Final Review Commercial

Power Plants

• Carburetor Heat

• Mixture

Fuel Injection

• Auxiliary Fuel Pump

• Fuel Flow Indicator

• Vapor Lock

• Exhaust Gas Temperature

• Cylinder Head Temperature

Mixture

• Best Economy Mixture

• Best Power Mixture

Abnormal Combustion

• Preignition

• Detonation

Turbocharging Systems

• Manifold Pressure Gauge

• Critical Altitude

• Service Ceiling

• Overboost

Constant Speed Propellers

• Blade Angle

• Pitch Angle

• Governing Range

• Propeller Control

• Efficiency

Oxygen Systems

• Continuous Flow

• Diluter Demand

• Pressure Demand

Oxygen Masks

• Oronasal Rebreather–Color Coded Red Pilot

• Quick Donning–Diluter Demand

–Pressure Demand

Oxygen Service

• Aviator Breathing Oxygen

• Oxygen Duration Charts

• FBO

• Never deplete below 50 psi

Pressurization

• Outflow Valve

• Safety/dump Valve

• Isobaric Range

• Differential Range

Oxygen Requirements

• Part 91–12,500 to 14,000 over 30

minutes

–14,000 for crew members

–15,000 for passengers

Human Factors

• Hypoxia

• Hyperventilation

Ice Control Systems

• Anti-icing

• De-icing

Landing Gear Systems

• Electrical Gear Systems

• Hydraulic Gear Systems

• Electrohydraulic Systems

Airspeed Limitations

• VLE

• VLO

Emergency Extension

• Hand Crank

• Hand Pump Hydraulic System

• Freefall System

• Carbon dioxide pressurized system

Fundamental Flight Maneuvers

• Straight and Level

• Turns

• Climbs

• Descents

Four Aerodynamic Forces

• Lift

• Thrust

• Drag

• Weight

• When are they in equilibrium?

Bernoulli’s Principle

• As the velocity of a fluid increase, its internal pressure decreases

• High pressure under the wing and lower pressure above the wing’s surface

Controlling Lift

• Increase airspeed

• Change the angle of attack

• Change the shape of the airfoil

• Change the total area of the wings

Angle of Attack

• Directly controls the distribution of pressure acting on a wing. By changing the angle of attack, you can control the airplane’s lift, airspeed and drag.

Angle of Attack

• Angle of attack at which a wing stalls remains constant regardless of weight, dynamic pressure, bank angle or pitch attitude.

Flaps

• Plain

• Split

• Slotted

• Fowler

Ground Effect

• Within one wingspan of the ground

• An airplane leaving ground effect will experience an increase in what kind of drag?

Drag

• What kind of drags rate of increase is proportional to the square of the airspeed?

• Parasite Drag

• What kinds of drag make up parasite Drag

Load Factor

• Ratio between the lift generated by the wings at any given time divided by the total weight of the airplane.

Load Factor

• A heavily loaded plane stalls at a higher speed than a lightly loaded airplane.

• It needs a higher angle of attack to generate required lift at any given speed than when lightly loaded.

Aircraft Stability

• Achieved by locating the center of gravity slightly ahead of the center of lift

• Need a tail down force on the elevator

Turns

• The horizontal component of lift.

• Load Factor and Turns

• The relationship between angle of bank , load factor, and stall speed is the same for all airplanes

Density Altitude

• High

• Hot

• Humid

Surface Winds

• Headwind or tailwind component

– a 10 knot headwind might improve performance by 10%

– a 10 knot tailwind might degrade performance by 40%

Performance Charts

• Experience Test Pilots

• Factory new Airplanes

• Repeated Tests using Best Results

• Format -Table -Graphic

Cruise Charts

• Range is the distance an airplane can travel with a given amount of fuel

• Endurance is the length of time the airplane can remain in the air

Cruise Charts

• Maximum range is at L/Dmax or best glide speed

• Maximum endurance is about 76% or best glide speed

• Generally close to stall speed

Excessive Weight

• Higher takeoff speed

• Longer takeoff run

• Reduced rate and angle of climb

• Lower maximum altitude

Excessive Weight

• Shorter range and endurance

• Reduced cruise speed and maneuverability

• Higher stall speed

• Higher landing speed and longer landing roll

Forward CG Effects

• Higher takeoff speed and ground roll

• Reduced rate and angle of climb

• Lower maximum altitude

• Reduced maneuverability

Forward CG Effects

• Higher stalling speed

• Reduction in performance caused by increased tail-down loading

• Reduced pitch authority

Beyond Aft CG Effects

• Decreased stability and increased susceptibility to over control

• Increased risk of stalls and spins of which recovery may be difficult or impossible

Weight Shift Computations

Weight of Cargo Moved Distance CG moves

Airplane weight = Distance Between Arm locations

Elt

• Frequency 121.5 and 243.0

• Battery

– 1 hour of cumulative use

– One half the battery useful life

• Test during 5 minutes after the hour

Diverting for Emergencies

• Time is of the essence

• Turn to new course as soon as possible

• Use rule of thumb computations, estimates and shortcuts

Engine Temperature

• Oil cools the internal portion of the engine

• High temperature is often a sign of low oil level

Heating System

• Heating in most aircraft is by exhaust manifold-type

• Crack in the system can allow carbon monoxide into the cabin

• If your aircraft backfires during run up, have it checked

Engine Failure(Takeoff)

• Lower the nose and maintain a safe airspeed

Turbulence

• Slow to maneuvering speed

• Maintain a level attitude

• Do not chase the pitot static instruments

Spatial Disorientation

• Rely on instrument indications

• Ignore body sensations

Emergency Descent• Reduce the throttle to idle

• Roll into a bank angle of approximately 30-45 degrees

• Set propeller to low pitch ( High RPM)

Emergency Descent

• Extend landing gear and Flap as recommended by the manufacturer

• Do not exceed VNE, VLE, VFE, or VA if turbulent

Best Glide Speed

• Gear and Flaps retracted

• Propeller to low RPM (High Pitch)

• Pitch

• Trim

Best Glide Speed

• Checklist

• Any deviation from the best glide speed will reduce the distance you can glide

Lost Procedures

• Climb

• Communicate

• Confess

• Comply

• Conserve

Lost Procedures

• Radar

• DF Steer

• Emergency Frequency 121.5

Short Field Takeoff & Landing

Takeoff

• Objective - Knowledge of elements

• Positive and accurate control of aircraft with shortest ground roll and steepest angle of climb

• Proper airspeeds VR, VX, and VY

Takeoff

–Maintain VX =5/-0 KTS

• After clearing the obstacle accelerate to VY +5/-5

• Retract the landing gear and flaps after a positive rate of climb or as recommended

Common Takeoff Errors

• Failure to use the entire runway

• Improper positioning of the flight controls and wing flaps

• Improper engine operation during short field takeoff and climb out

Common Takeoff Errors

• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle

• Poor directional control

• Improper use of brakes

Short Field Landing

• Consider the wind conditions, landing surface and obstructions

– Height of obstructions dictate how steep the approach will have to be

Short Field Landing

–Descent angle will be steeper than a normal approach. Aim point will be closer to the obstacle

–Aim point will be short of the touchdown point

–Select a go around point, normally before descending below barriers

Common Errors• Improper use of landing performance

data and limitations

• Failure to establish approach landing configuration at appropriate time or in proper sequence

Common Errors

• Failure to maintain a stabilized approach

• Improper technique in use of power, wing flaps and trim

Common Errors

• Improper removal of hand from throttle

• Improper technique during round out and touchdown

Common Errors

• Poor directional control after touchdown

• Improper use of brakes

Soft Field Takeoff & Landing

Common Errors

• Improper initial positioning of the flight controls or wing flaps

• Allowing the airplane to stop on the takeoff surface prior to initiating takeoff

• Improper power application

Common Errors

• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle

• Poor directional control

Common Errors

• Improper use of brakes

• Improper pitch attitude during liftoff

– Dragging tail of aircraft on ground

Common Errors– Settling back to the runway because

of too high or too low a pitch attitude

• Failure to establish and maintain proper climb configuration and airspeed

• Drift during climbout

Soft Field Landing• Maintain crosswind correction and

directional control throughout the approach and landing

• Touch down softly, with no drift, and with the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway

Soft Field Landing

–Maintain some power to assist in making a soft touchdown

–Hold it off to slow airspeed and establish a nose high pitch attitude

Soft Field Landing

–After touchdown maintain back pressure to keep the nose wheel off the ground

–Maintain full back pressure• Maintain after landing proper position

of the flight controls and taxi speed

Common Errors• Improper technique in use of power,

wing flaps and trim

• Inappropriate removal of hand from throttle

• Improper technique during roundout and touchdown

Common Errors

• Failure to hold back elevator pressure after touchdown

• Closing the throttle too soon after touchdown

Common Errors

• Poor directional control after touchdown

• Improper use of brakes

Steep Turns

Enter Steep Turn

• Heading toward reference point roll into a coordinated turn with an angle of bank of 50o +5/-5

• As the turn begins, add back pressure to increase the angle of attack

Enter Steep Turn

• As you go through 30o, add power if necessary to maintain entry altitude and airspeed

Enter Steep Turn

• Trim to relieve excess control pressure

• Begin rollout one half the angle of bank 20-25 degrees before your reference point

• Look and clear before all turns.

–To recover from an excessive nose-low attitude reduce the angle of bank

–Add back elevator pressure to raise the nose

–Reestablish the desire angle of bank

Maintain Altitude +100

• Maintain entry altitude and airspeed throughout the entire maneuver

• During rollout release the back pressure or if using trim apply

Common Errors

• Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry and rollout

• Uncoordinated use of the flight controls

Common Errors

• Inappropriate control applications

• Improper technique in correcting altitude deviations

• Loss or orientation

Common Errors

• Excessive deviation from desired heading during rollout

Chandelles

Altitude

• FAA requires the maneuver be performed no lower than 1,500 ft AGL

• Pick an altitude that is easy to identify on your altimeter

Bank

• Establish but do not exceed 30o angle of bank

• Enter using a smooth coordinated level turn

Apply Power and Pitch

• After establishing a level 30o banked turn start a climbing turn by applying back elevator pressure to attain the highest pitch attitude at the 90o point

Common Errors

• Improper pitch, bank, and power coordination during entry or completion

– Pitch up too fast will cause a stall

– Pitch too slow or allow the pitch to decrease will cause you to reach 180o point at too high an airspeed

Common Errors

–Adjust power prior to the maneuver to establish cruise flight and increase after bank is established and as pitch is being increased

–No other power changes are made

Common Errors

• Uncoordinated use of flight controls

– Maintain coordinated flight

– Compensate for torque and aileron drag

– Check the ball in the inclinometer

Common Errors

• Improper planning and timing of pitch and bank attitude changes

– During the first 90o of turn the bank is constant

– At the 90o point you should have reached the maximum pitch

Common Errors

–During the second 90o, pitch attitude remains constant and the bank is slowly reduced

–At the 180o point, the pitch attitude is constant and the roll out to wings level is completed

Common Errors

– Plan and time the pitch and bank changes while dividing you attention

• Factors related to failure to achieve maximum performance

– Improper pitch

– Improper bank

Lazy Eights

Objective

• Lazy eights require smooth coordinated use of the flight controls

– At no time are you straight and level

– Maneuver requires constantly changing control pressure

Plan,Orient and Maneuver

At 45o

Altitude Increasing

Airspeed Decreasing

Pitch Attitude Maximum

Bank Angle 15o

Plan,Orient and Maneuver

At 90o

Altitude Maximum

Airspeed Minimum

Pitch Attitude Level

Bank Angle 30o

Plan,Orient and Maneuver

At 135o

Altitude Decreasing

Airspeed Increasing

Pitch Attitude Minimum

Bank Angle 15o

Plan,Orient and Maneuver

At 180o

Altitude Entry

Airspeed Entry

Pitch Attitude Level

Bank Angle 0o

Common Errors

• Poor selection of reference points

– Easily identified

– Not too close

• Uncoordinated use of the flight controls

Common Errors

– Maintain coordinated flight

– Compensate for torque

– Check inclinometer

• Unsymmetrical loops from poor pitch and bank attitude changes

Common Errors

– Stalling before reaching the 90o point

– Excessive diving

– Rushing the angle of bank

• Inconsistent airspeed and/or altitude at key points

Common Errors

–Adjust power after the first maneuver if off entry airspeed or altitude Loss of orientation. Need to observe your reference point as well as your attitude indicator, altimeter and airspeed indicator

Common Errors

• Excessive deviation from reference points

– Each 45o segment must be preplanned and the proper pitch and bank attained

Eights-on Pylons

Objective

–At a given groundspeed there is an associated altitude at which the airplane will appear to pivot about the point and is called the pivotal altitude

–The higher the groundspeed the higher the pivotal altitude

Objective

–In strong wind, altitude changes will be greater e.g. 100 to 200 feet

–In light wind, altitude changes will be smaller e.g. 50 to 100 feet

–Wind calm means no change to pivotal altitude

Determine the Pivotal Altitude

• To determine the pivotal altitude fly at an altitude well above the pivotal altitude then reduce power and descend at cruise airspeed in a medium bank turn.

Determine the Pivotal Altitude

• The reference line will move back until the pivotal altitude is reached. If you continue to descend the reference line will move forward

• You can estimate the pivotal altitude by using the following formula

Determine the Pivotal Altitude

(Groundspeed in knots)2 = Pivotal Altitude

11.3

1002 = 885

11.3

Perform the Maneuver

• As you turn into the wind the groundspeed decreases causing the pivotal altitude to decrease causing you to descend to maintain the pivotal altitude

Orientation and Planning• Remain oriented on the location of the

pylons and the direction of the wind

• Plan ahead

• Divide your attention between coordinated airplane control and outside visual reference

Use Pivotal Altitude

• Do not use rudder to force the reference line forward or backward to the pylon

Common Errors

• Faulty Entry technique

– Poor planning

– Not being at pivotal altitude

– Rolling into a bank too soon

• Poor Planning, Orientation and Division of Attention

Common Errors

–Lack of anticipation of changes in groundspeed

–Poor pylon selection–Poor division of attention.

Uncoordinated flight control applications and not looking out for other traffic

Common Errors• Uncoordinated flight control application

• Use of improper line of sight reference

• Application of rudder alone to maintain line of sight on pylon

– Most Common Error

Common Errors

– Do not Yaw the wing backward with rudder if the reference line is ahead of the pylon

• Improper timing of turn entries and rollouts

– Usually do to poor planning

Common Errors

–Rollout needs to be timed to allow the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point downwind of the second pylon

Common Errors• Improper correction for wind between

pylons

• Selection of pylons where there is no suitable force landing area within gliding distance

• Large pitch and airspeed changes