139 Rented 7,463 (1) 7,463 Hired 26,922 (1) 26,922 Goods (light trucks) 52,277 (1) 52,277 Tractors 4,206 (1) 4,206 Omnibus 350 (2) 700 Industrial 539 (2) 1,078 Total # of Batteries 307,543

New Vehicles Licensed 16,286 (1) 16,286 Foreign-Used Vehicles

Licensed 8,516 (1) 8,516

*1 motorcycle battery ~ 0.25 mass of typical automotive battery

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(c) Annual Estimates of Batteries For Recycling in Trinidad and Tobago. Total # of Used Lead-Acid Batteries Estimated to be Recycled Annually is Calculated as Follows: Based on data obtained from survey of local population on: (i) Average lifetimes of automobiles batteries by users

2 years for new cars. 1 year for foreign-used car.

(ii) Last year of change of battery from vehicle: Approximately 50% of registered vehicles replace batteries each year. Estimated Total Batteries to be Recycled per Annum: From New Vehicles 2 years prior to recycling year + Foreign-Used Vehicles 1 year prior to recycling year + 50% of Registered Vehicles1 year prior to recycling year. In Year 2000: Estimated # of batteries for recycling: 9500 (est.) + 8598 + (0.5 x 284,837) = 160,517 units. At an average of 42 wt. % Pb (as Metallic + Pb compounds) per battery, @ 11.5 kg each*, total lead content for recycling = 775,297 kg Pb In Year 2001: Estimated # of batteries for recycling: 9976 + 8516 + (0.5 x 307,543) = 172,264 units. At an average of 42 wt. % Pb (as Metallic + Pb compounds) per battery, @ 11.5 kg* each, total lead content for recycling = 832,035 kg Pb * Mean of analyses of four dissected lead-acid batteries.

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(d) Imports into and Exports of Batteries from Trinidad and Tobago: The data obtained from the Customs and Excise Division and from Automotive Components Ltd. respectively were as follows:

Table 2. Battery Imports and Exports for Trinidad and Tobago.

Year

# Lead-Acid Batteries # Lead-Acid Batteries

Imported /kg Exported /kg (Equivalent Battery Units*) (Equivalent Battery Units*)

1999 2000

672,404 (58,470) 3,138,033 (272,872)

670,917 (58,341) 3,327,020 (289,306)

*Assume 1 Battery Unit = 11.5kg

Table 3.

Local Sales of Locally Manufactured Lead Acid Batteries and Exports of Used Lead-Acid Batteries by the Sole Manufacturer and Formal Recycler

in Trinidad and Tobago. Two-Year Annual Average of Scrap Battery Exports: 2,280,000 kg At 11.5kg per Battery Unit, Equivalent # of Units Exported = 198,261 Local Battery Sales 75,000 Units .

The number of battery units officially exported thus exceeds the number estimated for recycling annually by about 26,000-38,000 units for years 2000 and 1999 respectively, representing an underestimation by 17-19%. Such underestimation may be due to the average battery mass of 11.5kg used being too high, as well as to the recycling of batteries imported with TKD vehicles, for which no accurate estimate was possible.

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The periodic disposal for recycling of stored discarded batteries by householders and businesses may also contribute to this difference. In comparison, the number of battery units officially exported exceeds ACL’s mean annual scrap battery exports by about 75,000-90,000 units. This is assumed to represent the number of new batteries exported by ACL. The system of classification of batteries used by the Customs and Excise therefore requires revision, to allow used and new batteries to be differentiated, as required under the Basel Convention. (e) Collection, Storage, Transport and Recycling of Discarded Lead-Acid Batteries in Trinidad and Tobago. A survey was conducted at automobile parts sales outlets around Trinidad and Tobago. Of the 296 retail outlets listed in the local telephone directory, a statistically representative and randomly selected sample (132) in both islands was visited. These consisted of sites in north (65), south (37) and central (24) Trinidad and Tobago (6).

Information on their sales and collection of used batteries for recycling was obtained, as per questionnaire in Appendix II. Only 41 (31%) of the 132 outlets in Trinidad and Tobago collected discarded batteries from their customers, with the following # of batteries collected by the combined outlets. A summary of the findings from the 41 outlets is as follows:

Table 4. Automobile Parts and Battery Sales Retail Outlets.

# batteries collected/week # (%) of outlets Total # batteries collected/week

1-6 28 (68.3) 28-168 6-11 8 (19.5) 48-88

20-25 2 (4.9) 40-50 30 2 (4.9) 60

50 1 (2.4) 50

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Assuming that the outlets are representative of the total (296) outlets, it can be extrapolated that 83 outlets collect batteries for recycling in Trinidad. From these, between 226-416 batteries are collected per week, or 11,300-20,800 per annum, for a 50-week working year. It is obvious that automobile and battery sales outlets collect only a small fraction (7-13%) of an estimated 165,000 batteries estimated for recycling annually. This estimate appears to fall within the region of exports of new batteries by Automotive Components Ltd. (f) Battery Repair and Recycling Operations: In order to estimate the role of battery repair and recycling operators, only a few of whom are licensed scrap metal dealers, with the rest in the informal sector, a survey was undertaken of as many of these sites as could be located. Since local licensed scrap metal dealers operate under minimal supervision from local health authorities, these are included under the informal sector. Only 8 of 15 sites identified in previous report were located and visited in Trinidad and Tobago to date. The number of batteries reported to be collected are shown in Table 4. A summary of these findings are as follows:

Table 5. Battery Repair and Recycling Operations.

Location # batteries collected /annum

Sangre Grande, East Trinidad (repair and recycling) 400 Ft. George, West Trinidad (repair and recycling) 4800 Borde Narve, South Trinidad (recycling only) 2400 Eastern Main Road, Laventille, Trinidad (3 sites: repair and recycling) 2000 South Quay, Port of Spain (recycling only) 5000 Scarborough, Tobago 200

From these sources, it is estimated that 14,800 batteries/annum are collected for recycling. If these 8 sites are assumed to represent the 15 sites listed as being used for repair and recycling, the total number of batteries collected by these operations can be estimated at 27,750 annum or 17 % of the total batteries estimated for recycling annually.

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Overall, it is estimated that only 24-30% of all batteries recycled are done by the operations surveyed. The remaining 70-76 % (approximately 115,000-124,000 battery units) are recycled by other operators who were not located in our survey. Discussions with battery sales and service outlets indicate that several small metal recycling operators regularly collect discarded batteries, for return to Automotive Components Ltd. in eastern Trinidad, which has confirmed this practice. It is also likely that salvaging operations by small groups in the various municipal dumps in Trinidad recycle a significant number of batteries, emphasizing the role of the informal sector in battery recycling. These findings underline the importance of the role of the informal sector in lead-acid battery recycling (already demonstrated by the success of the glass recycling programme), once a financial incentive is provided. However, based on information received during our attitudes and awareness survey, it is evident that many discarded batteries remain in storage around workplaces or houses. These batteries will require a special collection effort to ensure their recycling at the earliest opportunity. (g) Legal and Regulatory Framework: At present, legislation governing lead-acid battery manufacture and repair is governed by The Electric Accumulator Act (Manufacture and Repair) Order 1974. Under this Act, blood lead monitoring is mandated and specific actions required once target levels are exceeded. Unfortunately, environmental standards are not included in this Act. However, no laws specific to lead-acid battery recycling exist in Trinidad and Tobago, although recently proposed legislation is aimed at encouraging the recycling of discarded products, including lead-acid batteries. Unfortunately these proposals were not available to us, but we were informed by the Environmental Management Authority that they were submitted for parliamentary discussion and approval. To date, no progress appears to have been made on these proposals.

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IV - COLLECTION, STORAGE, TRANSPORT AND RECYCLING PRACTICES FOR DISCARDED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Data and information for this phase of the study were obtained during visits to the following:

��Environmental Management Authority, Ministry of the Environment, Trinidad. ��Fisheries Division, the Tobago House of Assembly, Scarborough, Tobago. ��Battery Repair and Recycling Sites in Trinidad and Tobago. ��Automobile Parts / Battery Sales Outlets in Trinidad and Tobago. ��Environment Tobago, a non-governmental organization involved in

environmental education and conservation in Tobago. ��Fishermen in Tobago.

The findings of this phase of the study are summarized for the Formal and Informal Sectors respectively. IV(a): Practices in the Formal Sector: (i) Recycling: Only one company sited in east Trinidad (Automotive Components Ltd. or ACL) has been identified as a recycler of discarded lead-acid batteries in Trinidad and Tobago. This company is also the sole manufacturer of lead-acid batteries in the country, many of which are exported to the rest of the Caribbean and the UK. This site also provides a retail sale and service facility for the company’s batteries, as well as for the return of defective batteries by consumers. The recycling area east of the battery manufacturing plant accommodates the reception, storage, plastic-wrapping and palleting facilities for discarded batteries, for containerized shipment to Venezuela for recycling (Plate 3). Batteries are weighed and shipped upright with the acid, and the contribution of the acid to the battery mass calculated. Similarly, battery plate wastes, bag-house dusts, waste effluent solids and other battery-manufacturing wastes are placed in drums on pallets and plastic-wrapped on pallets for shipment with scrap batteries. Workers are provided with protective gear as previously described, and environmental health and safety practices appear to be observed.

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Plate 3: Scrap batteries plastic-wrapped for export to Venezuela. (ii) Environmental impacts: Acid spills in the battery recycling area are reported to be neutralized with sodium bicarbonate and the resulting wastes flushed into the waste drains. Some contamination of the site by damaged batteries was evident, but the recycling area was generally well ordered. Refurbishing of the recycling area is planned, to minimize environmental contamination from the recycled materials. However, effluents from the site are not treated and may result in contaminated effluents entering the general drainage system, especially during heavy rainfall. (iii) Occupational health practices: As per questionnaire data in Appendix III, ACL provides safety gear for its workers and implements environmental health and safety policies in the manufacturing and recycling areas of the plant. Respirators and dust masks are provided for all employees and are supposed to be worn during manufacturing, maintenance and recycling operations. Blood lead monitoring is done regularly, together with examinations by the company’s medical practitioner who, together with the Plant Manager, are responsible for occupational health in the plant.

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Uniforms, changing facilities, lockers and showers are provided for employees, with daily washing of uniforms by the company. A lunch room separate from the plant is provided for employees, and washing of the hands before meals is generally practiced. Overall, sound EHS practices appear to be the norm for this plant. (iv) Retail and collection of discarded batteries: On an annual basis, ACL exports an average of 2,280 metric tones of scrap batteries to Venezuela. This is equivalent to 198,261 battery units, if an average of 11.5kg / battery is assumed. These are composed of whole and damaged batteries returned by ACL’s agents, battery recyclers in the informal sector, as well as wastes from ACL’s battery manufacturing plant. As described previously, batteries and lead-containing wastes are places on pallets, plastic-wrapped and placed in containers, for shipment to Venezuela. (v) Recommendations for short-term improvements: The collection system for discarded batteries is the weakest link in the recycling system currently practiced. It is estimated that thousands of discarded batteries remain in storage in and around homes and workplaces and pose a hazard to young children and domestic animals. A system for the mandatory return of defective batteries for recycling is also required as soon as possible. IV(b): Collection and Storage Practices in the Informal Sector: (i) Battery repair and recycling shops: Of the eight sites visited that were used for battery repair and recycling, none had proper storage conditions for extended (>3 months) storage of discarded batteries. Of these, only one had a concrete-covered area specifically for storage of batteries, but had no containment or neutralization system for spilt acid (Plate 4).

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Plate 4: Batteries for recycling, Borde Narve Village, S. Trinidad. At none of the other sites was acid-neutralization practiced, with simple wash down with water, or no treatment at all practiced. Batteries are generally recycled with the acid, although several repair and recycling shops drain and collect the acid in drums (Plate 5), for reuse in batteries that are serviced or repaired.

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Plate 5: Recycled sulfuric acid, lower Fort George Road, W. Trinidad. In addition, most of the batteries collected for recycling were stored in the open, exposed to sunlight and rainfall. In one case, persistent problems in obtaining transport of the batteries for recycling results in a pileup of batteries for months at a time (Plate 6). Recycled batteries are normally transported in open vehicles to the recycling plant in east Trinidad, usually small trucks.

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Plate 6: Accumulated batteries for recycling, lower Ft. George Rd., W. Trinidad. (ii) Battery sales outlets: At the automobile parts outlets which sell batteries, defective batteries are generally left by customers, when purchasing new batteries. These batteries are either given or sold to informal recyclers, or are collected by ACL’s agents for return to their plant in east Trinidad. At battery claim centres in Trinidad and Tobago, defective batteries returned while still under warranty are drained and their covers removed in “autopsy rooms”. This is done to establish whether the defect was due to a manufacturer’s problem before providing a replacement battery. The opened batteries are subsequently returned to the company for recycling. Needless to say, the possibility of acid spillage and exposure of the operators to the battery plates and acid is increased by this practice. This practice should be discontinued, and only done at the factory under conditions that can ensure the safety of the persons involved. However, many sales outlets are reluctant to encourage the return of batteries, since many have limited storage space, and the sporadic collection of discarded batteries is inconvenient, as well as generates a health hazard.

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(iii) Environmental impacts: At automobile parts sales outlets, the environmental problems due to the collection of discarded lead-acid batteries are generally minimal. However, contamination may occur when batteries under warranty are opened for inspection, when cracked batteries are returned, or when acid spillage occurs. Observance of better handling and storage practices of batteries can minimize such problems. At battery repair and recycling sites, the environmental impacts are unfortunately moderate to severe, since many are situated in residential areas (Plate 7).

Plate 7: Contaminated backyard, Sangre Grande, E. Trinidad. In addition, many of the operators show scant regard for their environment, resulting in careless storage or disposal of battery wastes (Plates 8,9) and effluents.

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Plate 8: Acid-scarred wall and contaminated soil, lower Ft. George Road, W. Trinidad.

Plate 9: Discarded battery wastes in backyard, Sangre Grande, E. Trinidad.

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(iv) Occupational health: In view of the general lack of awareness of the hazards of lead from discarded batteries, many battery repair and recycling personnel demonstrate poor occupational health practices. These include little or no use of protective gear (gloves, masks or respirators, safety glasses); inadequate ventilation; no blood lead monitoring or regular medical checks; constant exposure to battery wastes and acids; absence of acid-neutralization chemicals or wash facilities. (v) - Recommendations for short-term improvements: Several problems have been identified in the informal sector, for which improvements are needed as soon as possible. These are as follows:

��The collection system of lead-acid batteries is inconsistent and heavily dependent on small operators. Fortnightly collection of discarded batteries from individuals, sales outlets, and battery repair and recycling operators would be ideal, but will require appropriate funding and management, to allow an effective system to be implemented.

��Many of the operators in the informal sector have little knowledge of the

problems posed to human health and the environment, by discarded lead-acid batteries. The provision of appropriate educational material for this sector could help them to protect their own health and that of their families.

��The lack of support services in occupational health and safety, including blood

lead monitoring, environmental assessment and remediation, are impediments to the safe operations of battery repair and recycling personnel. Such services should be made easily available and affordable to this sector.

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V - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A NATIONAL PLAN OF ACTION

Based on the findings of our study, it is clear that problems associated with used and discarded lead-acid batteries occur mainly in the informal repair and recycling sector. A lack of awareness of the health and environmental hazards caused by lead-acid batteries, poor health and safety practices, as well as little or no occupational health standards or support services, all contribute to the problems that continue to affect this sector and their environments. However, since many of these operations occur in residential areas, public health is also placed at risk. In addition, many discarded batteries remain in and around homes, readily accessible to young children. Consequently, our recommendations to correct some of the more serious problems associated with discarded lead-acid batteries are as follows:

1. A more effective collection system for discarded lead-acid batteries is clearly needed for both Trinidad and Tobago. It is suggested that a special collection campaign, timed to coincide with some special occasion (e.g. World Environment Day), be mounted to recover the thousands of discarded batteries around households and workplaces. This activity should be a collaborative effort among the general public, Automotive Components Ltd. (ACL), the Environmental Management Authority (EMA), the University of the West Indies (UWI), Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI), The Solid Waste Management Co. Ltd. (SWMCOL), the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), as well as interested non-governmental organizations who can raise significant funds for their causes, from the batteries recovered.

2. In order to encourage the return of defunct batteries, our survey has indicated that

a deposit system (at least $20TT) can provide the incentive necessary for their return. However, this system must be universally agreed to and applied by all battery importers and manufacturer (ACL), to allow buyers to obtain a discount on a new battery in exchange for their old one, regardless of manufacture. The present practice of returning the batteries whole should be maintained, to minimize environmental contamination and human toxicity. It is suggested that meetings be held with all battery importers, the Ministry of the Environment, ACL, EMA, UWI and CARIRI as soon as possible, to determine the size of the deposit and the mode of administration of the deposit system.

3. The informal sector has a crucial role to play in any battery recycling system in Trinidad and Tobago. Given the fact that discarded batteries are now generally returned intact for recycling, the human and environmental impacts can be minimized, once proper handling, storage and transport procedures are followed.

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Such procedures and precautions should be as unambiguous and simple as possible, to allow them to be readily understood and implemented. Thus, rather than discourage the role of the informal sector, it is recommended that this sector be strengthened, and greater financial incentives provided for the return of discarded batteries. Not only will this provide a much-needed means of self-employment for a sector of the population, but can minimize many of the problems being experienced with lead-pollution and poisoning from battery wastes. It is recommended that the EMA, UWI and CARIRI collaborate in this exercise.

4. Crucial to the above recommendations is a sustained educational programme,

targeting parents, schools, battery repair and recycling personnel, but readily available to the general population.

Information should include:

��The harmful effects of lead on humans, particularly young children, as well as on domestic animals and livestock, the environment and the local economy;

��Proper handling and recycling practices for lead-acid batteries;

��Measures of preventing lead pollution and poisoning from lead-acid

batteries and other sources of lead. Collaboration among the Ministries of Health, Environment and Information, UWI, CARIRI, EMA, SWMCOL and PAHO will be required, to ensure that the programme is appropriate and most beneficial to the most susceptible sectors of the population. With suitable modification, the material developed can be made available to other Caribbean and Latin American countries.

5. Many sites that have been used for battery repair, recycling and disposal are

heavily contaminated with lead and associated metals. These sites pose significant risks to human and other animal health. Such sites require environmental assessment and remediation to render them safe for human habitation. It is recommended that such sites be investigated as early as possible, as a collaborative effort among the UWI, EMA, CARIRI, SWMCOL and the necessary financial and human resources provided.

6. Occupational health and environmental standards for lead from battery

manufacture, repair and recycling operations should be developed and enforced. This should be done in collaboration with all stakeholders, to protect the health and safety of workers, as well as of the general public.

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It is recommended that the Factory Inspectorate of the Ministry of Labor, the Occupational Health Division of the Ministry of Health, The T&T Bureau of Standards, CARIRI, UWI and PAHO collaborate in the development of appropriate and enforceable standards.

7. Inexpensive means of detection and estimation of lead, particularly in areas

accessible to young children, should be developed and made readily available. Such systems can allow parents and schools to assess their surroundings for the presence of lead and to take appropriate action to prevent continued exposure of young children. The kits can also be used to locate points of high lead contamination on-site and permit more effective environmental monitoring by researchers and regulators, with minimal effort. The visual detection system for lead, based on a simple and rapid colour reaction, was used to locate “hot spots” of lead contamination at several sites visited in this study. Subsequent sampling and analysis of samples confirmed heavy lead contamination (2-30 wt. % Pb) at many of the sites visited.

Full development and distribution of an inexpensive test kit should be done in collaboration with UWI and the Ministries of Health, Environment and Education, and appropriate resources provided for the research and development needed.

8. Collection and recycling of the sulfuric acid in spent lead-acid batteries should be

investigated, for reuse as refill acid, cleaning agent in electroplating, or for ion-exchange regeneration, once specifications for these purposes can be met. Spillage during storage, ground transport and shipping may result in serious corrosion problems and injuries to personnel, and are major reasons for the reluctance by many to return batteries for recycling. The mass of the acid is also deducted from that of the batteries exported for recycling and constitutes excess mass shipped, mainly as water. It is therefore recommended that research be undertaken to determine the technical and economic feasibility of collection and recycling of spent battery acid. At the very least, systems for the collection, treatment and safe disposal of used battery acid should be developed, to minimize the hazards described above. The UWI, ACL, SWMCOL and CARIRI should collaborate in this exercise, aimed at both environmental and economic benefits.

Appropriate funding and institutional support are crucial to the success of any of the above efforts, if the problems associated with lead-acid batteries are ever to be eliminated in Trinidad and Tobago.

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VI - BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Incidence of Severe Lead Poisoning in Children Resulting from Battery Recycling Operations. (1995). Chang Yen I, Emrit C and Hosein-Rahaman A, In "Lead Poisoning: Exposure, Abatement, Regulation. Breen JJ and Stroup C Editors. CRC/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton. 63-67.

2. Incidents of Large-Scale Lead Poisoning in East Trinidad: A Dire Need for

Sustainable Practices in Hazardous Waste Disposal (1996) Chang Yen I, Mohammed T, Bekele I, In: Hazardous Waste: Impacts on Human and Ecological Health. Johnson BL, Xintaras C, Andrews, JS Jr Editors. Princeton Scientific Publ. Co. Inc. 427- 433.

3. Lead Pollution in East Trinidad Resulting from Lead Recycling and Smelting

Activities (1996). Mohammed T, Chang Yen I, Bekele I, Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 18:123-128.

4. Lead Exposure Among Lead-Acid Battery Workers in Jamaica. (1989). Matte TD,

Figueroa JP, Burr G, Flesch JP, Keenlyside R, Baker EL, Amer. J. Ind. Med. 16:167-177.

5. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Technical Assistance to the Jamaican

Ministry of Health, Kingston, Jamaica (1989) Matte TD, Burr G, HETA 87-371-2000.

6. Government Aware of Lead-Contaminated Sites. Trinidad and Tobago Express Wed. February 18, 1988. http://209.94.197.2/feb/feb18/politics.htm

7. Low Level Lead Exposure and the IQ of Children (1979). Needleman HI, Gatsonis CA, JAMA 263: 673. 9. Preventing Lead Poisoning in Young Children (1991) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta.

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VII - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The assistance of the following is gratefully acknowledged: The Secretariat of the Basel Convention and the United Kingdom Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions for funding of the Project. Ministry of the Environment (National Focal Point for the Basel Convention) for collaboration with the University of the West Indies and the Caribbean Industrial research Institute (CARIRI) in collection of information and partial funding of the project. Environmental Management Authority for assistance in contacting private sector companies and in the review of the legal framework. The University of the West Indies, for providing the infrastructure and technical support for the project; Mr. Jason Mohammed, Plant Manager, Automotive Components Ltd., for information and advice on the project; The Ministry of Health, Public Health Division, for assistance on site visits; Mr. Kamau and Greta Akili, Environment Tobago, for information provided on Tobago; Dr. Arthur Potts, Tobago House of Assembly, for providing assistance for identifying lead-acid battery repair and recycling sites in Tobago; Mr. Noel Leacock, Site Supervisor, Studley Park, Tobago; Ms. Marissa Young and Mr. Mahendra Santoo, for their tireless efforts in obtaining the information and data required for the project.

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VIII – APPENDIX