1F I R E P L A C E

A L L E G R A S A N T I SS A L L A M A A R I A K O S K IJ U L I E T T E G R O E N E N D A A L

2a place for domestic fire, especially a grate or hearth at the base of a chimney

fireplace

34 FUNCTION6 HISTORY10 TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING22 ECOLOGY & SUSTAINABILITY25 ERGONOMICS28 APPEARANCES & STYLES30 PROJECTS

4FUNCTION

Cooking ca. 1904 seen in a picture of Henri Berssenbrugge, compared to cooking in a kitchen in 2014 with all the modern facilities such as electric ovens and gas stove.

Heating around 1900 with a stove and in 2014 with a normal thermostat.

Skattejakt. House for Sale. 6 Oct. 2013. Web. Sept. 2014.

Langgevelboerderij. - Wikipedia. Henri Berssenbrugge, 11 Dec. 2011. Web. Sept. 2014.

Day Night Round Timer. Honeywell. N.p., n.d. Web. Sept. 2014.

Erve ScholteLubberink. Interieur Boerderij. | Canon Van Denekamp. N.p., n.d. Web. Sept. 2014.

5FUNCTION

Social gathering in 1992 next to the fireplace compared to in 2014 gathering around an ipad. The question is if there is a real improvement for social gathering going from the fireplace to radio-> tv-> computer-> ipad?

The fireplace and candles used to be the main source of interior light until the light bulb was invented.

Ogasawara, Todd. All in for IPad 2: University of Kentuckys Patterson School of Diplomacy and Inter-national Commerce - SocialTimes. N.p., 7 Mar. 2011. Web. Sept. 2014.

Picture: Sallamaaria Koski

Keizersgracht 123. Keizersgracht 123, Het Huis Met De Hoof-den | Amsterdamse Grachtenhuizen. Netplanet, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014.

TUBULAR. TANNER SLADE. N.p., 2014. Web. Sept. 2014.

6HISTORY

A brief history of Fireplaces and style before the Twentieth Century

Before the 15th century houses had an open hearth in the center of main living room. Logs were burnt resting on the bar between two fire dogs. The introduction of canopies to guide the smoke away led to Fireplaces being moved to the wall where the canopies were easier to support.The Fireplaces in medieval kitchens were extremely wide to accommodate large logs and cooking spits. An oak beam or fireplace mantel spanned the opening and there was room to sit by the fire, the ingle-nook (from the scots word aingeal meaning fire and nook meaning a corner)The early 16th Century saw the introduction of the enclosed wall Fireplace with the chimneystack containing the flue running up from the hearth. Most hearth openings were rectangular and spanned by a stone or wood lintel. The Fireplace was treated as part of the wall but soon became a dominant feature of most rooms with the development of the fire surround or Fireplace Mantelpiece.

The fire surround was devised during the renaissance in Italy and was inspired by classical Greek and Roman architecture. The surround took the form of a pair of legs on either side of the hearth linked by an entablature. The legs were columns, pilasters, carved figures or simple architectural mouldings. The entablature was a decorative frieze. The surface of the chimneybreast was also decorated with a wooden or stone over Fireplace Mantel

When much of Englands woodland disappeared due to the demands of shipbuilding it led to widespread coal burning and the introduction of baskets to hold the coal.The first coal burning fire baskets with a small fireback and bars all around developed into the heavy dog grate raised above the hearth. Another way of providing a small fire basket was the hob grate. With shelves on either side of the fire, it was the first grate to be permanently built in. To prevent cinders falling on the floor, fenders were introduced.

Over the centuries many technical and decorative changes were made to the Fireplace. Canting of the sides of the hearth was introduced to reflect heat into the room. There were reductions in the size of the hearth and flue to increase the draw of air.

The excesses of Jacobean decoration were followed by a return to classical style. Fireplace recesses were usually square with simple moulding in wood, stone, marble or painted plaster. The recess could be lined with cast iron or have an ornamented fireback to reflect heat into the room. 17th century classicism was followed by first baroque and then rococo style before reverting to classicism with the Adams brothers. Their marble Fireplaces set a style, which continues to this day.

The areas between the legs and the hearth or grate were lined with marble, slate or ceramic tiles. Picture panels were incorporated. The over Fireplace Mantel was dispensed with and picture or mirrors were hung on the chimneybreast.

The Victorian period saw a number of changes in style. The High Victorian Style was a natural progression, begun in the Regency period, towards excessive embellishment leading to the ornate or cluttered look that most of us associate with the term Victorian. Victorian England was the first mass consumer society. Wealth grew rapidly with industrialization as did the range and variety of mass-produced goods available. Fireplaces were made from cast iron; marble chimney pieces were prefabricated and pieced together. Fireplace mantel-shelves became wider to accommodate clocks, candles and ornaments.The Gothic Revival was a reaction to the high style based on the medieval Gothic style. It developed partly from the severe Neo-Classicism of Palladian architecture, and partly from a romantic interest in the Middle Ages.

7HISTORY

The Aesthetic movement of the 1870s and 1880s rejected unnecessary ornamentation. It relied on simple designs with little unnecessary ornamentation. In the 1890s the Aesthetic movement gave way to the Arts and Crafts movement.

A History of Twentieth Century Fireplaces: 1905-1939If the nineteenth century was the century of the cast iron Fireplace then the twentieth century, certainly up to the 1970s, was the era of the tiled fireplace.In 1905 much of Britain was coming out of the period of mourning that followed Queen Victorias death. The black cast iron Fireplaces that had become increasingly ornate during Victorias reign were on their way out too. By the late 1800s cast iron Fireplaces had been incorporating tile sets as an adornment with Art Nouveau patterns featuring around the turn of the century. Embossed, tube lined, transfer printed and hand painted tiles all were widely used in 5 tile vertical sets in the frame and also set into the floor to create the hearth.

The Edwardian era saw a change of fashion. More substantial tiled Fireplace opening blocks were produced which supplanted the need for a cast iron frame altogether. A Fireplace Mantel surrounded the tiled panels or inserts, which they framed the Fireplace opening. Wooden and Tiled inserts rapidly became the Fireplace of choice almost always with matching hearth tiles laid on top of the constructional hearth and finishing flush with the floorboards. Tiled fenders (also matching) would have been a common feature, though being a readily movable item few survive today.Glazed finishes were often dramatic with mottles, pastel colors and iridescent glazes all common. Geometric styles, with the tiles cross-bonded in a bricklaying fashion were often used but perhaps the most pervasive design was the simple arch, known as a Clarence Arch with or without a keystone.

The tiled back panels were prefabricated by a technique called slabbing whereby the tiles were laid together upside down on a very flat surface, usually a slate table. Then temporary edges were placed around the tiles and the back was filled with a mortar. When set, the piece was lifted from the bench, and then grouted.

Early slabbed jobs were all made using white plaster, often reinforced with slate or thick pieces of wrought iron. In the twenties this changed to a form of concrete, then in the 1970s lightweight concrete mixtures, which utilized pearlite as an aggregate instead of stone, in turn replaced this.Wooden Fireplace Mantelpieces to surround the Fireplace inserts were common up until World War One as were marble and slate Fireplace Mantels, many of which were strikingly and very skillfully painted. Over Fireplace Mantel mirrors became incorporated into the wooden Fireplace Mantel itself rather than being an optional extra. Mahogany, as in the Victorian era, continued to be a popular choice of wood, but Walnut and Oak were increasingly used, replacing the often darker cast iron, slate and stone Fireplace Mantels that had been popular at the tail end of the Victorian era.

In 1861 one of the founding fathers of the Arts and Crafts movement, William Morris founded the firm of Morris, Marshall, and Faulkner which promoted hand-made textiles, books, wallpaper, and furniture. They reverted to medieval manufacturing methods, (basically hand made, although some machinery was used) using traditional materials. Medieval Fireplace hoods and ingle nooks saw a return.

Many other designers also looked to the Middle Ages for influence. Arts and Crafts styles were united with mass production techniques bringing these designs to the general public at a reasonable price. Common natural forms such as birds, blossom and fruit dominated and abstract patterns were limited to borders and backgrounds. The classic tile design is the quartered tile based on popular

8HISTORY

early William Morris designs. On many arts and crafts tiles each quarter had a different, simple stylized flower spray. This basic quartered pattern design developed into a variety of more complex designs.

The influence of the Arts and Crafts movement was very much in evidence by Edwardian times. The fussiness of high Victorian decoration gave way to tapered columns, cleaner lines and less ornamentation. The Arts and Crafts was a reaction to the uniformity of Victorian mass-produced goods and the shoddiness of design and workmanship that inevitably followed. It attempted to revive handicrafts and applied arts and stimulate good design. Beaten copper Fireplace inserts were perhaps the best expressing of the Arts and Crafts tradition and were hand-made by the thousands up until the time of World War 1. These Fireplaces were often found in stockbroker belt semi detached houses of the period, typically the half-timbered Mock Tudor properties many of which had heraldic decorative themes.

The cast iron Fireplace making industry, which had probably been kept very busy in the run up to, the war, needed to adapt once the war was over. By the early 1920s few if any traditional black cast iron Fireplaces were being installed any where in England. The answer the industry came up with was Vitreous Enameling.

Vitreous enameled cast iron Fireplaces were made in modern colors and finishes- predominately mottled brown and beiges, and were installed by the thousand in the bedrooms of 1920 / 30s houses.Heating and cooking at this time was still mostly done by means of Bungalow Ranges, which were also vitreous enameled.

Attempts were even made to copy the look of a tiled insert in enameled cast iron as this rare example shows. So cast iron Fireplaces were still found around the home, but as a focus in lounges and parlors, they had, by the 1920s almost disappeared, certainly in their traditional black form.

By the early 1920s a myriad of small and large manufacturers increasingly produced tiled inserts and also completely Tiled Fireplaces for the mass market. This industry (which only required a small initial investment to begin production) probably grew out of the existing tile making industry, and several of the more famous tile makers were also to become large-scale Fireplace slabbers. But the sheer number of small firms creating these Fireplaces, at least in part characterized the industry. For small tile makers it was relatively easy to begin prefabricating these fashionable items.

The style of Art Deco is difficult to define as it had many diverse influences. It is a complex collection of styles. In Europe and the United States it was more associated with the machine aesthetic. Art Deco developed both as a reaction against the elaborate and sinuous Art Nouveau style and as a new aesthetic that celebrated the machine age and is a mixture of styles from the 1910s, 1920s and 1930s, originally known as the Style Moderne or Paris 25.

Historical influences are discarded in favour of modern ideas, decorative detail is sacrificed to function and industrial designs and methods are adopted. It was used primarily in furniture, jewellery, textiles, ceramics, and interior design Early Art Deco pieces are identified by expensive materials and craftsmanship used to create sculpture and luxury items.

Moderne designs often reflect the world-wide craze for Egyptology which swept the globe after the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922. Historical influences are discarded in favour of modern ideas, decorative detail is sacrificed to function and industrial designs and methods are adopted.

9HISTORY

Egyptology was used primarily in furniture, jewellery, textiles, ceramics, and interior design Early Art Deco pieces are identified by expensive materials and craftsmanship used to create sculpture and luxury items. Moderne designs often reflect the world-wide craze for Egyptology which swept the globe after the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922.

The central characteristics of Art Deco are clean lines and sharp edges, stylishness and symmetry. Its sleek, streamlined forms conveyed elegance and sophistication. Bright primary colors, the use of chrome, enamel, and highly polished stone, and references to ancient Egyptian and Greek design are also associated with the style. Stylized flowers, girls, geometric patterns, zigzags, chevrons, lightning bolts and stylized animals show clearly the Egyptian influence as well as elements of the Orient, tribal Africa and the Ballet Russes. In Europe the influence of the Bauhaus and others led to cleaner lines and less ornamentation.

Common motifs used principles of geometry with characteristic straight lines, triangles, zigzags, steps, setbacks, sunbursts or similar regular forms.

The expensive handcrafted, limited edition pieces was a problem to modernist designers and brought a change to the Moderne style. Design became for everyone, not just the wealthy. As objects were increasingly mass-produced and the United States displaced France as the center of the movement, Art Deco became even more geometric and linear.

In America, the style found expression in American Streamline with streamlined objects as diverse as locomotives, roadside diners, radio cabinets, jukeboxes, advertising displays and skyscrapers including William van Alens 1930 Chrysler Building in New York.

In Fireplaces Art Deco was almost immediately translated into a wealth of designs, which used traditional Fireplace materials, but in a more spectacular, avant-garde way. Simple understated lines were set off by the use of reflective chrome, lacquered wood or tiles to give a modern feeling without being over ornate. Designs could reflect the Art Deco influence of the Mexican stepped pyramid or might be asymmetric, influenced by the social realism movement.

World War II resulted in the urgent need to re-house families and consequently to a move from traditional Fireplaces to quickly installed electric fires.

Prosperity began to return during the 1950s and Tiled Fireplaces returned although by the middle of the decade even the wooden Fireplace Mantelshelf had disappeared and dcor trends accepted the wall-mounted fire.

With the introduction of central heating many hearths were removed and the fire surrounds stripped out or boarded up removing the architectural focal point of the room. In any case the focal point of the rooms had moved from the Fireplace to the television from the mid 1950s.In the early 1970s with the living flame gas fire demand returned for fire surrounds in the Adam style. Initially these were housed in simple designs although stone Fireplaces later became popular again.

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Heat always transfers from a group of molecules with greater energy to groups of molecules with lower energy, seeking equilibrium. In buildings, this means that heat transfers from objects with higher energy levels (in terms of temperature or the degree of energy intensity) to objects with lower energy levels. There are three modes of heat transfer in buildings: conduction, convection, and radiation. Each of these modes of heat transfer plays a role in the modulation of thermal comfort.

Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through the contact of molecules in directly connected objects.

Thermally active surface building systems

The most common thermally active surface system is a hydronic system cast into the bottom side (ceiling side) of a concrete slab. PEX tubing with an oxygen barrier is often used and will last beyond the life of the slab and building. Other systems include polypropylene capillary mat tubing that can be plastered to a surface. These are more common in renovation projects or non-site cast concrete new construction. A final solution is a hydronic system that clips into metal ceiling panels. The relatively light weight of the metal surface transfers heat energy more quickly than a concrete slab. Water walls are another type of thermally active surface. In a water wall, water below the point of the ambient air is introduced to the space. The ambient air condenses on the cooler surfaces, dehumidifying the air while also lowering its temperature. Transsolar and VJAA have built examples of water walls in the Charles Hostler Student Recreation Center at the American University of Beruit and the Lavin-Bernick Center for University Life at Tulane University.

TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Convection is the transfer of heat energy through the movement of molecules within a fluid or gas, resulting in a current or flow of energy. In a building, convection is the movement of air molecules coming in contact with objects in the space. The pattern of molecules in a gas and the resulting patterns of convective flow in a space is rather complex because convective transfer seeks equilibrium through diffusion. Convection diffusion makes many designers mistakenly assume that heat rises. Heat does not rise. Heat energy only transfers from objects of higher intensity to lower intensity. In the case of air, air molecules that have higher temperature will rise due to the buoyancy of air and other fluids. Hot air rises; but heat by it self does not. The buoyancy of warmed air creates convection currents that circulate air. This is the basis of many HVAC systems.

Radiant transfer is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves emitted from one object with greater energy intensity to an absorbing object with less energy intensity. A primary example is the energy emitted from the sun that travels through space and is absorbed by the earth and its objects.

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

The Birth of Hot Air

The coupling of thermal comfort with convective air flows for human comfort is as old as fire. Often, radiant transfer is the dominant mode of heat distribution in fire, but in many fireplace configurations, convective transfer plays an important role. The history of fireplace design is a history of the mixture of these two modes of heat transfer. The fireplace underwent significant scientific developments during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, making its convective transfer increasingly effective. These fireplaces, with a burn chamber and increasingly convoluted channels of combustion exhaust air contained inside a box, were the prototypical logic for later centralized heating systems. A growing awareness in the medical field about the effects of foul air in the mid-eighteenth century spurred a series of experiments focused on adequate building ventilation in hospital and prison typologies. Natural ventilation systemswere developed, initially using cross ventilation strategies and then later using fire to induce and amplify convective currents. The fire could also heat the ventilation air, a coupling that would come to unreflectively dominate our thermal strategies. It became apparent that machine-powered devices could force ventilation. These applications of power-operated ventilation and heating systems date back to the early eighteenth century and were in widespread use by the beginning of the nineteenth century: particularly in the foul air of mill buildings in England. Centralized heating and ventilation systems, however, would not fully emerge until the late nineteenth century.

Heat Transfer. N.d. Wikipedia - Heat-Its Role in Wildland Fire/Radiation. Web. .

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The Chinese Kang - a thermally active bed - and the Korean Ondol - a thermally active floor system - date back to 1000 BCE. Ondol means warm stone in Korean. In this system, the living space of the house was a few feet above the level of the kitchen and fireplace in an adjacent room. Two construction techniques channeled hot air horizontally from the fire. In a subtractive mode, slots ware dug under the finished floor from the fireplace to an exterior chimney. In an addive mode, masonry pedestals raised stone floor slabs, creating the plenum of exhaust air to run to a similar free-standing chimney outside the house. In both cases, the floor slabs were stone and coated with clay. Atop this base were layers of oiled paper and floor mats. The impervious clay layer contained the noxious combustion gases within the convection channels while heat from the combustion exhaust air warmed the stone slabs. This in turn warmed the space above through primaly radiant transfer. Thus the surface of the floor mass was the heat transfer mechanism, even though secondary convection patterns are typically associated with thermally active surfaces. The Ondol system helped engender a number of cultural and social patterns. The concentrated heat in the living space, adjacent to the fireplace, established a patriarchal spatial hierarchy in which the eldest occupied the warmest zones of the floor. Likewise, the tradition of not wearing shoes in a house and sleeping on the floor are also connected to these thermally active floor systems.

Moe, Kiel. Thermally Active Surfaces in Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural, 2010. Print.

Ondol Cross-section. Digital image. Ondol(Traditional Heating). Seoul City Tour, 2008. Web.

TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

The Roman hypocaust system (hypo: below, and kaiein: to burn) is perhaps the most well-known historical thermally active surface system. While its origins are not as clear as once thought, its organization and use in the Roman era were well documented. The hanging suspensurae of the hot bath rooms are to be constructed as follows. First the surface of the ground should be laid with tiles a foot and a half square, sloping towards the furnace in such a way that, if a ball is thrown in, it cannot stop inside but must return of itself to the furnace room; thus the heat of the fire will more readily spread under the hung flooring. Upon them, pillars made of eight-inch bricks are built, and set at such a distance apart the two-foot tiles may be used to cover them. These pillars should be two feet in height, laid with clay mixed with hair, and covered with the two-foot tiles which support the floor.In the hypocaust, much like the Ondol, hot air from the praefurnium, of furnace fires, was drawn through the floor plenums and exhausted through flues embedded in the warmed mansonry envelope. In some cases the praefurnium was located below the bath level and in others it was level with the baths.

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The Middle AgesThe principles of heating a thermal mass with hot air to condition spaces were used by other cultures during various periods. A range of heating systems and building typologies developed around large fireplaces and masonry heaters in Northern Europe during the Middle Ages. One notable is the Malbork Castle in northern Poland. The castle incorporated a medival version of a hypocaust. In this system, a subterranean double chamber stove generated heat for the large refectory space above. The lower fire-box chamber, with an isolated combustion box and exhaust air chimneys, heated a large pile of stones directly above the combustion chamber. Air was drawn through the stones, exchanged its heat energy with this thermal mass, and rose to the refectory above through small-scale masonry ducts. Atop these ducts, the refectory has cast metal adjustable diffusers integrated into the floor. This modulated the amount of convective heat energy that entered the space. While primarily a convective technique, the thermal mass of the refectory surfaces and the thermal mass of the stones captured and channeled heat by convective and radiant means.

Eighteenth and Nineteenth CenturiesAfter the developement of the steam engine, piped steam and hot water were increasingly used in Europe throughout the eighteent and nineteent centuries as heating implements. The steam system was used to distribute heat energy to spaces through radiators and convectors, with convective transfer as the primary method of heat transfer. An early example of a thermal surface strategy, rather than thermally active object strategies, was in a mill building by Neil Snodgrass, located in Dornoch, Scotland, built in 1800. In this case, steam circulated through vertical runs of tubes placed in the walls of the mill to condition the interior space. This type of installation comes closer than any other precedent to the operation of a contemporary thermally active surface. The Armley Mill in Leeds another mill building in England, used cast iron columns to distribute radiant energy, an early integration of structural and thermal conditioning systems. This made sense given the even distribution of columns in the space. Sir John Soane integrated a number of novel hot water strategies, steam strategies and hypocaust-style thermally active surfaces into his projects during this period. At his house, high pressure steam was ingeniously integrated in sculpture bases, furniture and around the bases of its many skylights to offset thermal losses in these single panel glazing and iron thermal sinks. A particularly innovative example is Soanes Bank of England Stock Office, completed in 1793. It includes an under-floor hypocaust system, designed to recover heat energy in the form of combustion air to heat the thermally active floor. The Register Office in Edinburgh (1837) by Charles Richardson is an example of a different course. A pupil of Soane, Richardson used hot water rather than steam as its thermal conditioning system. While these examples show that progress was made in the application of radiant transfer, interest lagged behind that of conductive and convective modes of heat transfer. A quantitative understanding of radiant transfer did not occur until the twentieth century.

Its principles were more frequently applied on a smaller scale pervasively throughout Europe. The Austrian kachelofen, Finnish kaakeliuuni, Swedish kakelugn, and other variations of masonry heaters also used low-temperature radiant heat to temper the long winters in these northern climates.

TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Twentieth Century

In 1908, an Englishman, Professor Arthur H. Barker, manufactured a commercially available hydronic thermally active surface, Barkers system embedded small metal pipes in concrete and plaster in floor and ceiling surfaces as the source of heat transfer. Although effective and popular, the understanding of the building science and physiological responses to the system were not well understood and further development was interrupted by World War I. In 1916, American architect Frank Lloyd Wright left the United States to work on the Imperial Palace Hotel in Japan, Wright visited a home built on the Korean Ondol model.

The First Open Air School, Amsterdam. Pictures: Art + Architecture. Pinterest. Rubins J. Spaans, n.d. Web.

The experience and logic impressed Wright. He in turn incorporated hydronic thermally active surfaces in the Imperial Hotel. He then brought the technique back with him to United States and tested many hydronic systems in his projects. By the 1930s thermally active floor slabs were a standard system in his Usonian Houses, including the Jacobs House built in 1936. The system Wright used consisted of cast iron or copper pipes embedded in sand and crushed rock located under, and sometimes within, a concrete floor slab. Other significant thermally active projects of Wright: Herbert Fisk Johnsons 14.000 square-foot Wingspread house and Johnson Wax headquarters in Racine, Wisconsin. Wrightreferred to this system as gravity heat. In these projects he focused on the buoyancy of the air caused by the radiant floor - this caused the warmed air to rise and drawing cooler air down to the slab in a convective current.

In Europe during the second quarter of the twentieth century, an English firm, Richard Crittall & Co., developed hydronic radiant systems for schools and sanatorium projects. The Crittall Ceiling became a common method of installation for thermally active surfaces. One of the most famous examples of this system is Bernard Bijvoet and Johannes Duikers Open Air in Amsterdam built in 1928. The school reflects the debate in the early twentieth century regarding indoor air quality. One outcome of this debate was the Open Air School Movement in the United

States and in Europe. In the United States the poor quality of urban air, the increasing size of urban schools, and poor student performance prompted experimentation with open-air classrooms. During this time, open-air classrooms were supported as a medical approach to eradicate tuberculosis. As such, open-air classrooms were also an extension to the benefits of fresh air and sun prescribed as the primary tuberculosis treatment. Bijvoet and Duikers work on the Zonnestraal Sanatorium prepared their work on the Open Air School in Amsterdam. In their Open Air School the benefits of open-air and sunlit classrooms were engendered by a hydronic radiant system embedded in the concrete ceilings and structure of the outdoor classrooms. The hydronic system extends the open-air teaching season by modulating the operative temperature of the outdoor classrooms shared by the two classrooms on each floor. Duiker continued working on the thermally active surfaces in subsequent projects, including his final project: the 1934 Grand Hotel in Gooiland, Hilversum. In a system developed and patented with de Ridder, the hotel used an air based thermally active concrete cealing structure to condition interior and exterior spaces. Throughout this period, the application of thermally active surfaces remained largely as idiosyncratic as its architects.

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Mid-Century Hydronic Systems

Following World War II, interest in the thermally active surfaces became more popular and their use more widespread in the United States. A group of publications about their use of concrete slabs and radiant heating were written in the United States after Warld War II, reflecting the penchant for thermally active surface building science and a renewed interest in the possibilities of hydronic and electric radiant heating. At the same time, in a book American Building: The Environmental Forces that Shaped it, James Marston Fitch identified the benefits of radiant heating and proposed six-sided thermally active surface heating as the optimal thermal comfort technique. By this point, the science behind radiant transfer was catching up with the research on convective and psychrometric processes. The literature and its audience expanded the implementation of radiant systems from idiosyncratic customized installations to more systemic installations on a larger scale. A large scale example of this post-war rise and fall of thermally active surfaces occured in Levittoen, New York.

Picture: Radiant Heat Through the Ages. Reeves Journal. N.p., 19 Jan. 2004. Web.

Pex Tubing, systematized fittings, and related technologies vastly increase installation speed, quality and reliability. As a result hydronic systems are being used with greater regularity inboth heating and cooling applications. Yet, as Lewis Mumford stated, the habits of mind in this industry do not align with the physiological basis of these systems. The recent growth in the discourse and practise of the sustainability is shifting these habits of mind During the 1970s and 80s, Dr. Bruno Keller worked on the development and

intergration of techniques for low energy buildings. By the late 1980s he focused his efforts on high performance building envelopes, displacement ventilation, and thermally active surfaces in a num-ber of projects. The Messerli Ltd. building in Wetzikon, Switzerland, for instance, was the first of many buildings to decouple thermal conditioning and fresh air ventilation. The building uses an all glazed building with optimal U-values and an early cooled ceiling using panel radiators. The Sani-port building in Fribourg was the first building integrating hydronics into concrete slab, in conjuction with displacement ventilation and a high performance building envelope. In a house near Zurich built in the mid-1980s, architect Otto Kolb used plastic hydronic tubing behind stone walls as a thermally active wall surface, as well as a hydronic floor system to help heat the circular solar house. Roof mounted solar collectors heat a pool on the south side of the house. They reflect light into the house storing heat energy accumulated during the day.

TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Pictures: Esoteric Survey: Kolb / Associates. Esoteric Survey: Kolb / Associates. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2014.

In the early 1990s, other practices in Switzerland further developed these components of thermally active surface systems. Robert Meierhans, a Swiss engineer, developed a number of buildings and published important research papers about ground source radiant cooling and the night purge of concrete slabs. His collaborative work with architect Peter Zumthor on the Thermal Baths at the Vals and the Kunsthaus Bregenz are both noteworthy examples. By the beginning of this century, the technique is gaining more technological momentum, with significant applications in Central Europe, China, and British Columbia.

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Batiso (Constant Temperature Building)

These Buildings are characterized by designing the building envelope to a very high standard, and the reliance on cast-in-place concrete structure that is temperature-controlled with water tubing cast into them to control the radiant temperatures of the floors and ceiling. Ventilation air is reduced to the minimum required for healthy indoor conditions. These building systems provide most of the occupant comfort from radiant temperature exchange, with ventilation air supplied at just below the desired room air temperature. Natural ventilation with operable windows and other types of natural ventilation systems can also be used during spring and autumn seasons. The high thermal mass of the tempered concrete structure provides a very stable indoor temperature, while the high-performance envelope minimizes thermal load transients and variations around the perimeter of the building. Basic Steps in Designing a Batiso Building

1. Determine the local climate, including daily and hourly nighttime dry and wet bulb temperatures to determine night cooling capabilities. The solar orientation, local wind conditions, and all the other natural energy sources must be catalogued.

2. Clearly determine the indoor design requirements and compile detailed occupancy and equipment data to be able to accurately calculate the indoor heat gains and occupancy patterns.

3. Design the envelope based on the local climate to achieve the following goals:-The inside surface temperature of windows must not be lower than 17C in winter and not greater than 26,7C in summer. - Perimeter solar heat gains must be kept less than 47 watts/square meter. Exterior solar shading may be required to keep direct solar off the exterior glass surfaces depending on glass exposure.-Total indoor heat gains in the occupied zones must average less than 79 watts/square meter.

4. Super-windows, which are available in most areas of the world, meet the following criteria:-Visionwall (based on original Geilinger AG windows)-Southwall Heat Mirror suspended film glazing-Triple or quadruple glazing with Low-E coatings-Double skin facades composed of conventional curtain wall glazing systems can provide the required high thermal performance as well as allow opportunities for natural ventilation.

5. Calculate and select the HVAC systems and lighting for low energy consumption, using the concrete structure as the primary temperature control system and minimizing the ventilation systems to suit the indoor conditions and make-up air requirements for internal processes. The use of a concrete core conditioning system with a nighttime fluid cooler for the radiant slab cooling plant, a small daytime cooling source for the ventilation air tempering, and a low-temperature condensing boiler for the heating plant is a common practise. Note that much of the internal heat gains from lights, people, and equipment can be eliminated from the cooling plant load when using a low-level ventilation air delivery system to rooms.

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Construction of an average fireplace

For ordinary room a fair average size for a fire-place openin is three feet in width(91,5cm) by two and a half feet high(76,5cm), with depth half the width. This kind of average fireplace pro-vides maximun heat with minimun of draft.

The chimney should have the same size through-out its extent and it is one-tenth of the opening into the room.

Vital elements in the construction are known as a `smoke shelf and a smoke chamber which prevent the cold air to strike directly upon the fire and force the smoke into the room. The throat and the smoke chamber at the bottom must ex-tend across the full width of the fire chamber.

Source: Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.Picture: Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.

A section through the fireplace and chimney. The broad cross-hatching represents brickwork.Chimney:

The chimney itself should extend at least a foot or two above any nearby roof ridge and it should work without any cowl, whirligig or other device of that type on the top. There is no great objec-tion to having the opening a horizontal one at the top of the chimney, although in that case if the flue is nearly straight throughout its course, some rain will find its way down to the hearth in a hard storm. In most cases there is enough bend in the flue to prevent this, and if not it may be avoided by covering the top of the chimney with a stone and having the openings vertical ones on all four sides just under this.Some support is needed to raise the fuel so that the air may find a clear passage under and through it to the flames, and nothing could well be devised to serve the purpose better than the pair of horizontal wrought bars, each with its sin-gle rear foot and its steadying front, the upper continuation of which serves to hold the burning logs in place

Source Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.Picture: Al Menting Mason Contractors. Al Menting Mason Contractors.

Intuit, 2011. Web. 10 Oct. 2014.

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

Colonial Fireplace

Our colonial ancestors built great cavernous openings and generous flues that secured a strong unobstructed current of hot air up the chimney. Such a hot draught requires a lot of cool air which had to be coming into the room from windows and doors. In this kind of fireplace almost the entire heat will be lost and the front of the fireplace has a cold stream going towards the fire.

Source: Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.Picture: Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.

Construction:

There is a difference between the main back wall of the chimney, eight inches thick, and the brick work laid inside the fire chamber to form the hearth and the back. The rough brick work of the chimney is al-ways laid first, leaving the fire chamber with its slop-ing back and sides. The hearth will be filled later with a better brick and perhaps finished with a tile.

The so called rock-lock or trimmer is a support for the hearth. It is an arch between the foundation masonry of the chimney and a pair of floor joists set out at the proper distance. There is couple of other ways to secure the support, such as corbeling out from the masonry foundation or by extending two short projections of this masonry from the bottom up at either end of the hearth and throwing an arch across between these.

The width of the hearth is ordinally made about sixteen or eighteen inches beyond the face of the opening with the average size fireplace, twenty inches or even more with a larger ones. The terracotta flue lining is not necessary but it permits to use a thinner wall for the chimney and provides the flue with smooth regular sides. Flue lining makes the flue entirely safe as the joints between sections of the lining are carefully filled with cement mortar.

Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.Pictures: Saylor, Henry H. Making a Fireplace. New York: McBride, Nast, 1913. Print.

A cross-section showing the construction of a large stone fireplace with slightly arched opening.

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TECHNICAL & MANUFACTURING

In the Rumford design the additional change to the fireplace instigated by the Rumford design was to smooth off the route the gases take into the chimney and to create a venture (known as the throat in the case of an open fire), which speeded up the gas flow at the critical point and then injected the smoke into the gather or smoke chamber above. This restriction also reduced the amount of heat lost up the chimney and greatly reduced the incidence of smoking back. The basic principles used in the Rumford fireplace are still current today in the British Standard Fireplace components, with some modifications to bring the throat forward and the fire basket further back.

By the late 1780s, David R. Rittenhouse had redesigned the stove by adding an L-shaped chimney. Quite reasonably, he called it a Rittenhouse stove. But legend has its prerogatives; the device is known to this day as the Franklin stove. By 1790, the improved Franklin stove was in wide use and became an integral piece of Americana.

Source & Pictures: Franklin Stove. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Oct. 2014. Web. 20 Oct. 2014.

The Franklin stove is a metal-lined fireplace named after its inventor, Benjamin Franklin. It was invented in 1741. It had a hollow baffle near the rear. It was intended to produce more heat and less smoke than an ordinary open fireplace. It is also known as a circulating stove or the Pennsylvania fireplace. Franklins stove was essentially a free-standing iron fireplace. It contained an air box below the hearth into which fresh, cold air was drawn by the heat of the fire over the box. Behind the fire stood an air column - actually an extension of the air box - the whole unit being L-shaped. At the top of the air column, the fresh air, now warmed by the fire, was allowed to escape back into the room; but the smoke was forced over, around, down, then up and out through the chimney.

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ECOLOGY & SUSTAINABILITY

CV - Hearth

A CV Hearth is a good alternative for a normal fireplace. In this system the fireplace is connected to the hot water boiler. The warmth smoke and gasses from the fireplace are used to produce hot water. In this way you can have the benefits of a real fireplace, without polluting the environment and saving energy.

Uw Haard. CV Haarden. - UW-haard.nl. Uw Haard, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014. .

A good working fireplace

A couple of things are very important for a good working fireplace. The chimney, the position of the chimney in the house and the pull of the chimney. To improve the pull of the chimney its important that the chimney doesnt cool down. One of the things that would help avoid the chimney of cooling down is the placement of fireplaces on top or besides each other. An other thing is to build the chimney really in the wall and not on the outside of the wall. This would also help avoid the chimney to cool down. Its important for the environment and for saving energy that the chimney has a good pull. The better the pull, the less fuel you need and the less energy is wasted.

A. van Oirschot, Open haarden en schouwen, 1972, tweede druk Prakta-paper-backs no. 24

Mobel. "Cv Met Houtkachel." Cv Met Houtkachel. Klusidee, 30 Oct. 2009. Web. 20 Sept. 2014.

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ECOLOGY & SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainable heating

One of the things we use the most energy for is heating our houses and offices. To make theheating of our buildings more sustainable we can use different kind of energy sources like the sun, the wind or water. But we can also take a look at the efficiency of the different heating methods we can use.

Efficiency of the heating method:Fireplace 20%Electric heating 40%Gas heating 65% Wood burner 75%Soapstone stove/ 90%Tile heater CV/VR Boiler 92%Pellet stove 94%(pellet = pressed wood)HR Boiler 107%HRE Boiler 130%Heat pump 600%

s. Verwarming. Van Je Huis Kost Meeste Energie. Overzicht Rendement Verwarmingsbronnen. Open Haard, Cv, Pelletkachel. Duurzaam Thuis, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014. .

Heating space 58 %

Electricity 12%

Cooking 6%

Heating water 24 %

Duurzaam Thuis. Verwarming. Van Je Huis Kost Meeste Energie. Overzicht Rendement Verwarmingsbronnen. Open Haard, Cv, Pelletkachel. Duurzaam Thuis, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014.

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ECOLOGY & SUSTAINABILITY

Bioethanol is a fuel for your fireplace made out of natural ingredients. Its made by fermenting the sugar and starch components of plant by-products - mainly sugarcane and crops like grain, using yeast. It is also made from corn, potatoes, milk and rice, It is blended with petrol to make a truly sustainable transport fuel, its used in cosmetic and other manufacturing processes, and it creates the clean burning, beautiful dancing flame in our fireplaces.The combustion of bioethanol results in a clean emission: Heat, Steam and Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants then processed via photosynthesis to help the plant grow. This infinite cycle of creation and combustion of energy makes bio ethanol a carbon neutral fuel source. A fireplace burning Bioethanol does not produce smoke, rendering a chimney useless. This brings a whole new world of fireplace designs.

Solar Heating from solar panels has become the most common heating for modern buildings. Highly technical, the UV rays are collected on the roof, then transfered into heat which goes to a boiler, which saves the energy and makes it ready for use.

Passive solar energy is when a building is designed to absorb the suns radiation through strategic positioning without the use of solar panels. This allows more sun to enter the building during colder months and avoid sun exposure during the warmer months. I.e.: the facade is positioned in the southern quadrant with a maximal deviation to the east or west by 20 degrees. The house would also have an obstruction angle of maximum 16 degrees to still allow the winter sun to enter.

- Hier Opgewekt. Zonnepanelen: Hoe Werken Ze? Hier Opgewekt. Hier Opgewekt, n.d. Web. .- Anderson, Bruce, and Michael Riordan. The Solar Home Book: Heating, Cooling, and Designing with the Sun. Harrisville, NH: Cheshire, 1976. Pr.- Yanovshtchinsky, Vera, Kitty Huijbers, Andy Van Den Dobbelsteen, and Saskia t. Hart. Architectuur Als Klimaatmachine: Handboek Voor Duurzaam Comfort Zonder Stekker. Amsterdam: SUN, 2012. Pr.

Eco Smart Fire. What Is Bioethanol Fuel? Green Energy, Denatured Alcohol, & More. What Is Bioethanol Fuel? Green Energy, Denatured Alcohol, & More. Ecosmart Fire, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014. .

Eco Smart Fire. What Is Bioethanol Fuel? Green Energy, Denatured Alco-hol, & More. What Is Bioethanol Fuel? Green Energy, Denatured Alcohol, & More. n.d. Web. Sept. 2014.

Solar Choice. Solar Choise. Solar Choice, n.d. Web. .

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ERGONOMICS

Fireplace with seating area under the chimney

Ergonomic Fireplaces

Fireplaces have many functions - heating, lighting, cooking, seating, drying, and so on. In the following pictures are examples of these functions.

A. van Oirschot, Open haarden en schouwen, 1972, tweede druk Prakta-paperbacks no. 24

Left: the fireplace is in the middle of the room for social gathering.Right: the fireplace is open on different area as to allow communicate with people on either side.

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ERGONOMICS

Left: the hearth can be used on both the interior and exteriorRight: The fireplace is designed with shelves to store belongings with benches along to sit

Left: the chimney is used as a room divider and extra wallRight: the fireplace is part of the roof construction and a central area in the building

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ERGONOMICS

The Stove Heater is an efficient and eco-friendly installation designed in the 17th century. These stoves are normally placed in the centre of the house, mainly in kitchen or livingroom and can be used in many different ways. They are used for heating, cooking, drying of laundery, wood and shoes. Most of the time theyre also made to lean or sit against them with seating around it. Depending on the design, a bed ontop is even possible. The form of these stove heaters is decided by its use, as evidenced in the following examples.

Lowtech Magazine. Lowtech Magazine. Lowtech Magazine. Lowtech Magazine, n.d. Web. Oct. 2014. .

Gebhard, Torsten. Kachelfen Mittelpunkt Huslichen Lebens : Entwicklung, Form, Technik. Mnchen: Callwey, 1988. Print.

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APPEARANCES AND STYLES

Dominique Imbert - Gyrofocus

In 1967, French sculptor Dominique Imbert hand sculpted his first fireplace to warm his studio in the south of France. He went on to create the internationally acclaimed gyrofocus, the first suspended fireplace that pivots 360 degrees. Focus contemporary designs can be found in locations ranging from art galleries in Marseille to condominiums in Tokyo, and Norman Foster-designed company headquarters to some of the worlds most prestigious design museums including the Guggenheim in New York City and the museum of Modern Art in Stockholm.

Cool wall mounted fireplace from Vauini Coupla Spherical Fireplace

The modern fireplace from Vauini is a cool choice to enhance your interior during the winter season. Entitled Coupla this wall mounted fireplace comes with unique spherical shape integrated with an advanced, adjustable bio-ethanol burner, allowing ventless, hassle-free flames. Couplas material is lightweight aluminum and its available in two different colors black or white matte finish.

Source & Picture: Cool Wall Mounted Fireplace from Vauini Coupla Spherical Fireplace . Ed. DesignToDesign.com. The Ultimate Design Magazine, 4 Jan. 2010. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

Source: FOCUS. Custom Fireplace Design. CUSTOM FIREPLACE DESIGN INC., 2014. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.Picture:Tverrfjellhytta, Norwegian Wild Reindeer Pavilion. Digital image. Snhetta. N.p., n.d. Web.

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APPEARANCES AND STYLES

Portable Gel fireplace

Basically it is gel alcohol in a can that you light up. Burn time of one can is between two and three hours. Gel fuel fireplaces are free standing fireplaces that you can choose to put in any room. There is not much installation or assembly required, and you can move them from room to room, giving you the flexibility to have a fireplace in any room. Gel fuel fireplaces do not require vents or chimneys as the gel fuel is alcohol based and does not give off smoke or fumes. You do not need a vent or chimney to use these fireplaces safely. There are no ashes, either, so these fireplaces do not require the same care as traditional fireplaces.

Picture: Houzz. Digital image. Burnaby Capitol Hill Residence. Tanya Schoenroth, 28 Jan. 2013. Web.

Roll Rollfire It literally is a fire that you can roll from room to room. The ball bearings and gravity will keep the fuel tank horizontally level with the movement of the frame. Fueled with Bio-alcohol, it burns without smoke, residue or odor. It produces only water vapor and carbon dioxide as a combustion by-product.

Source & Picture: Presnal, Katja. Modern Ventless Fireplaces That Will Take You from Winter to Spring. Skimbaco Lifestyle Online Magazine. SkimpacoLifestyle, 2 Mar. 2011. Web. 14 Oct.2014.

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Frank Lloyd Wright is often quoted as saying, The hearth is the psychological center of the home. Two homes that Wright built, Fallingwater in 1936 and the Pope House in 1939, though significantly different in many respects, shared a common origin - strong identification with Wrights ideals on family, values, and architecture, and especially with his belief in the centrality of the hearth in a home. In 1935 Frank Lloyd Wright designed a home for the wealthy Kaufmann family of Pittsburg: a remarkable feat of engineering, the mountain retreat reaches over a waterfall. In 1939 Mr. Pope, an editor for a Washington, DC, newspaper, asked Wright to design a home for him and his family in Falls Church, Virginia, after seeing an article about Fallingwater. Wright designed a modest home, the Pope House. The two homes, in some ways very different, both showcased principles on the relationship of an individual to a house, and a house to its surroundings. We see a commitment by Wright to provide his clients, regardless of how much money they had to spend, with homes designed to uplift the spirits of those who lived or visited within them. Wright created that spirituality in large part through the prominent integration of fireplaces and hearths into houses. The hearth was not just a psychological center for Wright; it became a physical center as well. Together with the kitchen, the hearth formed a core around which Wright wrapped the dwelling. The physical building expressed otherwise intangible values and ideals about family and family life. Though central heating and modern kitchens were well established in American homes by the 1930s, Wright still centered his designs for the Kaufmann and Pope families on the hearth. Common among Wright designs, even in homes as different as Fallingwater and the Pope House, the hearth, together with the kitchen, formed a central core around which the house was built. Wrights ideas about family and home life influenced the way he designed houses, for the design was meant to facilitate living by a set of ideals that emphasized harmony with nature and simplicity. His designs also reflected the circumstances of the individual family: the kitchen and hearth of the Pope House reflect the needs of a middle-class family, while those of Fallingwater reflect those of a wealthy family. Wright advocated a new style of architecture, and a new way of living, to solve the problem of affordable housing. Wright rejected scaling down large, traditional homes to a size that would fit a modest budget. His kitchen designs took advantage of certain trends in cooking, including preprocessed ingredients and an emphasis on efficiency in cooking through efficiency of space.Wrights positioning of the hearth in the Pope House and Fallingwater began the process of bringing back together two aspects of the hearth that diverged long ago. We see after Wright the development of the 1950s ranch house, with the kitchen once again becoming a gathering area and opening onto the rest of the living space.

Frank Lloyd Wright

Photo: Frank Lloyd Wright Hearth. 2008. DecoratingFlair. Web.

OConnor, Allison. More than Just a Fireplace: The Hearth, the Kitchen, and Frank Lloyd Wright Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Hilton Atlanta, Atlanta Marriott, and Hyatt Regency, Atlanta, GA, Jan 04, 2007 . 2013-12-16

PROJECTS

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PROJECTS

What slice of the sun enters your room? You feel the privacy of it, you feel that sun belongs to you, coming through the window, playing along the sills and the jambs and the walls.Kahn, House & Garden interview, 1972

The northeast-facing windows of the Kahn Korman House, are an example of how Kahn oriented each part of the house to reveal the landscape and the changing light in subtle ways.Shadows move across the pasture throughout the day. Light flows through the space from dawn until sunset, when the setting sun illuminates the dining room chimney (visible through the windows).

The living room fireplaces chimney is hidden from view; instead, the eye is drawn to a brick inglenook with built-in bench. Kahn envisioned the inglenook as an intimate place to sit and have a conversation, a small-scale element that defines a house. Throughout the design process, the Korman plan was anchored by its chimneys, but the inglenook evolved: it was first a semi-circular, temple-like room of its own.

Kahn told Toby Korman and interior designer Susan Binswanger that he chose a very rich kind of brown red brick for the fireplaces, which he found superior to the red red kind.

Kahn Korman House. Living. Kahn Korman House. Kahn Korman House, n.d. Web. Sept. 2014. .

Picture: Kahn Kormann House. Completed Plans. n.d. Web. Oct. 2014.

Louis Kahn

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The Glass House by Philip Johnson

The interior of the Glass House is completely exposed to the outdoors except for the a cylinder brick structure with the entrance to the bathroom on one side and a fireplace on the other side.To explain the symbolic cylinder that Mr. Johnson had positioned in the hearth of his Glass House he said: ... the main motif of the house, was not derived from Mies but rather from a burnt village I saw once where nothing was left but the foundations and chimneys of brick...

Pictures: 1. Perez, Adelyn. Http://www.flickr.com/photos/arzan/2784530538/. Digital image. AD Classics: The Glass House / Philip Johnson. Arch Daily, 17 May 2010. Web. 16 Oct. 2014. 2. Perez, Adelyn. Creative Commons - Photo Credit: Melody Kramer. Digital image. AD Classics: The Glass House / Philip Johnson. Arch Daily, 17 May 2010. Web. 16 Oct. 2014.3. Glass House Floor Plan. Digital image. The Glass House. 2013 National Trust for Historic Preservation and The Glass House, n.d. Web.Koolhaas, Rem. Fireplace. Elements: A Series of 15 Books Accompanying the Exhibition Elements of Architecture at the 2014 Venice Architecture Biennale. Venezia: Marsilio, 2014. 78-79. Print.

PROJECTS

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PROJECTS

Casa Malaparte

Designed in 1937 by Italian architect Adalberto Libera for the journalist, novelist and diplomat Curzio Malaparte. Malaparte rejected Liberas design for the house and ended up building it himself with the help of Adolfo Amitrano, a local stonemason and the house was completed in 1942. The floor of the grand space was made up of large broken pieces of stone but the centerpiece of the room is the sensational fireplace. Made up of three sections of sculpted concrete capped with a wood mantle the outer sections for wood storage flank a window made of heat resistant glass framing another view of the waves and landscape below.

Casa Malaparte is a paintinglike scenery. The scenes are encounters of the basic elements: water, stone, air and fire, being heavily framed to really seize the moment. The fireplace hearth incorporates a window of fireproof Jena glass, giving a view through the flames, as if on to a burning sea. Like then windows, the fireplace frames a mythical world, in which fire and water are reconciled.

Talamona, Marida. Adalberto Libera and Villa Malaparte. Villa Malaparte (n.d.): n. pag. Web.

Picture: Fireplace with View of the Sea beyond by Francois Halard. Digital image. The Gilded Owl. N.p., 1 May 2013. Web. 10 Oct. 2014.

Picture: Section. Digital image. The Gilded Owl. N.p., 1 May 2013. Web. 10 Oct. 2014.

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Kunshaus BregenzBregenz, Austria

The Kunsthaus Bregenz is a prime example of thermally active surfaces in architecture. Architect Peter Zumthor and engineer Robert Meierhans designed a thermodynamically and physiologically novel figure for the Kunsthaus Bregenz that formalized a new relationship between body and building. Situated on the edge of Lake Constance in Bregenz, Austria, the visual and tectonic aspects of Kunsthaus Bregenz are well known. The scheme presents a box of etched glass shingles that veil the concrete structure of the building, as described by Zumthor: The art museum stands in the light of Lake Constance. It is made of glass and steel and a cast concrete stone mass which endows the interior of the building with texture and spatial composition. From the outside, the building looks like a lamp. It absorbs the changing light of the sky, the haze of the lake, it reflects light and color and gives an intimation of its inner life according to the angle of vision, the daylight and the weather.

The Kunsthaus architecture emerged from a simple yet found physiological understanding of the body as the context. Like the human body, the Kunsthaus is a hydronic heat and cool system with a decoupled fresh air ventilation system. The concrete surfaces in the Kunsthaus are hydronic, thermally active surfaces that temper the thermal comfort of bodies in the space through radiant heat transfer as opposed to the minimal air system in the building. While this system may initially seem simple, if not mundane, it engenders the austere appearance and low energy consumption of the building. The simplicity of the scheme is best understood through the clarity of its zoning. The building has three primary zones: first, the occupied spaces of the galleries, the entry floor and the subterrain levels; second, a service zone above each of the galleries; third, a buffer zone that wraps the building. The galleries are supported and enclosed by a thermally active concrete structure. The concrete superstructure bears on a set of piles that distributes its load down into the soft ground condition.

Picture: Kunsthaus in Bregenz, Austria. Archipost. N.p., 12 Nov. 2008. Web. 26 Oct. 2014.

PROJECTS

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PROJECTS

Zollverein School of Management and DesignEssen, Germany Kazuyo Sejima + Ryue Nishizawa, SANAA Transsolar KlimaEngineering

The observation of site context and climate as a primary premise for design is a familiar component of bio-climatic and sustainable design. While the analysis of familiar models of passive energy gains is important to thermally active surfaces, the Zollverein project is a case in which the entirety of the buildings physical milieu was viewed as a total energy system. In doing so, this view imaginatively identified energy sources that enable critical formal aspects of the project. The mineshafts of the closed colliery play a central role in the thermal strategy of the building. When the colliery was closed, its 1000 meter deep mine shafts were left and filled with water. The owner of the mines pumps this water into the adjacent Emscher River. The water temperature at the pump depth is a constant 84F. Transsolar, the buildings energy strategist, saw thermal value in what was essentially waste water and recognized it as a source of free energy for the new construction. A heat exchanger located in the pump stations above shafts 1,3 and 8 extracts heat energy from the mireral-saturated water. This heated water is pumped to the school and cycled through its thermally active surfaces. The result is a cheap and CO2 -free source of heat energy. This reduces energy consumption by 75 percent, decreases carbon emissions by 31 tons annually, and saves roughly 7000 euros in annual heating costs.

Basulto, David. Zollverein School of Management and Design / SANAA 28 Mar 2010. ArchDaily. Accessed 26 Oct 2014.

The Kunsthaus is an example of an earth-coupled, or geothermal, thermally active surface build-ing. The building also has a perimeter slurry wall foundation that extends down to the bedrock, isolating the construction from the flowing ground water in the soil. These foundation walls also serve as a heat sink and source. The water from the adjacent take and on the site fluctuates annually from 60-72F. This water cycles through the slurry walls and is used for cooling purposes. Thses earth-coupled loops feed a 3800-liter storage tank that supplies the hydronic system for the concrete structure of the Kunsthaus. The design integrated 28 000 kilometers of tubing into the concrete pour. A gas-fired boiler supplies heat for the hydronic system in the winter months. The structural configuration of the gallery creates controlled, thermally active surfaces on five sides of a body in the gallery spaces. Together, this strategy minimizes perceived radiant asymmetries and thus allows a lower supply temperature because the system does not compensate for unheated surfaces in the space and the resultant thermal asymmetries.

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PROJECTS

Klarchek Information Commons, Loyola UniversityChicago, Illinois Solomon Cordwell Buenz Transsolar KlimaEngineering Elara Engineering

The Klarchek Information Commons is a 70 000-square-foot digital research library on the edge of Lake Michigan. The lakefront site provides predictable land water wind patterns that underlie the buildings energy strategies. Finally, given the north-south orientation of the building, the transparency of the east and west exposures require particular attention to the solar control strategies. Responding to these conditions, the building is a transparent box with limestone bookends that capture and channel views, airflow, and solar energy. The horizontal structural system of the building is a primary component of the mechanical system. Hydronic tubing was cast in the pre-cast concrete planks for radiant heating and cooling. The planks have a vaulted profile also diffuses the light from a strip of fluorescent up-lighting centered on each vault. The thermally active heating system and the high performance building envelope work together in four operation modes: a heating mode, a cooling mode, a fill outside air mode and a hybrid cooling mode. In the winter heating mode all operable vents are closed. The thermally active surface emits radiant energy to heat occupants while the displacement ventilation air system provides mechanical ventilation. A series of perimeter fin tube convectors along glazed east facade assists in the heating mode, emitting a blanket of warm air across the surface of the glass. During the summer cooling mode the east facade vents are closed and the dampers atop the west facade cavity are open to exhaust. In this mode, the thermally active surfaces are absorbing and removing radiant energy from the spaces below. In the mixed mode all the building vents are partially open and thermally active surfaces remove internal heat gains from the space by channeling water through the concrete structure. In the full outside air mode all the operable vents are fully open but thermally active surfaces are not activated. Instead, lake air from the high windward vents provides fresh air and helps to keep the slab cool by removing exhaust air as it rises to the ceiling, exhausting it through the west cavity and dampers.

The Richard J. Klarchek Information Commons / Solomon Cordwell Buenz. ArchDaily. N.p., 19 May 2012. Web. 26 Oct. 2014.

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Architecture Photography: The Richard J. Klarchek Information Commons / Solomon Cordwell Buenz (11) (236313). Arch Daily, n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2014.

A L L E G R A S A N T I SS A L L A M A A R I A K O S K IJ U L I E T T E G R O E N E N D A A L 3 D O B J E C T