first world war notes

8/3/2019 First World War NOTES

1/21

11. The First World War

UNDERLYING CAUSES OF THE WAREurope in the early 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were six major European powers: Britain,

France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Italy. Together with the growing powersof United States and Japan, these countries dominated world affairs.

1. Britain

a. Britain was the world's greatest colonial power, with an empire which covered aquarter of the world.

b. For most of the 19th century, she had also been the greatest industrial power.But, in the early 1900s, she was overtaken by the United States and Germany.

c. She had by far the largest navy in the world and for much of the late 19thcentury had pursued a policy of 'splendid isolation' from the affairs of Europe.

2. France

a. In the second half of the 19th century, France became industrialized andgained the world's second-largest colonial empire.

b. Her defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 created great hostility inFrance to the new state of Germany. France was determined to regain land shehad lost to Germany as a result of the war.

c. In 1900, her army was about the same size as the German army.

3. Germany

a. Since her unification, Germany had industrialized rapidly. In 30 years she hadbecome the leading industrial power in Europe.

b. However, it was increasingly difficult to find markets for her goods. Her attemptsto gain colonies were opposed by the colonial powers, especially Britain.

c. Germany aimed to build the strongest army and navy in the world. By 1900, shehad a large army and a growing navy.

4. Austria-Hungary

a. Austria-Hungary controlled a territorial empire in Europe which consisted ofmany different peoples.

b. The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the growth of Balkan nationalism led tothe rise of nationalist movements in her territories. This, in turn, led to Serbianhostility and rivalry with Russia.

c. By the early 20th century, Austria-Hungary had become closely allied toGermany.

5. Russia

a. Russia controlled a huge territorial empire, but was economically backward

although she had achieved some industrial growth by 1900.b. With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Russia hoped to expand her influence

in the Balkans. This led to rivalry with Austria-Hungary.c. She had a huge army, but it was poorly equipped and badly organized.


2/21

6. Italy

a. Italy was the weakest of the major European powers both industrially andmilitarily.

b. She was anxious, however, to gain a larger colonial empire and recognition asa great power.

The economic and imperialist rivalries between these nations, together with the growthof militarism and the dangerous forces of nationalism in Europe, contributed to theoutbreak of the First World War.

Nationalism

1. Nationalism, the desire of peoples to rule themselves and to preserve theirtraditional ways of life, grew increasingly extreme towards the end of the 19th century.2. By the early 20th century, nationalism had created dangerous movements whichcontributed to the outbreak of the First World War.

a. The Greater Serbia movement After Serbia had gained independence in 1878, she wanted to control

neighboring peoples whose race and culture were similar to her own.

This Greater Serbia movement aimed to unite Bosnia and Herzegovina (whichwere administered by Austria-Hungary), Albania and Montenegro with Serbia.

Austria-Hungary opposed this movement because she herself wanted toexpand into the Balkans.

Hostility between Austria-Hungary and Serbia led to the Bosnian Crisis of 1908and the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914, which becamethe immediate cause of the First World War.

b. The Pan-Slav movement Pan-Slavism was a movement to bring all Slavic nations under Russian

leadership.

Since the Serbs were Slavs, the Pan-Slav movement and the Greater Serbiamovement were closely linked. Whenever Austria-Hungary and Serbiaquarreled, Russia was quick to support Serbia.

In 1914, after the Sarajevo assassination, Russia sided with Serbia.c. The Pan-German movement

The Pan-German movement aimed at uniting all the Germans of central Europeunder one great German state.

Since Pan-Germanism opposed Pan-Slavism, hostility developed between

Germany and Russia. When Russia supported Serbia in her quarrel with Austria in 1914, Germany

sided with Austria, a German nation.d. The revenge movement in France

Extreme nationalists in France wanted to take revenge on Germany for theFrench defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.

The events of 1914 gave France her chance to fight a war of revenge.

Imperialism and economic rivalry

1. The revival of imperialisma. Imperialism, the policy of gaining political and economic control over othercountries, had declined by the early 19th century.

b. After 1870, imperialism revived, because:


3/21

as a result of the Industrial Revolution, European nations needed raw materials,markets and lands for their growing populations;

the nationalistic new states of Germany and Italy wanted to gain colonialempires in order to establish their status as great powers;

Christian missionaries hoped to convert the peoples of Africa and Asia.

Some Western countries believed that it was their duty to 'civilize' the peoplesof backward countries.

2. The European scramble for coloniesa. National pride and the need for raw materials led to a rush for colonies in Africa.

King Leopold II of Belgium started this 'scramble' in 1876.b. By 1912, almost all of Africa had been colonized by the European powers.c. They also tried to colonize Asia. Although China and Japan avoided

colonization, all of Southeast Asia except Siam had been colonized by 1914.

3. Colonial rivalryThe scramble for colonies created bad feeling among the European powers whichincreased the risk of a general war.

a. Hostility between France and Italy, and between France and Britain, developedin North Africa.

b. Anglo-German hostility developed in southern Africa and in the Pacific. Britainalso opposed the German plan to build a Berlin-Baghdad Railway.

c. Germany's Berlin-Baghdad Railway plan and her friendship with Turkeyresulted in Russian jealousy and suspicion.

d. Rivalry between France and Germany in Morocco led to major crises in 1905and 1911 which increased bad feeling between them, but drew France andBritain closer.

4. Economic rivalryEconomic rivalry contributed to the outbreak of the First World War in several ways.a. Competition for the control of raw materials and markets resulted in conflicting

territorial claims.b. Economic rivalry speeded up the arms race and led to protectionism.c. Germany's rapid industrial growth after 1871 led to an economic war with

Britain.d. France feared that Germany might take more of her mineral deposits in the

north because of German industrial expansion.e. There was commercial rivalry between Russia and Germany in Turkey and

between Russia and Austria in the Balkans.

5. Effects of colonial and economic rivalrya. Economic rivalry helped to create political and military rivalry during the early

20th century, especially as arms manufacturers urged their governments to takeaggressive action against foreign competitors.

b. However, the importance of colonial and economic rivalry as a cause of the FirstWorld War must not be exaggerated. By 1914, the rival powers had alreadysettled most of their conflicting territorial claims.

The system of European alliances

By 1907, Europe was divided into two armed camps: the Triple Alliance (Germany,Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). Thisalliance system became a cause of fear and suspicion.


4/21

1. Reasons for the formation of alliancesa. The strength of the new Germany created jealousy and fear among the other

European powers.b. Austria-Hungary had become weak and needed an ally against Russia. She

turned to Germany.

c. France had been weakened by her defeat in war and needed an ally againstGermany. She turned to Russia.

d. Russia needed money to prevent revolution and to finance industrialization; shealso needed allies to gain control of the Balkans and feared Germany. Sheturned to France.

e. Britain was alarmed by the growing naval and industrial power of Germany.

2. The Triple AllianceThe alliance system was started in the l870s by Bismarck, who wanted to preservepeace in order to build up the power of Germany and to isolate France so that shecould not start a war of revenge.

a. The League of the Three Emperors (Dreikaiserbund) The League was formed in 1872 as an alliance between Germany, Austria-

Hungary and Russia.

It collapsed after the Congress of Berlin in 1878, when Bismarck supportedAustria and prevented Russia from gaining control of the new state of Bulgaria.Russia withdrew from the League and became more friendly with France.

b. The Dual Alliance of 1879 The alliance was formed between Germany and Austria-Hungary after the

collapse of the Dreikaiserbund.

Each country agreed to help the other if it was attacked by Russia.

c. The formation of the Triple Alliance After France seized Tunisia in 1881, Italy became closer to Germany and

Austria-Hungary.

Both Germany and Austria-Hungary welcomed Italian support: for Germany, itprovided another ally against France; for Austria-Hungary, it provided anotherally against Russia.

In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance which then became the Triple Alliance.They agreed that if one of these three Central Powers was attacked by twopowers, the others would come to its aid.

In 1883, Rumania allied herself with the Central Powers; this damaged Russianambitions in the Balkans.

d. The isolation of France The new tsar of Russia, Alexander III, agreed to rejoin the Dreikaiserbund in

1881. With the formation of the Triple Alliance, Bismarck had successfullyisolated France.

Britain would not help France because of her policy of 'splendid isolation'.e. The Reinsurance Treaty of 1887

The Three Emperors' League collapsed again in 1887 because of Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans.

But Germany managed to remain friendly with Russia until 1890. By theReinsurance Treaty of 1887, Germany promised to support Russia in the

Balkans; Russia promised not to join France if France made war on Germany.f. The breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system.Between 1890 and 1907, Bismarcks alliance system broke down for several reasons:


5/21

When Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 and his successor did not renew theReinsurance Treaty, Russia became closer to France. Friendlier relationsbetween France, and Russia prepared the way for a military alliance.

The Pan-Slav movement increased Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans.

Britain ended her policy of isolation because of the growing power of Germany.

Italy had lost interest in the Triple Alliance because she wanted to recoverterritories from Austria and needed French support for the conquest of Tripoli.

3. The Triple EntenteAn important result of the breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system was the formationof the Triple Entente in 1907.

a. The Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894

Franco-Russian relations improved in the early 1890s because of the largeFrench investments in Russia.

Both countries were looking for an ally because they felt threatened by the newpower of Germany.

By the Franco-Russian Alliance, each power promised to help the other in case

of a German attack, or in case of an Austrian or Italian attack supported byGermany.b. The Entente Cordiale of 1904

After France gave up her claims in the Sudan in 1898, Anglo-French relationsimproved.

Britain and France felt threatened by the growth of German naval and industrialpower.

In 1904, Britain signed the Entente Cordiale (Dual Entente or Anglo-FrenchEntente) with France, which settled disputes between them in North Africa.France recognized British control of Egypt and Sudan, and Britain recognizedFrench interests in Morocco.

c. The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 In the early years of the 20th century, Anglo-Russian relations improved.

Britain was no longer afraid of Russian expansion in the Far East, followingRussia's defeat by Japan in 1905.

Britain had more reason to fear Germany than to fear Russia.

France encouraged Anglo-Russian friendship.

The Anglo-Russian Entente settled differences between the two countries inCentral Asia, especially in Persia (present-day Iran).

d. The formation of the Triple Entente

As a result of the Anglo-Russian agreement, the Dual Entente became the

Triple Entente. Japan was not a member, but she was allied to Britain by the Anglo-Japanese

Alliance of 1902.

Militarism

1. Between 1871 and 1914, the European powers became increasingly militaristic:in other words, they pursued a policy of always being prepared for war andready to use force in order to gain advantages.

a. Extreme nationalism, colonial and economic rivalry, and the rival alliances inEurope allied to an arms race.

b. The production of military and naval equipment increased.

2. The arms racea. Military conscription


6/21

After 1871, all the European powers, except Britain, introduced programs ofcompulsory military training.

All of the big European states enlarged and reorganized their armies.a. The failure of the Hague peace conferences resulted in a further build-up of

armies.b. Anglo-German naval rivalry

In 1898, Germany began to build up her fleet. At first, Britain ignored this as she

had an enormous navy, far larger than any other in the world. However, the Second Naval Law of 1900, which planned to double the German

fleet by 1916, worried Britain.

In 1903, Britain introduced a powerful new battleship, the Dreadnought, whichwas far superior to any existing battleship.

Germany responded by building her own 'Dreadnoughts', and a naval racebegan between the two powers.

3. The Hague Conferences

a. The desire for peace led to two international peace conferences at The Haguein 1899 and 1907.b. Both conferences failed to achieve their objectives.

The powers were not willing to limit or reduce armaments, especially Germanyand Britain.

They also felt that the Permanent Court of Arbitration, which was formed as aresult of the First Hague Conference, was powerless to prevent war.

EVENTS LEADING TO WAR

The Moroccan Crisis

Franco-German rivalry over Morocco in North Africa resulted in two major internationalcrises.

1. The Moroccan Crisis of 1905a. Background

By the Anglo-French Entente of 1904, France gained British support for her planto annex Morocco.

Germany wanted to test the strength of the new Anglo-French Entente andprovoked a quarrel with France by declaring that Morocco should remainindependent.

b. The crisis

In 1905 Germany demanded an international conference to settle the status ofMorocco.

France agreed to the German demand as she was not yet ready to go to war.c. The Algeciras Conference of 1906

The conference decided that Morocco was to remain independent, but thatFrance could control its banking and police.

Britain and Russia both supported France, causing a serious diplomatic defeatfor Germany.

The conference strengthened Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian ties. Militarytalks began between Britain and France, and in 1907 the Anglo-Russian

Entente was formed.2. The Moroccan (Agadir) Crisis of 1911a. Because of frequent disturbances in Morocco, French troops occupied its

capital in 1911 at the request of the sultan.


7/21

b. The crisis

As a sign of protest against the French action, Germany sent a gunboat toAgadir and a crisis developed.

Both sides prepared for war, with Britain supporting France. This time, however,Germany backed down.

c. In November 1911, a Franco-German agreement was signed.

Germany agreed to give up all her privileges in Morocco.

France was allowed to establish a protectorate over Morocco. In return, France gave a part of the French Congo to Germany.d. Despite this settlement, bitterness between the two countries remained and the

Germans blamed Britain for this second diplomatic defeat.

Crises in the Balkans

Between 1908 and 1914, two crises in the Balkans, which were more serious than theMoroccan crises, increased European rivalries: the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 and theBalkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.

1. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908a. Background

Both Austria-Hungary and Serbia wanted to annex the Turkish provinces ofBosnia and Herzegovina.

In 1908, when the Young Turks showed signs of wanting to recover full controlof the two Turkish provinces, Austria-Hungary annexed them, and a crisisdeveloped.

b. The crisis

Serbia's hopes of annexing the provinces were disappointed, so she appealedto Russia for help.

Russia threatened to go to war to support Serbia, but Germany warned Russiathat she would support Austria.

Russia backed down because she had not yet fully recovered from herhumiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 or from the RussianRevolution of 1905.

On the advice of Russia, the Serbs agreed to avoid war, and the crisis ended asa victory for Austria-Hungary and Germany.

c. Results

Austria-Hungary paid Turkey a large sum of money and kept Bosnia andHerzegovina.

The crisis increased hostility between Austria and Serbia which eventually led tothe Sarajevo assassination and the First World War.

Austria-Hungary and Germany became closer allies, but relations betweenthese two countries and Russia seriously declined.

2. The Balkan WarsThe rivalries created by the Bosnian Crisis led to the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.

a. The First Balkan War of 1912

The Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece) used Turkishtreatment of Christians in Macedonia as an excuse to make war on Turkey in1912.

Turkey was defeated and abandoned her remaining European territories, exceptfor a small area around Constantinople (present-day Istanbul).

The Treaty of London of 1913 provided for the distribution of the conqueredTurkish territories in the Balkans.


8/21

b. The Second Balkan War of 1913

Dissatisfied with her share of the conquered territories, Bulgaria made war onGreece and Serbia in 1913.

Rumania joined the war against Bulgaria.

Bulgaria was quickly defeated and signed the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913,giving up most of her gains from the first war.

Austria-Hungary wanted to join the Balkan War and attack Serbia, but the

Germans persuaded her against this, because Germany was not yet ready for amajor war.

c. Results of the Balkan Wars

Weakened by the Balkan Wars, Turkey became closer to Germany in order toprevent possible attack by Russia. Their co-operation increased hostilitybetween Russia and Germany.

Bulgaria became closer to Austria-Hungary and Turkey, as she needed foreignsupport to take revenge on her former allies in the Balkan League.

The Balkan Wars convinced the European powers that a general war was aboutto break out, so they speeded up their military expansion. This, in turn,

increased the chances of a general war because it tempted military leaders torisk a preventive war.

The most serious result was that hostility between Serbia and Austria-Hungaryincreased. Serbia was determined to gain control of the Serbs living insideAustria-Hungary. The Austrians were afraid this would start a collapse of theirempire, and were looking for an excuse to attack and destroy Serbia. Theirexcuse came with the assassination at Sarajevo.

The outbreak of the war

1. The immediate cause of the war was the Sarajevo assassination.

a. On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne,and his wife were assassinated at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia.

b. The assassin was a Bosnian student who belonged to a Serbian secret society.c. The hostility that had been growing for many years between Austria-Hungary

and Serbia exploded as a result of the assassination. Austria-Hungary decidedto destroy the Serbian threat for ever. However, the Austrians waited a month

to prepare their army for war;

To make sure that Germany would support them if Russia supported Serbia.d. Having gained the support of Germany, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh

ultimatum to Serbia, which she could not possibly accept without losing herindependence.

2. The outbreak of wara. On 28 July, Austria declared war on Serbia. The First World War had begun.b. The Russians ordered a general mobilization of troops (29 July).c. Germany declared war on Russia (1 August) and France (3 August).d. When Germany invaded Belgium and violated Belgian neutrality, Britain

declared war on her (4 August).e. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia (6 August).

THE WAR

The spread of the war

Other nations were quickly drawn into the war, making a total of 28 nations: 24 Alliesand 4 Central Powers.


9/21

1. Japan joined the war in 1914 mainly to strengthen her position in China at theexpense of Germany and to seize Germany's island colonies in the Pacific.

2. Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance, but she joined the Allies instead in1915. She had been bribed to enter the war on the side of the Allies bypromises of Austrian and Turkish territories.

3. Having signed an alliance with Germany, Turkey joined the Central Powers in1914.

4. . In 1915, Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers becauseshe had not forgotten her defeat in the war of 1913 by Serbia and the otherBalkan states. All the other Balkan nations, which had defeated her in that war,joined the Allies.

5. In 1917, the United States entered the war 'to make the world safe fordemocracy', in the words of President Wilson, and for a number of otherreasons:

a. The German V-boat (submarine) campaign was damaging American shipping,and Germans were committing acts of sabotage in the United States.

b. The Germans were trying to persuade Mexico to declare war on the U.S.A.,promising them the American states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona in

return.c. Before 1917, the Americans had been unwilling to support Russia because of its

autocratic and undemocratic government. But when the tsar was overthrown inMarch 1917, this situation changed.

6. In 1917, China entered the war, hoping to end the unequal treaty system and tocancel the Sino-Japanese agreements relating to the Twenty-One Demands.

The strengths of the two sides

1. On land, the Central Powers had the advantage at the beginning of the war.2. At sea, the advantage was with the Allies. The German navy had expanded

rapidly, but it could not rival the combined navies of the Allies.3. The Allies, too, had more natural resources and greater economic and financial

power.4. Although the Allies were stronger, the Central Powers had the military

advantage when the war began.a. It was easier for them to move their armies from one front to another because of

their geographical location.b. Their armies also had unity of command under German leadership.c. The German army was the best-disciplined fighting force in the world.

The first two years of the war, 1914-16

1. The Western and Eastern Frontsa. Once the German Schlieffen Plan to defeat France in six weeks had failed, the

war on the Western Front became a stalemate, with both sides trying to breakthrough a line of trenches stretching from the North Sea to Switzerland.

b. On the Eastern Front, the Russians defeated the Austro-Hungarians but werealways defeated when they met the Germans.

2. The Southern Fronta. Fighting began on the Southern Front when Italy joined the war in 1915.

b. She attacked Austria from the south, but did not make much progress, exceptin preventing supplies from reaching the Central Powers via the Mediterranean.

3. The war against Turkey


10/21

a. Allied efforts to remove Turkey from the war failed when the Turks defeated theBritish at Gallipoli.

b. However, the British campaign against the Turks in the Middle East wassuccessful.

4. The war in Asia and Africaa. Japan took over German interests in Shandong and German islands in the

Pacific.b. Meanwhile, British and French forces occupied the German colonies in Africa.

5. The war at seaa. Britain used her naval strength to blockade Germany's ports and to keep the

German fleet under control in the North Sea.b. However, allied and neutral merchant ships were under constant attack by

German U-boats.

The final years of the war, 1917-18

After two years oftrench warfare, neither side could win a decisive victory on theWestern Front, but Russia was close to defeat in the East. Then two important eventsoccurred in 1917: the United States entered the war and Russia withdrew from it.

1. The entry of the United States brought supplies for the Allies as well as the useof the U.S. navy; by the end of 1917,200000 American troops had landed inFrance.

2. The withdrawal of Russia from the wara. After the Bolsheviks came to power in 1917, they took Russia out of the war and

signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in March 1918.b. With Russia's withdrawal, Rumania was cut off from Allied aid and surrendered

to the Germans in 1918.

c. Germany was now no longer threatened on the Eastern Front.3. The last great German attack

In a desperate effort to win the war before more American troops reached Europe, theGermans launched a great attack along the Western Front in 1918, but they weredefeated.

4. The end of the wara. In 1918, while the Germans were retreating along the entire Western Front, their

allies (Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria-Hungary) surrendered one by one.b. Germany surrendered and signed the armistice on 11 November, 1918. The war

was over.

Reasons for the Allied victory

1. The Allies had greater manpower and resources; they also had more capableleaders such as Lloyd George and Clemenceau.

2. Control of the seas enabled the Allies;a. to get men and supplies from their overseas territories;b. to obtain war supplies from neutral countries;c. to blockade German ports, limiting Germany's war resources and food supplies.3. The failure of Germany's plan for a quick victory meant that she had to fight a

war on two fronts, which she had never intended. This was a great strain which

gradually exhausted her resources.4. With the surrender of all her allies in 1918, Germany was left alone. Faced with

a shortage of food and war supplies, as well as mutinies and indiscipline in thearmed forces, Germany had no choice but to surrender. On 9 November, Kaiser


11/21

William II abdicated and three days later a temporary socialist governmentsigned the armistice.

RESULTS OF THE WAR

The peace settlement

In early 1919, the representatives of 32 countries met at Versailles, near Paris, todiscuss a peace settlement.

1. President Wilson's Fourteen Pointsa. President Wilson of the United States first proposed his 'Fourteen Points' in

January 1918 as a possible basis for a negotiated peace, but they were ignoredby the Germans who still believed then that victory was possible.

b. The terms of the Paris Peace Settlement were largely influenced by theseFourteen Points, which proposed

no secret agreements among nations;

freedom of the seas;

removal of all economic barriers to trade;

reduction of armies and weapons;

readjustment of all colonial claims, taking into consideration the interests of thesubject peoples;

evacuation of Russian territory occupied by the Central Powers;

evacuation of Belgium and the restoration of her independence;

evacuation of French territory occupied by Germany and the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France;

readjustment 'of Italian frontiers according to the principles of nationality;

recognition of the right of the peoples of Austria-Hungary to decide on their own

forms of government; restoration of Serbia, Rumania and Montenegro, and access to the sea for

Serbia;

self-government for the subject peoples of Turkey, with the Dardanelles to bepermanently opened;

establishment of a free and independent Poland, with access to the Baltic Sea;

formation of a League of Nations.

2. The Paris Peace Conference, 1919a. The conference was dominated by the five principal victorious powers: Britain,

France, the United States, Italy and Japan.b. The defeated nations and Russia were not represented.c. The main decisions were made by the so-called 'Big Three', who were

the French premier, Clemenceau;

the British prime minister, Lloyd George;

the American president, Wilson.d. Clemenceau was the most forceful figure of the three.

He had a great hatred for the Germans, who had invaded France twice in hislifetime, and was very patriotic.

His only concern at the Paris Peace Conference was to ensure the futuresecurity of France. He was determined to protect his country against another

German attack by imposing a heavy punishment on Germany which woulddestroy her military and economic power.


12/21

e. Wilson aimed to establish a fair peace based on the principle of self-determination (that peoples should be able to choose their own governments);he believed that Germany should not be treated too harshly.

f. Lloyd George stood between Clemenceau and Wilson. He often tried to reach acompromise between their conflicting views.

g. In the end, Wilson agreed to change most of his Fourteen Points in order to gainsupport for the establishment of a League of Nations. As a result, the peace

settlement was very harsh and caused great resentment among the defeatedcountries.

3. The peace treatiesa. The Treaty of Versailles (1919), which dealt mainly with Germany

Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France.

The coal mines of the Saar Basin were given to France and the Saar territorywas placed under the control of the League of Nations until 1935, when thepeople there would vote to decide the territory's future.

Germany lost some territories to Belgium, Demark, Poland and Lithuania.

East Prussia was cut off from the rest of Germany by the 'Polish Corridor' togive Poland a passage to the Baltic Sea.

The German port of Danzig was made a free city under the control of theLeague of Nations.

To make sure that Germany would not attack France and Belgium in future, theRhineland was demilitarized.

Germany had to give up her colonies. These were to be administered asmandated territories under the League of Nations. (In other words, they wereplaced under the control of other countries which were responsible to theLeague for the way in which they governed them)

Germany was disarmed and had to pay heavy war reparations (money to pay

for the damage done). Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war.

Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria.b. The Treaty of St Germain (1919) with Austria

Austria was reduced to a small state.

Like Germany, she had to reduce her military forces and pay reparations.c. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) with Bulgaria

Bulgaria had to give up parts of her territory to Rumania, Greece and the new state ofYugoslavia.

d. The Treaty of Trianon (1920) with Hungary

Hungary, which broke away from Austria, had to give up territory to Rumaniaand the new states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

Like Austria, she had to reduce her military forces and pay reparations.e. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) with Turkey

The Treaty of Sevres was rejected by a Turkish revolutionary government which cameto power in 1922. A new treaty, the Treaty of Lausanne, was therefore signed in 1923.

Turkey recovered most of the territory she lost to Greece.

However, her territories in the Middle East became British and Frenchmandates.

Turkey agreed to open the Dardanelles to all nations.

4. China and Japan at the Paris Peace Conferencea. Chinese demands relating to former German and Austrian rights in China, the

Twenty-One Demands, and the 'unequal treaty system' were all rejected by theconference.


13/21

b. Almost all of the Japanese demands, including her claim to the German rightsin Shandong and her control of German colonies in the Pacific, were granted bythe conference.

5. Weaknesses of the peace settlementa. The large number of nations involved and the shortage of time in drawing up

treaties made it difficult to create a lasting settlement.

b. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which were dictated to Germany, were soharsh and unjust that the Germans were determined to regain what they hadlost in the treaty, even if this would lead to war.

c. Since Germany and Russia were excluded from the peace conference, theyweakened the peace settlement by not co-operating with the Allies in carrying

out the peace terms.d. In creating new states and changing the boundaries of old states, the

peacemakers did not apply the principle of self-determination strictly. Thisaroused anger and resentment among the minority groups.

e. The failure of the peace settlement to give Europe a new balance of power inplace of the dynastic system it had destroyed made it easier for Nazi Germanyto dominate Europe in the 1930s.

f. The United States, which did not want to become involved in Europe again,rejected both the Versailles Settlement and the League of Nations. Thisweakened the authority of the entire settlement.

g. The peace settlement failed to develop an effective means of keeping world

peace. The League of Nations did not have the necessary power to stopaggressive nations, especially as the United States did not become a member.

h. The failure of the peace settlement to provide a solution to economic problemsled to economic rivalry and tariff wars.


14/21

Other results of the war

1. Political results

a. The three great European dynasties of Romanov, Hohenzollern and Habsburgcollapsed, and royal absolutism in Europe finally ended.

In Russia, the war showed how weak, inefficient and corrupt the tsarist regimewas. This aroused widespread discontent which became the immediate causeof the Russian Revolutions of 1917, and led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II

After the abdication of William II in Germany, the Weimar Republic was formedin 1919.

In Austria, the emperor Charles I was deposed, and Austria became a republic.b. The Turkish monarchy was overthrown and Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) became

leader of the new republic in 1923.c. The peace settlement resulted in or recognized the break-up of the Austro-

Hungarian, Ottoman and German empires.d. New nations, almost all of them republics, emerged in Europe.

In Eastern Europe, Hungary became independent, Czechoslovakia andYugoslavia were created, and Poland was reborn.

New states also emerged around the Baltic Sea: Finland, Estonia, Latvia andLithuania.

e. In Italy, dissatisfaction with the settlement contributed to the rise of Mussolini,the first fascist dictator.

f. An immediate effect of Chinese dissatisfaction with the Paris Peace Settlementwas the May Fourth Movement in China.

2. Economic resultsa. The First World War was the most costly and the most destructive war up to that

time. Europe became a relatively poor continent.b. After the war, Europe's economy steadily improved but Europe never regained

her pre-war position as the leader of world trade and industry.c. German reparations and Allied war debts to the United States caused a drain of

gold to America, reducing Europe's buying power, and helping to cause theGreat Depression of the 1930s.

3. Social results

a. About 17 million people died and about 21 million were wounded.b. At the end of the war, Europe was faced with many social problems, such as

disease, broken homes, and hundreds of thousands of refugees.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. One of Bismarck's main aims in starting the alliance system in the 1870s was to

a. Stop Russian expansion in the Balkans.b. Challenge British naval supremacy.

c. Prepare for war against Russia.d. Isolate France.

2. Which of the following pairs shows a direct cause-and-effect relationship?


15/21

a. renewal of the Three Emperors' League: signing of the Reinsurance Treatybetween Germany and Russia

b. French seizure of Tunisia: inclusion of Italy in the Dual Alliancec. formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance: formation of the Triple Allianced. formation of the Triple Entente: breakdown of Bismarck's alliance system

3. Which of the following areas became a source of Franco-German conflict in theearly 1900s?

a. Moroccob. Tunisiac. Tripolid. Egypt

4. 'She has a world-wide commerce which is rapidly expanding ... She must havea powerful fleet to protect that commerce.'

To which European power in the early 20th century does 'she' refer?

a. Russiab. Hollandc. Germanyd. Britain

5. Arrange the following events in chronological order:(1) the formation of the Triple Entente(2) the dismissal of Bismarck(3) the formation of the Triple Alliance

a. (1), (2), (3)b. (2), (1), (3)c. (2), (3), (1)d. (3), (2), (1)

6. Which of the following factors contributed directly to the formation of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894?

a. the British traditional policy of isolationb. the formation of the Triple Alliance

c. the large French investments in Russiad. the formation of the Anglo-Russian Entente

Question 7 is based on the cartoon below


16/21

7. The cartoon above illustrates the naval rivalry between ______ and______before the First World War.

a. Germany / Franceb. France / Britainc. Russia / Austria-Hungaryd. Britain / Germany

8. The Entente Cordiale of 1904 brought _______and _______together.

a. Britain / Franceb. Britain / Russiac. France / Russiad. France / Italy

Questions 9 and 10 are based on the time line below

9. In which period marked on the time-line was the Triple Alliance formed?

a. (1)b. (2)c. (3)d. (4)

10.In which period marked on the time-line was the Second Hague Conferenceheld?

a. (1)b. (2)

c. (3)d. (4)

11. Arrange the following events in chronological order:


17/21

(1) the entry of the United States into the First World War(2) the withdrawal of Russia from the First World War(3) the entry of Italy into the First World War

a. (1), (2), (3)b. (2), (1), (3)

c. (2), (3), (I)d. (3), (1), (2)

12. Just before Britain declared war on Germany in 1914, the Germany chancellorsaid that it was incredible that Britain was going to war just for 'a scrap of paper'.The 'scrap of paper' was the treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of:

a. Switzerland.b. Belgium.c. Holland.d. Luxembourg.

13. The immediate cause of the First World War was the assassination of ArchdukeFrancis Ferdinand in

a. Herzegovina.b. Austria.c. Bosnia.d. Serbia.

Questions 14 and 15 are based on the map below:

14. Which area numbered on the map was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908?

a. (1)b. (2)c. (3)

d. (4)

15. Which country numbered on the map started the Balkan War of 1913?


18/21

a. (2)b. (3)c. (5)d. (6)

16. Which of the following pairs does NOT show a direct cause-and-effectrelationship?

a. the Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina: the Balkan Warsb. Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare: the American entry into the First

World Warc. the Moroccan Crisis of 1905: the calling of the Algeciras Conferenced. the 'October Revolution' of the Bolsheviks: the Russian withdrawal from the First

World War

17. Which of the following events might have brought about a general war in 1908?

a. the Agadir Crisis

b. the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovinac. the formation of the Balkan Leagued. the Sarajevo assassination

18. Who said that his country entered the First World War to 'make the world safefor democracy'?

a. President Wilsonb. Tsar Nicholas IIc. President Poincared. Prime Minister Asquith

Question 19 is based on the cartoon below:

19. The cartoon above illustrates the cruel exploitation of _______by _______,which started the European scramble for African colonies in the 19th century.

a. the Cameroons / Germany


19/21

b. Algeria / Francec. Rhodesia / Britaind. the Congo Free State / Belgium

20.According to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany planned to conquer_______ through_______.

a. Russia / Rumaniab. France / Belgiumc. Russia / Finlandd. France / Switzerland

21. The Balkan League was formed in 1912 to put an end to Turkish rule in

a. Albania.b. Cyprus.c. Thrace.d. Macedonia.

Questions 22 and 23 are based on the map below:

22. The country marked _______on the map was partitioned in the 18th century

and was reborn after the First World War.

a. (1)b. (2)c. (5)d. (6)

23. The two countries marked _______ and _______on the map were created atthe end of the First World War.

a. (1),(5)

b. (2), (3)c. (3),(4)d. (5), (6)


20/21

24. By the Treaty of Versailles, the Rhineland became:

a. A demilitarized zone.b. A mandated territory.c. A French protectorate.d. An independent state.

25. Which of the following events was most important in bringing about an Alliedvictory on the Western Front during the First World War?

a. the Battle of Jutlandb. the arrival of American troops in Francec. the success of the Schlieffen Pland. the surrender of Bulgaria and Turkey

26. Which of the following points was NOT proposed by President Wilson in hisFourteen Points?

a. freedom of the seasb. a free and independent Polandc. war reparations from Germanyd. no secret agreements among nations

27. Which of the following countries was NOT invited to the Paris PeaceConference of 1919?

a. Japanb. Italyc. China

d. Russia

28. Which of the following are INCORRECTLY paired?

a. Clemenceau - hatred for anything Germanb. Kerensky - Bolshevik governmentc. Wilson - peace without bitternessd. Ebert - Weimar Republic

29. The United States entered the First World War mainly because of

(1) Sabotage by German agents in the United States.(2) Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare.(3) The German attempt to involve the United States in a war with Mexico.(4) Russia's withdrawal from the war.

a. (1), (2) and (3)b. (1), (2) and (4)c. (1), (3) and (4)d. (2), (3) and (4)

30. Which of the following statements about the Treaty of Versailles is NOT true?

a. Germany was not allowed to keep soldiers in the Rhineland.b. Germany was forced to give up all her colonies.


21/21

c. Germany lost the Saar territory to France.d. Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France.

first world war notes

Documents