first mexican particle accelerator school guanajuato oct...
TRANSCRIPT
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Photon Instrumentation
First Mexican Particle Accelerator School
Guanajuato
Oct 6, 2011
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Outline
•The Electromagnetic Spectrum
•Photon Detection
•Interaction of Photons with Matter
•Photoelectric Effect
•Compton Scattering
•Pair production
•Instrumentation
•Solid State Devices
•Gas Filled Devices
•Scintillation Counters
•Charge Coupled Devices
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Outline
•Beam Line Measurements
•Beam Position
•Beam Profile
•Beam Intensity
•Summary
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html
Another way of looking at the spectrum
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength () nm
Frequency () THz
Energy (eV)
infrared ~750 – 106 ~400 – 0.3 ~ 1.7– 1.2*10-3
Visible ~400 –750 ~750 – 400 ~3.1 – 1.7
Ultraviolet ~10 – 400 ~3*104 – 750 ~124 – 3.1
X-rays ~0.01 – 10 ~3*107 – 3*104 ~124*103–124
ϒ-rays < 0.01 >3*107 >124*103
Velocity of light (c) = Wavelength () x Frequency() Photon Energy E = h
h is Planck’s constant (≈4.136*10−15 eV·s)
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Light Sources
Light sources provide photon beams over a wide spectrum
The wide variety of instrumentation does not yield to even a cursory description
We will limit ourselves to a small set of techniques and devices
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Photon Detection
Detection requires that
• the photons interact with the material in the detector
• the interaction generates some identifiable signal
Example: Light detection by your eye
The eye can do more than just detection, it can distinguish colors and also intensity
Limitations of eye as a detector (among other things):
Range, which is the visible spectrum
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Photon Detection
(Hamamatsu Photomultiplier Basics and Applications)
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Photon Detection
A detector’s ability is related to the photon wavelength
To state it another way, a detector’s response is dependent on the photon energy
It is not sufficient for us to detect photons
We want to measure with some desired precision
•beam properties because experiments depend on knowing the characteristics of the photon beam
•The interactions of the beam with targets
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Interactions of Photons with Matter
We will consider the following mechanisms by which photons lose energy
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton Scattering
• Pair production
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Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric effect is the dominant process at low photon energies with high Z materials
Probability of photoelectric interaction Zn/(h)3, n is between 3 and 4
(picture credit: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html)
Kinetic Energy of the electron = h – W, where W is the binding energy of the electron
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Compton Scattering
Energy transfer from photon to electron increases with photon energy. Probability of Compton scattering is approximately proportional to Z (picture credit http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/compeq.html)
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Pair Production
Pair production probability increase when the incident energy is greater than 2*electron mass and approximately as Z2
Nucleus
e+
e- Photon
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Photon Interactions with matter
In the energy regime below 1 MeV, the dominant processes are photoelectric effect and Compton scattering
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Instrumentation
The information on energy dependent photon interactions with matter guides the choice of detectors
Solid state devices can work at very low photon energies (<10 eV)
Gas filled detectors are suitable when photon energies are around 30 eV
Scintillation detectors cover a large range from around 10 eV to very high energies
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Solid State Devices
• The energy deposited by photons solid state devices creates electron/hole pairs
• The electrons move from valence bond to conduction band
• The migration of electrons creates holes in the valence bond
• The number of electron/hole pairs is proportional to the energy deposited
• Application of an electric field generates a pulse
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Solid State Devices
Hamamatsu
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Solid State Devices
The contribution of statistics to the energy resolution is given by
ΔE/E = 2.35 (Fε/E)1/2
F is called the Fano Factor, E is the photon energy in eV and ε is the energy needed to create an electron/hole pair
Signal to Electronics
Current
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Gas Filled Devices
While in the semiconductor devices, electron/hole pairs are created by radiation, in the gas counters electron/ion pairs are created. The anode is kept at a positive potential and the walls are at ground. As the electrons drift towards the cathode, an avalanche can form and the signal is collected from the anode
Ground
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Gas Filled Devices
Pulse height is given by
A*N*e/C,
where N is the number of electrons, e is the electron charge, C is the capacitance of the device and A is the amplification factor
Depending on the applied voltage, gas filled counters can work as ionization counters, proportional or Geiger-Mueller counters
Similar to solid state detectors, energy resolution is given by (note that F will have a different value)
ΔE/E = 2.35 (Fε/E)1/2
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Scintillation Counters
Scintillation counters are widely used in Nuclear and Particle physics
A basic scintillation counter consists of a scintillator optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube
Large selections of the scintillating material and photomultiplier tubes are available for applications
Some uses of scintillation counters can be used are
• Particle Counting
• Measuring Particle Energy
• Triggering
• Time of flight
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Scintillation Counters
Common scintillating materials are inorganic crystals, plastics liquids. Many specialty materials such as lead tungstate are available for specific applications
Scintillation Mechanism
Photomultiplier Tubes Electron Multiplication Alkali Photocathode
(Most of the material on scintillation counters is taken from Hamamatsu Photomultiplier Handbook)
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Scintillation Counters
Ik is the cathode current and B is the bandwidth of the measurement system
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Fano Factor
Fano factor is an adjustment factor introduced to relate the variance of the observed distribution to the mean of the distribution
If <N> is the average number of electron/ion or electron/hole pairs due to ionization, the fluctuation in the ionization is given by
σ2<N> = F <N>
Where F is the Fano factor
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Fano Factor
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Energy Resolution: Some Detectors
http://xdb.lbl.gov/Section4/Sec_4-5.pdf
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(Imaging) Charge Coupled Devices
CCDs are based on Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) capacitors
Charge stored on one area of the CCD can be transferred to another area
The area where the charge is stored is called a potential well
Referring to the figure when a voltage is applied to the gate electrode P2, (with P1 and P3 at zero volts), a potential well is created
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Charge Coupled Devices
By adjusting the voltages in a time sequence on the gate electrodes, the charge can be sequentially transferred, somewhat like a shift register
Groups of electrodes form a pixel
In the figure the three electrodes form a pixel
Thus, charge is created by photoelectric effect, the charge is transferred sequentially by applying differential voltage at some frequency and the charge is converted to a voltage
CCDs have very high quantum efficiency (~80%)
Require cooling to reduce noise
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Beam Line Measurements
We consider four types of measurements in the beam line
• Beam Position
• Beam Profile
• Beam Intensity
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Beam Position
The following table gives examples of processes used for measuring beam position
(S. Hustache-Ottini,, Proceedings of CERN Accelerator School)
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Beam Position
Blade type Beam position monitors
(H. Aoyagi, T. Kudo, H. Kitamura, Nuclear Instruments and Methods)
(S. Hustache-Ottini,, Proceedings of CERN Accelerator School)
Tungsten Blades
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Beam Position
The x and y positions are given by
x [(IuR + IdR) - (IuL + IdL)]/ [(IuR + IdR) + (IuL + IdL)]
y [(IuR + IuL) - (IdR + IdL)]/ [(IuR + IuL) + (IdR + IdL)]
Where I is the current and u,d,R & L represent up, down, Right and Left (IuR represents current in the upper right blade)
Current is converted to Voltage using an I to V converter and the voltage is digitized by an ADC. The proportionality constants which have to be determined through calibration
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Beam Position
A harp (wire scanner) works on the same principle of generating current in the wire due to photon interaction with the electron in the material of the wire
Four quadrant photodiodes provide another way to measure beam position
(Hamamatsu)
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Beam Profile
Beam profile may be measured by imaging the beam, i.e. converting the beam into a visible image using a fluorescent screen
The light from the screen can be viewed by a CCD camera using suitable optical elements
The image can then be processed using a commercial or custom hardware/software systems
Screen
CCD camera and Optical elements
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Beam Profile
Of critical importance in deciding the choice of a fluorescent screen is the beam power density. The thermal characteristics of the screen should allow power dissipation in the form of heat without damaging the screen
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Beam Intensity
(S. Hustache-Ottini,, Proceedings of CERN Accelerator School)
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Beam Intensity
A thin material (suited to the energy of the photon beam) is inserted in the beam path
The scattered or fluorescent photons are detected by, for example, a scintillation counter
The beam intensity is proportional to the number of detected photons
Counter
Scatterer
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Beam Intensity
Responsivity is a measure of the detector’s sensitivity to radiant energy
It is the ratio of number of electrons generated per incident photon to photon energy. Its units are amps/watt
R (amps/watt) = Y/h = exp(-μt)/W
Y is the quantum yield
h is the photon energy
μ is the thickness of the surface oxide layer of the photodiode
t is the thickness of the oxide layer
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Beam Intensity
W is the electron/hole pair creation energy
This could be rewritten as
i = e*N*A*h/W
i is the current in the photodiode
e is the electron charge
N is the number of photon/s
A is the fraction of x-rays absorbed by the diode
Beam intensity can be obtained by measuring i
)X. Zhang, H. Fujimoto and A. Waseda IOP Conference series, Materials and Engineering, Vol. 24, 2011)
(E. M .Gullickson, R. Korde, L. R. Canfield and R. E. Vest Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomenon. Vol. 80, 313-316,1996)
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Beam Intensity
Responsivity and transmissivity of a 5 μm thick photodiode made by IRD http://www.ird-inc.com/axuvtransmission/axuvtrans.html
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Summary
The field of beam diagnostic instrumentation is huge
Physicists and engineers have a vast array of materials, detectors and data acquisition systems from which to choose when designing a detector system
The references given at the end are a good starting point for in-depth knowledge and understanding of detection systems
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References
• http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/nuclear-engineering/22-01-introduction-to-ionizing-radiation-fall-2006/lecture-notes/energy_dep_photo.pdf
• http://www.science.mcmaster.ca/medphys/images/files/courses/4R06/note4.pdf
• http://www.deqtech.com/Resources/PDF/scintillation-detectors.pdf
• http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/applications/ETD/pmt_handbook_complete.pdf
• http://pdg.lbl.gov/2011/reviews/rpp2011-rev-particle-detectors-accel.pdf
• http://old.iupac.org/publications/analytical_compendium/Cha10sec324.pdf
• http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/applications/SSD/fft_ccd_kmpd9002e06.pdf
• http:// www.pep.uni-bremen.de/services/.../raja_pres_tech_07_detectors.ppt
• http:// www.nuc.berkeley.edu/courses/.../XRayDetection_NE107_Fall10.pdf
• Review of Particle Properties, Particle Data Group, Journal of Physics G, Vol. 37,No. 74, July 2010
• http://xdb.lbl.gov/Section4/Sec_4-5.pdf
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References
• S. Hustache-Ottini,, Proceedings of CERN Accelerator School on Beam Diagnostics, Dourdan, France, May 28- 6June 2008
• H. Aoyagi, T. Kudo, H. Kitamura, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, Section A. Vol 467-468. 21 July 2001, 252-255
• http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/icfa/spring96/paper6/paper6.pdf
• http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~spieler/physics_198_notes_1999/PDF/IX-1-Signal.pdf
• http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=5402210
• http://www.nist.gov/pml/data/xraycoef/index.cfm
• http://agamemnon.cord.org/cm/leot/Module4/module4.htm
• E. M .Gullickson, R. Korde, L. R. Canfield and R. E. Vest Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomenon. Vol. 80, 313-316,1996
• X. Zhang, H. Fujimoto and A. Waseda IOP Conference series, Materials and Engineering, Vol. 24, 2011
• http://www.ird-inc.com/axuvtransmission/axuvtrans.html