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First Contacts between the Netherlands and Masqat

or

A Report on the Discovery of the Coast of 'Oman in 1666:

Translation and Introduction

By Willem Floor, den Haag

Introduction

Around 1663 the court of Shäh 'Abbäs II was worried about the drop

in customs revenues of Iran's most important seaport Bandar 'Abbas or

Gamron. After inquiries had been made of the Dutch and Enghsh with

regard to their level of imports' the Shäh decided in 1664 to instruct the

new Shähbandar Murtadä 'Ali Quli Beg^ to leam what the cause ofthe

decline ofthe Bandar 'Abbäs revenues really was. Shäh 'Abbäs noted inhis firman to the Shähbandar that during the days of Shäh 'Abbäs I and

Shäh Safi 1 as well as during the initial years of his own reign the

customs revenues of Bandar 'Abbäs had amounted from 20.000 to

28.000 tomans per year, whilst now only 3 to 5.000 tomans was collect¬

ed annually. Since many accusations had been made about smuggling

activities by the Dutch and English the Shähbandar had to find out who

was guilty of such illegal practices.'

The Dutch denied that they had been engaged in any smuggling activ¬

ity, since during the last years no Dutch ships had come from Surat to

Bandar 'Abbäs with freight goods. Neither did the Dutch import goods

belonging to private merchants among their own merchandise, a

' Algemeen Rijks Archief, the Hague, VOC 1239, Van Wijck to governor-

general, Gamron, March 13, 1663, folio 1670 verso; Ibid, Roothals to Van

Wijck, Isfahan July 12, 1663, folio 1686; Ibid. VOC 1243, Van Wijck to gover¬

nor-general, Gamron August 28, 1663, foho 2027.

^ VOC 1242, Van Wijck to Heeren XVH, Gamron April 9, 1664, folio 1056verso. The new Shähbandar, Murtadä Quli Beg, was coffee presenter to the Shäh

and very high in his favour; and because of his knowledge and his artful way of

conversation he was considered to be a learned orator.

' VOC 1241, Van Wijck to Heeren XVII, Gamron March 17, 1664, folio 638

verso.



290 Willem Floor

practice which moreover had been forbidden by the governor-general.

Van Wijck. the director of the Dulch East India ('()in])any (X'OC) In

Iran, suggested, however, that the Shähbandar shouhi investigate activi¬

ties by tlie English, who had already been caught once in flagrante

delicto in 1661." Whether, the Iranians believed the Dutch has not been

reported, but in order to dispell any doubts that may have been left Van

Wijck drew the Shahbandar's attention to the following development.

The decline of customs revenues in Bandar 'Abbäs had been mainly

caused by the decrease of trading activities Van Wijck argued. This

decrease was due to diminishing sales outlets in Iran as well as the fact

that many Asian merchants did not come to Bandar 'Abbäs anymore,

but instead preferred to call at Masqat or Bandar-i Rig.

On June 20, 1664 Van Wijck reported to Batavia (at present

Djakarta) that during that season between 125 and 150 ships and

frigates had been in Masqat according to reports received by him. From

Masqat the merchandise was transported to Bandar-i Rig and other

small Iranian ports, for all these goods were destined for the Iranian

market."

Van Wijck, therefore, was not too surprised when the Shähbandar on

behalf of Shäh 'Abbäs 11 proposed that the Dutch should lend the Shäh

some ships to conquer Masqat." Iranian troops would be transported

with barques to the other side ofthe Persian Oulf and would attack from

the landside, while the Dutch would have to blockade the bay of

Masqat. In return for this naval assistance the Dutch would be granted

" Ibid., folio 639.

VOC 1242, Van WuckU) Heeren XVII, Gamron June 20, 1664, folio 1091.

" Ibid; the first time that the Iranians proposed a similar undertaking to the

Dutch (and English) was in 1632 when the governor of Färs, Imäm Quh Khän,

wanted to conquer Masqat. The directors in Amsterdam forbade their servants

in Iran to give the Iranians any assistance, however. H. Dunlop (ed.): Bronnen

lot de Geschiedenis der Oostindische Compagnie in Perzie. 's-Gravenhage 1930,

pp. 404-04, see also p. 152 for an earlier instance; Similarly, after the Portu¬

guese had been ousted from Masqat in 1650 the Iranian interest in conquering

Masqat was revived. The English and Dutch also took an interest in this strong¬

hold, while the Portuguese wanted to recapture it. The Imäm of Masqat, there¬

fore, made overtures to the English to enlist their aid. These overtures appa¬

rently were renewed in 1659. The English responded by sending 'a jounk' under

the command of colonel Rainsford, "who was doubtless chosen with the idea

that his military knowledge would enable him to make a useful report on the

fortifications existing there". However. Rainsford died and the scheme fell

through before London even could condemn the project. English interest at that

time was caused by the conflict which the English East India Company had with

the Shäh. W. Foster: English Factories, (1655-60). Oxford 1921, pp. 23011.



First Contacts between the Netherlands and Masqat 291

new privileges. Van Wijck did not commit the VOC to this undertaking,

but promised to write to the governor-general about this proposal.

In his report to Batavia Van Wijck commented that the action against

Masqat might be easily executed with two ships with 28 to 30 cannon

and two light fast yachts with 8 to 10 pieces, for Arab ships could not

stand against European vessels. However, because the Dutch had

neither excuse nor cause to attack Masqat the VOC might hire out these

ships to the Shäh as was sometimes done in Europe to other nations. If

the action was succesfull the VOC might make the Shäh a present ofthe

rent due. In exchange for Dutch assistance one might ask for free trade

in Iran with total exemption of customs and dues in addition to the right

to half ofthe customs revenues of Masqat. Since the people of Masqat

feared attacks by both the English and Portuguese at that time, they

would therefore welcome a Dutch protectorate, Van Wijck was told by

people in Bandar 'Abbäs who did regular business with Masqat.

Nevertheless, Van Wijck preferred to bet on the future of Bandar

'Abbäs. True, the power that occupied Masqat controlled incoming and

outgoing shipping in the Persian Gulf and could levy duties, but that

would require the deplo3rment of a substantial force. Moreover, the

collection of imposts at Masqat might divert shipping to cheaper

Iranian ports such as Bandar-i Rig' and Bandar-i Kong" and such a

development would handicap Masqat's welfare. Finally, Van Wijck had

no confidence in the outcome of the military undertaking. He was

convinced that the Iranian troops would not be able to stand the

climate, while the inhabitants of Masqat would withdraw in the desert

leaving poisoned water-wells behind. Moreover, the city of Masqat was

very strong and garrisoned by battle-experienced soldiers."

The governor-general was not in favour of this Masqat undertaking

either and he instructed Van Wijck to do nothing. If, however. Van

Wijck would receive a direct request from Shäh 'Abbäs II for naval assi¬

stance Batavia was willing to consider such a proposal. '" Such a request

was never made, however. For, although Iranian officials at Bandar

'Abbäs had sent people with precise knowledge of the situation and

' Bandar-i Rig, a port 31 miles noth-north-west of Büshehr.

" Bandar-i Kong, a small port 4 miles north-east of Lingeh.

" VOC 1242, Van Wi.ick to Heeren XVII, Gamron June 20, 1664, folios

1091-92.

VOC 888, Governor-general to Van Wijck, Batavia September 2, 1664,

folio 395; One year later the governor-general wrote that he hoped that the Shäh

would not return to the subject, VOC 889, Governor-general to Van Wijck,

Batavia, September 13, 1665, folio 517.



292 Willem Flooe

state of Masqat to Isfahan, Shäh 'Abbäs II did not even want to see

them. So after having spend their money during a six months' stay there

they having achieved nothing returned to Bandar 'Abbäs." The Heeren

XVII, the directors of the VOC, took more interest in the Iranian

proposal than the governor-general had. They wrote to Batavia that

they would be willing to cooperate in this project, provided profitable

privileges would be obtained, and if it became clear that the Portuguese

and the English would undertake such an action against Masqat.'^

Since the Heeren XVII normally were hardly ever in favour of

conquests this change of attitude may be explained by the fact that at

that time (1664) the Netherlands were at war with both Portugal and

England. Inflicting defeat on the enemy, while at the same time obtain¬

ing commercial advantages must have appeared attractive to the

Company's directors which they could not let pass by." Although less

enthusiastic than his principals the governor-general suggested to Van

Wijck that he might send an agent to Masqat in order to see what could

be done in the commercial field, for he had understood that Masqat and

Bandar-i Kong drew an increasing volume of trade.'"

Van Wijck commented that the governor-general's proposal was

understandable, for Shäh 'Abbäs II did nothing to correct the negative

situation which existed in Bandar 'Abbäs, so that in 1665 more ships

than ever before had gone to Bandar-i Rig for both imports and exports.

The English especially frequented that port coming from Basra via Rig

to India and back taking mainly goods belonging to local merchants as

" VOC 1252, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron January 19, 1665,

folio 707.

'^ W. Ph. Coolhaas (ed.): Generale Missiven van gouvemeurs-generaal en

raden aan Heren XVH der Verenigde Oost-indische Compagnie. Vol. 3: ( 1655-1674). 's-Gravenhage 1968, p. 570; see also note 6.

" "It is conspicuous that it was frcipicntlv the (iovcrnor General and his

Council in Batavia, who went in for an active policy as regards tbe Asian powers,

whereas the Heeren XVll held liack. Thi.s i lasli of interest appears very clearly

in connection with the conflict about customs and the export ofthe Persian silk

in the years following 1638", N. Steensgaed: Carracks, Caravans, and Compa¬

nies. Copenhaguen 1973, pp. 134 ff.: for the subsequent outbreak of hostilities

between Irim and the VOC W M l-'i.nnn: //</ .\i di rlinid-i-hnanse conflict

vai, 1645. In: Stichting Cultuurgcschicdcnis van de Nederlanders Overzee. Vers-

lagi'ii cn Aanwinslcn 1978/79 (Amslcidam '80). pp. 46-51.''' Because ofthe decline of Bandar 'Abbäs the governor-general considered

the option of moving the VOC factory to Masqat against which Van Wijck was

opposed. VOC 1245, Van Wijck to Heeren XVII, Gamron January 9, 1665,

folio 369; VOC 1252, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron January 19,

1665, folio 716.




freight goods with them. The merchants hardly paid anything to the

local rulers in Bandar-i Rig, while they enjoyed a friendly welcome as

well. According to information received by Van Wijck the Shäh could

not close ports like Bandar-i Rig, because when the Arab inhabitants of

the littoral had subjected themselves to Iranian rule, they had been

promised that the Shäh would send no governors or Shähbandars and

that the local revenues would be collected by their own shaikhs.'^

Masqat meanwhile had drawn all of the Mallabar trade to itself and

partly the trade from Vingurla.'" From there all merchandise was distri¬

buted to Iranian ports where the Shäh levied no customs. Bandar-i

Kong had acquired the whole Sind trade and the trade of those ships

which were going to and from Surat and Basra it shared with Bandar-i

Rig. In Masqat only 2,5% customs duties ad valorem were levied, while

the duties in Bandar-i Kong were not more than 9% in addition to a civil

treatment. In Bandar 'Abbäs, however, merchants paid 10, 11, 12%

duties in addition to presents which had to be given. Moreover,

merchants had to suffer all sorts of difficulties. When the merchants,

who went to Bandar-i Kong could not find buyers there they took these

goods up-country, which was mostly done by Banyan}^ merchants. The

goods which were sold on the spot and those destined for sale in Bandar

'Abbäs were still imported in that sea-port, because here they fetched

the highest prices due to the presence ofthe most important merchants.

Since the turnover in Bandar-i Kong was small it would be impossible to

sell large quantities of goods there'".

Much of the trade carried on in Bandar-i Kong was retail trade a line

Van Wijck did not want the VOC to take nor did he advice to disperse

the VOC activities too much in the Persian Gulf Moreover, goods from

Mallabar still got the highest prices in Bandar 'Abbäs. Nevertheless,

Van Wijck intended to send a ship with some merchandise to Masqat in

order to show that the Dutch had no other intentions than to come and

trade there. At the same time he would try and see whether it would be

VOC 1245, Van Wijck to Heeren XVII, Gamron January 9, 1665, folio

365 verso; it seems hardly likely that the Safavid Shähs would have granted

such right to the Arab shaikhs, although this statement probably reflects actual

practice.

Vengurla, a coastal town north of Goa (India).

" With the term Banyan the Dutch referred to Hindu merchants from the

west of India and in particular from Gujarat.

"* VOC 1252, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron January 19, 1665,

folios 716-17.



294 Willem Floor

possible to get pearls on Sohär or Julfar'" and horses in Masqat itself as

a return shipment.^"

Van Wijck wanted to send a similar quantity of goods to Bandar-i

Kong which were bought there by merchants coming from Bahrain, al-

Hasä and other parts ofthe Arab littoral ofthe Gulf From there it would

not be possible to find a retui'n shipment, however, although one might

get freight at Bandar-i Rig. But before doing so Van Wijck would await

further instructions in this respect from the governor-general. Mean¬

while, Van Wijck reported that he would write a letter to the Imäm of

Masqat asking him whether the latter would agree to have a Duteh

agent in his capital. Where Bandar-i Kong was concemed Van Wijck

saw no difficulties, since that port was under the jurisdiction of the

govemor of Lär, who encouraged trading activities there and besides

was a friend of the Duteh."'

On March 23, 1665 the English Agent in Bandar 'Abbäs told Van

Wijck that finally war had broken out between their countries. Although

Van Wijck had still received no orders from the Netherlands"" he

intended to have the Dutch ships in the Gulf patrol the area to capture

the English ships that were expected from the Coromandel coast. Van

Wijck also learnt that the Imäm of Masqat was quite willing to have a

Duteh agent in Masqat and have the Dutch carrying on their trade

there. However, Van Wijck believed that there was no sense in going

there now that war had broken out, unless the English decided to

blockade Bandar 'Abbäs. In that case a Dutch factory in Masqat might

keep the English in check, while it could also be used as a shelter for

Dutch ships. Van Wijck, therefore, decided to send the ship 'Brouwers-

haven' to Masqat with a Banyan who knew Arabic and Masqat. The

Banyan was instmcted to collect information about what the Arabs

were thinking about the English, Portuguese and the Dutch and under

whose umbrella they would feel best protected. If the Imäm should ask

■° Julfar is the old name for Umm al-Qaiwain.

VOC 1252, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron January 19, 1665.

folios 717-18.

" Ibid.,; VOC 1253, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron June 1, 1665,

folio 1556; Ibid, September 8, 1665, folio 1696; in May 1665 the governor of Lär

urged the Dutch to come to Bandar-i Kong. He offered to build a factory for themand give them additional advantages. Similar ]iromises were made to Banyan

and other merchants.

" Only on May 24, 1665 did Van Wijck receive orders from the Heeren XVII

how to act during the war, VOC 1253, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron

May 31, 1665, folio 1531.




him whether the Dutch wanted protection the Banyan had to reply in

the negative and to tell the Imäm that he had to write to Van Wijck

about such matters. The Banyan emissary also had to observe how

many ships and of what nature visited Masqat and in general to

examine the market and the level of prices. Finally, he had to go to the

Imäm and present him with Van Wijck's letter. In this letter' Van

Wijck informed the Imäm of Masqat that the Dutch had conquered

Cochin, Kananoor^" and its subject regions. Since the Dutch now ruled

that country and because so many ships from the Mallabar coast

frequented Masqat, it would be a good idea that the Dutch also would

start trading there, if the Imäm would agree to this. He asked the Imäm

to send his reply with the messenger ofthe letter, while at the same time

informing the Imäm that the decision of sending a permanent agent to

Masqat would have to be taken by Batavia."''

At the last moment Van Wijck did not send 'de Brouwershaven' to

Masqat, for he believed it to be safer to keep this ship ready at Bandar

'Abbäs in -view of the state of war that existed with the English. He,

therefore, decided to send the Banyan emissary with a local barque to

Masqat on April 6, 1665.^" The latter returned at the end of May with a

letter from the Imäm in which the Imäm asked the Dutch to come and

trade in Masqat, for the Dutch had always been his friends. It had been

difficult to translate this letter, since the Dutch had nobody who knew

Arabic,^' which led Van Wijck to comment that it was a strange matter

that Masqat was so near and that the Dutch yet were unable to translate

an Arabic letter in Bandar ' Abbäs. This inconvenience was soon reme¬

died, however, by the arrival of Herbert de Jager in Bandar'Abbäs, who

was an outstanding Orientalist.""

^' VOC 1245, Van Wijck to Imäm of Masqat (Seegh Bimhaly free sovereign

lord of Eastern Arabia and the sea coast), April 4, 1665. folio 520.

^* Cananore, town on the Westcoast of India. -■' See note 23.

'^^ VOC 1252, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron April 4, 1665, folios

688, 701.

VOC 1253, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron, June 1, 1665, folio

1561; for the translation ofthe reply ofthe Imäm of Masqat see VOC 1251,

Imäm of the Muhammcdans, son of Seif, son of Malick, son of Aboe Larab,

Sultan's son to van Wijck, April 4, 1665 {date of translation), folio 1343.

VOC 1259, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron, November 19, 1665,

folio 3303; with this letter Van Wijck send a copy ofthe Imäm's letter to have it

translated in Batavia.

VOC 1259, Van Wijck to governor-general, Gamron, March 12, 1666,

folio 3324, de yager was a student of Golius and had been earmarked to succeed

him.



296 Willem Floor

Van Wijck hoped that the Imäm of Masqat would accept the

establishment of a Dutch agent in Masqat. The climate was better than

that of Bandar 'Abbäs, although the Arabs were more strict where reli¬

gious matters were concemed than the Iranians and the former were

more unfriendly towards Christians due to the treatment which they

had suffered at the hands of the Portuguese. Van Wijck had already

stressed the importance of having a small vessel in Bandar 'Abbäs to

cmise the mouth of the Persian Gulf to get advance information on

possibfe Engfish actions, and he deemed that having a Dutch agent in

Masqat wouid be even more hefpfuf in this respect. For such an agent

could warn and keep Dutch ships there, white communications could be

fast by sending a mnner overland to Sohär and from there with a barqueto Bandar 'Abbäs.'"

Nevertheless, the governor-general decided not start any new activi¬

ties in Masqat. It was not only the war situation which made the Dutch

lose interest in Masqat as a trading station, but also the fact that early

in 1666 the Imäm had raised the customs tariff from 2,5% to 10%, so

that Van Wijck expected that the merchants would start calling at

Bandar 'Abbäs again, because ofthe comparative advantages that port

had over Masqat now that the tariffs were practically the same. Moreov¬

er, the smaller Iranian ports were not attractive either anymore, since

there also high customs were levied. Because of this Van Wijck expect¬

ed Bandar 'Abbäs to start flourishing again, especially so when the war

in Basra continued."

In time the govemor-general intended to make use ofthe friendly atti¬

tude of the Imäm, but during this period of war with the English it was

not considered the right time to spread Dutch forces all over the Gulf,

while it was also believed in Batavia that the climate was unhealthier

than in Bandar 'Abbäs.'^ Besi^les, from the Imäm's letter it was not

Ibid., folios 3324-25; Van Wijck later had pointed out that it would be a

good idea, if he had the disposal of a gahiot to cruise the Gulf in these warlike

times. In this way he would know what happened in the Gulf area and could use

it for the discovery of Arabia, where good ports, roadsteads, and places are to

bc found where provisions and new supplies can be obtained. Van Wijck

intended to use the ship 'de Hoop' for this puqjose during that summer.

However, the equipment of the ship was too insufficient to hazard the voyage

between the cliffs and islands, VOC 1253, Van Wijck to governor-general,Gamron, June 12, 1665, folio 1685.

" VOC 1259, Van Wijck to govemor-general, Gamron, March 12, 1665,

folios 3311-12.

The English also considered Masqat "extremely hot and unhealthy",

Foster: English Factories (1655-60), p. 231.




clear whether he would give trading privileges to the Dutch. If the

Dutch would have to pay customs duties like other merchants Masqat

would be of no great importance to the VOC'

Meanwhile, van Goens,''' the Dutch governor of Ceylon and conquerer

of Cochin, had decided to send the hooker 'de Meerkat' to Bandar

'Abbäs, because he considered it important from a military point of view

to suffer no losses inflicted by the English in the Persian Gulf Since the

vessel was perfectly fit for making a trip aiong the Arab fittorai of the

Gulf Van Wijck decided that the 'Omän coast should be reconnaitred.

'De Meerkat' left Bandar 'Abbäs on June 25, 1666 and returned there on

June 14.''" The originator of the voyage. Van Wijck, did not see the

results of his endeavours, however, since he died on May 5, 1666 just a

few days before he was due to return to Batavia on his way home to the

Netherlands to fulfill an old wish to see his old parents once more.'"

Although the govemor-general was satisfied with the result of the

voyage and considered that the information which had been gathered

would prove useful for the Dutch no use of it was made for the time

being". The war did not lead to military and naval action between the

Dutch and the English in the Persian Gulf Moreover, trading activities

had been stopped in Masqat by the Imäm out of fear that other powers

would cast too covetous an eye on Masqat once it would become too

affluent. The govemor-general, therefore, was glad that he had not

decided yet to establish a factory there. The Dutch would remain in

Bandar 'Abbäs and Masqat would be forgotten for a while.'"

" VOC 889, governor-general to Van Wijck, Batavia, November 14, 1665,

folio 636; VOC 890, governor-general, to Van Wijck, Batavia, September 13,

1666 folio 605.

About van Goens see J. Aalbers: Rijcklof van Ooens, commissaris en veldo-

verste der Oostindische Compagnie, en zijn arbeidsveld, 1653/54 en 1657/58.

Groningen 1916.

VOC 1259, W. BosEM and Council to governor-general, Gamron, June 14,

1666, folio, 3361.

^" VOC 1259, DE Lairessb to governor-general, Isfahan, May 19, 1666, folio

3340.

^' VOC 890, governor-general to Van Wijck, Batavia, November 3, 1666,

folio 693.

Coolhaas: Generale Missiven. Vol. 3, p. 597.



298 Willem Floor

Translation

Description of a voyage along the coast of Arabia beginning at a place

called Chassab', which is situated at 9' /2 miles West of Cape Mozando^,

and further along all places, bays, ports, rivers, depths, shoals, sand¬

banks, shallows as well as the nature ofthe interior ofthe country adja¬

cent to the said coast as far as the Bay of Mascatta', by junior-merchant

Jacob Vogel, having been ordered (by the director Hendrick van Wijck)

to board the hooker 'de Meerkadt' together with junior-mate Adriaen

vander Werff, the aforementioned Vogel for the said reasons and the

beforementioned vander Werff to draw a map of the said coast together

with the captain and mate of the said hooker as is clear in more detail

from the instruction given by the said director.

April 26, Monday moming. At sun-rise we weighed anchor and /left/

the roadstead of Gamron and sailed away with a E. N. E. wind. The

course was to sail between Lareecque" and Kismis^ in order to be

retumed to Chassab in this way, which is situated on the Arab coast.

During the first bells of the second watch we come to anchor at 13

fathoms above good holding ground.

April 27, Tuesday. In the moming the wind was westerly; in the

evening at sunset we had the island at about 2 miles East of us. At night

the wind was S. S. to the east and S. S. E. sometimes (3367) it was

completely calm. We sailed over good holding ground at 62, 63, 50 to 56

fathoms, which grounds were mixed with black sand. When we

approached the coast during the day watch we encountered dirty

grounds at 56 to 50 fathoms.

April 28, Wednesday. In the morning it was dead calm and hazy (1)

(disigh) weather. With a Southem sun we saw the Cape S. to the east

half easterly at about 3'/2 miles and a small white pagoda", which is

' Chassab or Chaszab is the town of Khasab.

^ Cape or Räs Musandain to the Europeans, and to the Arabs Ru'üs al Jibäl or

Cluster of Peaks. ■' Masqat,.

" Lareek island, 20 miles south by e a.st of Bandar 'Abbäs.

■' Qishm island at 15 miles from Bandar 'Abbäs.

" May be the tomb of Shaikh Zohair, a Muslim saint, is meant here. It is built

of stone and Madripore coral and has the appearance of Persian work. It stands

between al-Sha'am and Khasab. See S. B. Miles: The countries and tribes of the

Persian Gulf. 2nd. ed. London 1966, p. 445; see also note 7.



''^'^y Tri/iM &£c a Hü

y*^;

1. the fortress of Mog¬

hub — 2. the fortress

bf Masqat — 3. the

roadstead for small

vessels — 4. the road¬

stead for largo ves¬

sels — 5. sandy soil —

6. murky grounds

Fig. 1. The Bay of Masqat

Fig. 2. The mouth ofthe Persian thilf, showing the relative position of Gamron

(Bandar 'Abbäs), the islands Qishm (Kismis) and Lareek, and Cape

Musandam.



Fig. 3. The coast of Oman, showing the various places mentioned in the

report with the additional notes where (good) water could be obtained,

and what kind of ground were to be found along the coast. The scale of

this and map II is: 1.5 (German miles equals one degree.



p^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^


situated at the Westem edge of the bay at 2V2 miles to the east, 2 miles

away from us. In the evening at half past four we had to come to anchor

at 22 fathoms on coarse sand ground mixed with shells and rocks,

because the wind died down and the current coming directly from the

shore side ran counter to us. We had Cassab S. to the east and the

Westem comer of the bay W. to the south of us.

April 29, Thursday. We went with our boats ashore and in sailing the

bay we passed grounds at 20, 15, 12, 8, 6'/2, 5, 4 fathoms, which

/point/ is about a pig of iron's shot away from the shore, it is all coarse

sand ground. Here we were received in a friendly manner by the captain

and the inhabitants. The captain honoured us with a goat and had our

two barrels, which were in our boat, filled with water. It was good, but a

bit far away from the beach to fetch it.

Chaszab is a small place with a small fortress in which a captain and

about 30 to 40 soldiers are garrisoned. Its walls are made of stone and

clay, constmcted in a square of 5 fathoms high; it has no cannon,

however. It is situated in a valley where there are plenty of date trees.

Under them they have built their dwellings or cabins after the Indian

fashion. Some are made of stone and clay, others of branches of date-

trees; they are about 8 to 9 feet high and are at a distance of 10 roods

from each other. Their number is estimated to be 50 to 60.

It is situated at 26 degrees and 9 minutes Northem latitude between

puncto de' and a river Ciebij*, which puncto and river are situated at

about 2V2 miles distance from each other (3368).

The countryside behind the said valley is a stony and mountainous

/region/, where one finds some goats, but few. Because ofthe poverty

ofthe popufation and the aridness of the country there is therefore little

selling and buying to do here.There is some Iresh /food/ to be had such as goats and chickens

although little. One may also obtain water, but it is a little far to fetch.

When the dates are ripe all people from the neighbouring places come

here to harvest them. This takes place in the month of June and they

stay here till September, when each retums again to his place with what

he has picked. These people mostly live from fishing and have nothing

else to eat but these dates which they eat with the fish instead of bread.

' The copyist has dropped a word here, viz. Doggebay. I have been unable to

explain this name, but clearly the authors of the journal refer to Räs Shaikh

Mas'üd. In a little bight at the northern end ofthe cape is the tomb ofthe Shaikh

from which it takes its name.

* Sibi river or Khör al-Sham is meant here.

20 ZDMG 132/2



300 Willem Floor

It has a bay with good holding ground at 12 to 8 fathoms. On the

Westem side there is Puncto deggebay' where in a valley a small temple

is situated". On the Eastern side one finds the river Clobije", where in

former times the Portuguese used to put their frigates.

From the river Ciebie to the creek of Cabalje'" the course is N. E. and

then in northem direction for 2 miles and the depth is 25, 26, 27 to

30 fathoms over murky ground.

Cobalje is a place situated in a valley in the mountains. There are 5 to

6 cabins in which fishermen live.

From the refuge of Cabalje till one ist East off Puncto Mogoleeff" (on

its comer a crag is situated) the course is N. N. E. for 3'/4 miles and

from there till the beforementioned point the course is East for one mile.

Almost right between Cobalje and Puncto Mogaleff the island Ilje de

Gaselle" is situated at a '/4 mile off the coast. The depth between this

/island/ and the coast is 19, 15, IIV2, 972, 10'/2, 12, 15, 14, and 19

fathoms mostly good sand ground, although it is now and then too

rocky". At a distance of a cannon's shot out off the island the sea has a

depth of 48, 60, 50 and 65 fathoms /over/ murky ground. (3369)

From Puncto de Mogaleff till the Westem comer of the bay of

Comzaar'* the course is E. S. E. for I'A miles and the depth

53, 70, 75 to 65 fathoms /over/ murky ground.

Camsaar is a place situated in valley close to the mountains, where

about 40 to 50 small houses have been built of rocks to which clay is

added. These are all inhabited by fishermen.

There is also a water well here, but it is not a very big one and it is far

to fetch. The bay is fit for small vessels, but not for other crafts, for there

are very strong currents here. Because ofthe mountains it is often calm

here, so that it is very difficult to get in or get out /ofthe bay/. At the

N. W. side there is a small island and to the N. E. side there are two

small islands. The depth here is 64 to 50 fathoms /over/ murky ground.

From here one sees in N. N. E. direction the small islands 'de Leest'",

Lessenaren'", /and/ Doodkist"' which are situated at about 3'/2 miles

° Copyist's error, the Sibi river is meant here.

'" Cabalje or Cobalje is the Colville Cove, or the Khor Groob Ali or in Arabic

the Ghubb 'Ah.

'' Räs Mukhälif.

Jazirat al-Ghanam or Sheep island.

" This passage way is called Discovery Strait or Khör Quwai.

'■' Kumzär is unique as being the only purely Persian town on the Arab coast.

Miles, p. 448.

'* The Last. '" The Lectern. " The Coffm.




offshore'". The depth on the S. W. side of/the islands of/ 'de Leest' is

53 to 65 fathoms /over/ coarse sand ground. Three miles East off Ih'

Westem corner ofthe bay of Comzaar an island'" is situated which is on

the comer^" of Cape Mosandon. The Northern comer of this island lies

at 26 degrees, 24 minutes Northem latitude. The depth there is

70 fathoms sand ground. To the South at 1 mile off Cabo Mosandon one

sees a mountain where some cabins have been built, but which are not

inhabited now. In former times this has been a place which is called

Cheijsa^' by the Arabs.

On the other side ofthe aforementioned mountain on which Cheijsa is

situated one finds the bay of Fillm'^ On its Northern side Mocha"'' is

situated, to which the same applies as has been observed with regard

to Cheijsa.

From the Northern comer till the Southem comer ofthe bay of Fillm

the course is S. to the west for V/i mile and the depth (3370) is

48, 46, 45, 40 to 38 fathoms /over/ good sand ground. At a distance of

about the range of a pig of iron off shore a small island is situated at 1

mile E, to the south off the comer of Kierkasie"^. The depth between this

island and the shore is 40 fathoms /over/ sand ground.

From the Hook of Kierkasie till Puncto Marrazie"" the course is S. and

half to the west for more than 2'/2 miles. One sails over sand ground

with depths of 46, 45, 40 to 38 fathoms.

Between these two hooks there is an inlet of about 1 '/4 mile which has

good holding ground to the South side ofthe bay at about '/4 mile off

shore at a depth of 36 to 37 fathoms /over/ grey sand /ground/.

From Puncto Marrazie till the Hook of Corsecaan^" the course is S. to

the west for 2 miles. One has depths of 40, 42, 45 to 48 fathoms /over/

sand ground.

'" The Quoins, three wedge-shaped islands, the highest of which is 540 feet,

called by the Arabs "Salama-wa-Bent", or "Salama and her daughters". Miles,

p. 5 40 (Salamah wa-Banäthä).

" The island of Musandam.

Räs al Bäb.

^' The village of Shaisah on Räs Qabr Hindi or the "Indians Grave".

The bay of Film, which forms part of the very large inlet known as Khör

Ghazirah or Ghubbat Ghazirah. It is also known as Malcolm's Inlet.

Moqäqah.

'^^ Probably (Qaryah) Kärshah is meant here. The island probably is Umm al-

Faiyärin.

Here probably Dühat Shaisah is meant.

Here probably Ghubbat Shäbüs is meant or Räs Sarklm.

20'



302 Willem Floor

Here one has a bay^' between the two hooks aforementioned, the

circumference of which is about 3 miles. At the inlet the depth is 42

fathoms /over/ sand ground.

From the Hook of Coersocaan to the Southem hook of the bay of

Lijma^' the course is S. for 3 miles and the depths are 38, 35, 33, 28, 26

to 25 fathoms /over/ sand ground.

Between both these aforementioned hooks there is also a cove where

3 to 4 cabins stand. These are not inhabited and /this place/ is named

CabiF".

Lijma is a place situated on a sand mountain. It has 50 to 60 small

houses or cabins which are constmcted with stones and clay and with

branches of date trees of 8 to 10 feet /length/. It is situated at

25 degrees, 34 minutes Northem latitude.

Behind this sand mountain there is a valley where some date trees are

to be found and where some mustard-seed grows. The population live

from these. In the aforementioned valley there is a well, but the water is

not so good, for it is brackish and almost undrinkable. It is situated at

about '/4 mile from the beach.

At a distance of a cannon shot off the aforementioned sand mountain

on the Southem side of the bay there are at least some 50 to 60 small

houses such as mentioned above on the mountain slope, where the

fishermen live (3371).

The countryside around and behind the aforementioned valley is

stoney and mountainous, where one finds some goats, albeit very few.

Therefore there is nothing much to do here because of the poverty of the

popufation and the aridness of the country. It has a beautifuf bay,

however, which is one mile wide and '/4 mile deep. It has everywhere

fine grey sand ground. At the inlet the depths are

22, 20, 18, 15, 12, 4, 8 and 7 fathoms, while one is still at a distance of

a pig of iron's shot off shore.

At the southem comer of the bay a small island^*" is situated at a

distance of about a cannon's shot. The depth between them is 20

fathoms /over/ murky ground.

To the south of the bay of Lijma at one mile's distance there is a small

bay in which Lijma Cadijma^" is situated, which consists of 7 to 8 cabins,

but which are not inhabited.

This is t he bay of Limah.

The cove referred to is the Dühat Qabal named after the village of Qabal.

The island is named jazirat Limah.

Limah Qadimah or Old Limah.




From the Southern comer ofthe bay of Lijma till the Southem corner

of Dabba''" the course is S. half to the west for 5'/4 miles. The depths are

40, 45, 48, 45, 35, 36, 30 to 25 fathoms mostly /over/ waxy sand

ground.

Dabba (which we were unable to visit because of calm and counter

currents) is a place (according to the interpreter assigned to us) with

about 300 small houses constmcted from branches of date trees in the

aforementioned manner. It is situated at 25 degrees, 12 minutes

Northern latitude.

During the days of the Portuguese there were here 4 fortresses of

which the biggest one is still standing.

This place also has a valley with a lot of date trees under which there

are water wells, where one can get fresh water.

At the Northern side of Dabba there is a small fresh water river where

the fishermen live."

From the Southem comer of Dabba till the small island which is

situated in front of Lebdia''^ the course is south for 2'/4 miles, while one

passes over depths of 21, 20, 19, 22 fathoms of waxy sand ground.

Lebdia is a place with about 200 small houses (3372) which are all

built vrith branches of date trees and is situated close to the beach. It

lies at 25 degrees, 5 minutes Northem latitude. Behind these houses

there is a beautiful valley where one finds a great many date trees and

some fig trees. Under these /trees/ there are severaf wells, one of which

is situated at a pistol shot's distance from the beach, from which well

one may get very good and fresh water.

In the said valley there are also grovring some melons, water melons,

and onions, but very few.

Behind this valley there is nothing but stony mountains so that not

much trade can be carried on here.

Here one may obtain some fresh food such as cows, goats, chickens,

melons, water melons, lemons, and onions but not very much.

This place has no bay, but /only/ a public roadstead, where at a

'/4 mile offshore one has a depth of 10 to 12 fathoms /over/ waxy sand

ground.

Dibah.

'' This refers to Bai' ah, "from the sea the two places appear to form one town,

but in reality they are seperated by a water course", J. G. Lorimeb: Gazetteer of

the Persian Gulf, 'Oman and Central Arabia. Calcutta 1915 (reprint 1970).

(6 vols.) Vol. IIA, p. 264.

Probably (al-)Bidyah is meant here. The island is called jazirah Bidyah.



304 Willem Floor

From the small island on the Southem side of Lebdie till the small

island'' situated at the Southem comer of the bay of Gorfordeo'* the

course is S. to the east for l'/4 mile. The depths are 16, 19, 22, 25, 30

tö 35 fathoms /over/ waxy sand ground.

Gorfocan'* is a place situated at a cove where about not less than 200

small houses have been built. All of them are made with branches and

stones of date trees, and are close to the beach.

On the Northem side it had a triangular fortress from the days of the

Portuguese, and one can still see the mins of its walls. On the Southem

side in a recess (?) /inboschies/ which is connected with the bay there is

on a mountain another fortress but it has neither garrisson nor guns,

so t hat it also is completely dilapidated.""

This place has a beautiful valley with a great many date trees and

some fig trees. Melons, water /melons / lemons and onions also grow

here (3373).

Under the trees here there are several water wells, with which they

irrigate the land. It is good fresh water and somewhat farther to fetch

than in Lebdie.

To the South of this valley in the mountains there are some orange

and lemon trees.

For the rest is the countryside behind and around this valley stony

mountains, so that these people live from what grows in the valleys

here. Because of the poverty of the population and the aridness of the

country it is no use carrying on trade here.

Fresh food to be had here consists of the fmits mentioned above and

for the rest of some cows, goats and chickens, but of these there are not

a great many.

The recess here has a width of one and a depth of '/i mile. On its

Southem side a small island" is situated at about a match-lock shot off

shore.

Here the sand beach ends, which begins at the Southem comer of

Dabba. South of Gorfocan one only meets again with stony mountains

as far as Colba.'" Between these /places/ one finds some sand bays.

From the small island situated on the Southem side of the bay of

Gorfocan as far as a point off a place called Colb'° which is about

" The islet is called glrat (Sereet).

'* Copjfist's error for Gorfocan or Khör Fakkän.

Miles, p. 452 believed these ruins to be a fort built by the Iranian general

Muhammad Taqi Khän Shiräzi in 1742.

'" Kalbä.




3V2 miles distance one sails over depths of 20, 18, 22, 25, 30, 40, 45,

to 57 fathoms of black sand ground, one being 9 miles off shore.

The land between the two aforementioned places runs from South to

North and has no crags or shoals off shore.South of Colba at about 5V2 miles Nabor" is situated and at both

places fresh water is to be obtained.

Going to the south from Nabor for about 3 miles one finds a place

called Ammock,'" where one also may get fresh water.

From Ammock till Soar"* is about 3'/2 miles, where fresh water is

also to be had. (3374)

The coastline between the aforementioned places mostly runs

S. S. E. and N. N. W. and is lowland, with here and there tamber"" and

other wild trees. However, 7 to 8 miles up-country one observes again

high mountains.

Along the coast here one finds neither bays nor crags or shoals so that

one only has to stay clear off the shore.

Sailing from Calbo to Zoar and staying 3 to 4 miles off shore one

passes over depths of 40, 38, 38, 36, 35, 30, 35, 50, 40, 35,31,22,19, 10

to 15 fathoms of black sand ground which is South of Soar where we

have dropped anchor.

From Soar to the small islands named Ilje de Soadije'" it is about

21 miles. The coastline here runs from Soar S. E. to the south for

6'/2 miles and then to the abovementioned small islands E. to the

south.

To the west of Soadije"" at about 8 miles a place is situated called

Soceck,*^ where only 5 to 6 cabins are standing.

The depths between Soar till the abovementioned islands while

sailing 4 to 5 miles ofi"shore are 30, 38,25, 18, 20, 35,23,25,21, 19,18,

22, 21, 30 fathoms of sand ground.

It is again lowland with mountains /up country/ as before. The coast

is most of the time beautiful but it has no bays.

The islands of Soadije number six and are situated at about 3 miles off

shore. They are named after a pface, which is situated opposite to them

on shore which is called Soadije.

" Nabar.

'« 'Amq.

Sohär.

Thamr or date trees are meant.

The Suwädi islands.

Suwaiq.



306 Willem Floor

Here there is a reef from the said islands to the shore, so that vessels

can not pass between them.

Having the islands at S. to the north for 2 miles one has a depth of 31

fathoms of coarse sand ground.

From the islands of Soadije till the islands of Borca*' the course is

E. N. E. for 2 miles. (3375)

The islands of Borca are two in number and have 5 to 6 crags. They

are situated at 4 miles off shore and are also named after a place called

Borca just as above.

Having the said isiand S. W. of you for V/i mile one passes a depth

of 60 fathoms of the same ground as above.

From the islands of Borca till the islands of Sib"** the course is W. and

half to the South for l'/4 mile.

The islands of Sieb are 5 in number*" and close to them 4 to 5 crags

are to be found. They are situated 4V2 miles off-shore. They are also

named after a place which is situated right opposite them on-shore and

which is called Sieb.**

Having the said islands S. of you at '/4 mile one has a depth of

40 fathoms of sand ground.

One and a half mile to the east of the islands of Sieb 3 islands are

situated with 3 crags. When you have these at 1 mile W. S. W. off you

one has depths of 42, 41 to 40 fathoms of good holding ground mixed

with sand. They are situated at 4V4 miles off-shore.

Here ends the lowland which began at Colba. Here Un

mountains start to show themselves along the coast. From the said

islands till the Grey Rock*" the course is S. E. to the east for about

5 miles, which rock is one mile out off the coast.

From the Grey Rock till the Eastem comer ofthe bay of Mascatta the

course is E. S. E. for 2 miles and /the depths are/ 18, 16, 15, 12, 11,

and 10 fathoms of sand ground.

Mascatta is a city having stone walls all around. To the side of the

bay, there are some cannons /on the walls/. Its size is about that of

*» Barkeh.

** Sib.

*° The islands of Barkeh and Sib are called "the Deymanieh/Dimäniyät/;

they are all sterile, waterless and unhabited, and two have seperate names —

Joon and Khararba. (The Deymanieh group is often called by fishermen the

"Saba Jezair" or the Seven Islands, and derives this appelation "Deymanieh"

from a tribe of that name, of which a small remnant still exists in Oman; the

name has remained unaltered since the time of Pliny)", Miles, p. 459.

*" The island of Fahal (the stallion) is meant.




Gamron and the houses are built in almost the same way. It is well popu¬

lated by all kinds of Indians, who come to carry on their trade here. It

lies at 23 degrees, 18 minutes Northem latitude.

This city is situated against the mountains and has three fortresses

which are on the sea-side to wit: (3376)

At the Eastem side ofthe city the fortress of Mogob*' is situated on a

mountain. The only entrance is via a stair-case which has been hewn

into the rock.

At the Westem side of the said city the fortress of Mascatta is also

situated on a mountain, having at thi' foot ofthe mountain a bulwark

from which one may enter the said fortress via a constmcted stair-case.

To the North and at a match-lock's shot distance from the bulwark

(which is situated below the fortress of Mascatta) there are two

bulwarks named St. Anthony"" on and below a mountain. Behind these

in the mountains there are at least 8 to 9 guard-houses. Behind the city

there is nothing but stony mountains. However, trade is important here

and is carried on by Moors,** Banyans"" and Mallabars"' who with their

ships make a major voyage and come here. They bring all kinds of

textiles, clothes in addition to pepper, cirmamon, ginger, borre borry,"^

rice, sandalwood, iron and untanned hides.

The bay here has a width of about '/s and a depth of '/? mile. On the

Westem side between the bulwark below the fortress of Mascatta and

St. Anthony there is an inlet which is the roadstead for small vessels.

The bay is the roadstead for big vessels which are usually anchored at

depths of 9,8 to 7 fathoms of ground abovementioned.

Concerning fresh food one can get everything here for the ships, but

all things are very expensive with the exception of fish which is caught

here in abundance and is to be had at a reasonable price.

Checked and agreed with the principal /text/."'

*' Mughab, at the turn of the 20th century there was a city quarter of Mascat

of that name. The fortresses were known under different names to those

mentioned in this journal, see Miles, p. 463.

Probably fort San Joao or St. John is meant here, see also note 47, and

Lorimer: Gazetteer, vol. IIA, p. 1180.

*' Muslims were called 'Moors' by the Dutch.

The Dutch referred to Hindu merchants from Westem India, especially

Gujarat, as Banyans.

"' People from Mallabar are meant here.

Borre borry is a yellow unguent prepared from coco-nut oil, curcuma, and

sandal-wood.

The text of this journal (a copy of the original which has not been

preserved) is to be found in VOC 1259, folios 3366-76.



Der Streit um den Türkischen Nebensatz

unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Sowjetturkologie

Von Oskar Hanser, Klagenfurt

I

Die modeme wissenschaftliche Erforschung und Beschreibung der

Turksprachen wurde und wird in erster Linie von Angehörigen indo¬

europäischer Sprachstämme geleistet und inspiriert. Fast alle Arbeiten

bemhen auf einem mehr oder minder ausdrücklichen Vergleich der

türkischen Sprachen mit indoeuropäischen. Diese Vergleichsarbeit hat,

ohne daß dies in ihrer Absicht gelegen war, Definitionsschemata

hervorgebracht, die erst sehr spät in Frage gestellt vmrden. — Seitdem

gibt es den Streit um den türkischen Nebensatz.Wenn ein M. A. Kasembek 1839 in seiner Grammatik der türk-tata-

rischen Sprache von Gemndial-, Partizipial- und Verbalnominalkon-

stmktionen als „verkürzten Nebensätzen", wenn J. Deny 1921 von

denselben Konstmktionen als „quasi-propositions" sprechen kann, so

beweist dies zur Genüge den permanenten Einfluß indoeuropäischer

Sprachansichten auf die Theorie einer nicht-indoeuropäischen Sprache.

Denn nur in diesen Sprachen gibt es eine solche Stufenfolge von

Ausdmcksweisen, die die Grammatiker angeregt hat, von „Wort¬

gmppen mit Satzwert", von „verkürzten Nebensätzen", von „Nennform-

gmppen mit Satzwert", von „Nebensätzen in der Form von Frage¬

sätzen" udgl. zu sprechen.

Eine gewisse Wendung zeigt sich erst in den Schriften H. Winklers,

K. Grönbechs und A. v. Gabains. In Grönbechs Der türkische

Sprachbau. 1 kann man lesen: „Nebenordnung wird durch einfache

Aneinanderreihung der Wörter, bzw. Sätze bezeichnet, zur Unterord¬

nung dienen die zahlreichen und sehr nuanziemngsfähigen Verbal¬

formen; satzverbindende unterordnende Konjunktionen sind eine

Vergewaltigung des türkischen Sprachbaues." ' Noch krasser findet sich

dies bei A. v. Gabain formuliert: „Nebensätze sind dem Türkischen

' K. Grönbech: Der türkische Sprachbau. I. Kopenhagen 1936, S. 51.

floor--first contacts between the netherlands and masqat--zdmg1982

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