foams stabilized by in-situ surface activation of...

FOAMS STABILIZED BY IN-SITU SURFACE

ACTIVATION OF SILICA MICRO-PARTICLES WITH

SURFACTANT

LAM KOK KEONG

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

FOAMS STABILIZED BY IN-SITU SURFACE ACTIVATION OF SILICA MICRO-

PARTICLES WITH SURFACTANT

LAM KOK KEONG

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

M.Sc. Petroleum Engineering

Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

FEBRUARY 2013

iii

DEDICATION

To my beloved Mother and Father

iv

ACKNOWLEGMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone who has

been assisting me in preparing this master project report during this semester. First and

foremost, I would like thank my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Ahmad Kamal Bin Idris for his

continuous support, advises, motivation, encouragement and invaluable guidance. Not to

forget, I also would like to highly express my gratitude to Prof Hadi, researcher from

Ibnu Sina, for providing one of the main raw chemicals that is CAB-O-SIL M5 Fumed

Silica to support this master project research. Besides that, I would like to appreciate the

help from Dr. Salasiah, Nur Izzatie Hannah and Cassy from the Applied Chemistry

Department for the sharing of knowledge on the surface properties of the silica

molecules with the fluids. I would also like to convey my special appreciation to my

parents for all the mental support and motivation to help me get through the challenges I

faced throughout this master project. My exclusive appreciation is also extended to the

Faculty of Petroleum and Renewable Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia for creating a platform of education opportunity. Last but not least, I am very

appreciative for all my friends who provide support directly and indirectly in assisting

me to complete this project.

v

ABSTRACT

Concept of applying gas foam in EOR was first proposed for gas mobility control

to alleviate the challenges of gas flooding and WAG process due to its high viscosity

and low mobility. Like surfactant, colloidal particles can be employed as surface-active

agent to stabilize the foams and can provide better stability due to its irreversible

adsorption to the interface. To get ultra-stable particle stabilized foams/emulsions, the

surface wettability of commercial raw colloidal particles should be modified (surface

activation) from hydrophilic to partially hydrophobic. However, the studies on the in-

situ surface activation for the micro-particles are yet to be widely performed. Therefore,

the in-situ surface activation of unmodified CAB-O-SIL fumed silica micro-particles by

using anionic surfactant such as Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS) and alpha

olefin sulfonate (AOS) has been studied. Its effects on the foamability and foam stability

of dispersed solution were analyzed. The research methodology involves the

characterization of aqueous foams, measurement of adsorption of particles at the air-

water interface, and measurement of surface tensions. The independent variables are

concentration of anionic surfactants, concentration of silica micro-particles whereas the

dependent variables are foam volume, foam quality, surface tension, and percentage of

particles adsorbed at interface. The results showed that hydrophilic silica micro-particles

can be surface activated by interacting with anionic surfactants resulting to synergistic

effect in foamability and foam stability. The positive charges on the silica micro-

particles interact with negative charges of anionic surfactant to generate electrostatic

interaction. This generates adsorption of surfactant at the particle-water interface making

the particles to be surface active and bubble more stable. SDBS is more efficient anionic

surfactant for the surface activation of silica micro-particles compared to that of AOS.

vi

ABSTRAK

Konsep yang menggunakan buih gas dalam EOR diperkenalkan bagi kawalan

pergerakan gas supaya dapat mengatasi masalah yang dihadapi dalam pembajiran gas

dan proses WAG. Zarah koloid boleh digunakan sebagai ejen pengaktifan permukaan

untuk menstabilkan buih dan boleh memberikan kestabilian buih yang lebih baik. Ini

adalah disebabkan penjerapan zarah yang sehala di antara permukaan air dan udara. Bagi

mendapatkan ultra stabil buih/emulsi yang dihasilkan oleh zarah-zarah, kebolehbasahan

permukaan zarah koloid yang didapati dalam pasaran mesti diubah daripada hidrofilik

kepada separuh hidrofobik. Namun Demikian, kajian tentang pengaktifan permukaan

secara in-situ bagi miko-zarah belum dijalankan secara luas. Oleh itu, kajian tentang

permukaan “CAB-O-SIL fumed silica” yang diaktifkan secara in-situ dengan surfactant

anionik seperti “Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate” (SDBS) and “alpha olefin sulfonate”

(AOS) dijalankan. Kesan-kesannya dalam keboleh-buihan dan kestabilan buih juga

dikaji. The metodologi kajian sains melibatkan pencirian buih-buih, pengiraan peratusan

penjerapan zarah di antara permukaan air-udara, pengiraan ketegangan permukaan.

Pembolehubah bebas dalan kajian ini ialah kepekatan surfactant anionik, kepekatan

silica mikro-zarah. Pembolehubah tak bebas ialah isipadu buih, kualiti buih, ketegangan

permukaan, dan peratusan zarah yang terjerap antara permukaan air-udara. Keputusan

menunjukkan bahawa silika mikro-zarah yang hidrofilik boleh diaktifkan permukaannya

dengan menginteraksikan dengan surfactant anionik dan menyebabkan kesan sinergistik

dalam keboleh-buihan dan kestabilan buih. Caj positif di permukaan silika mikro-zarah

berinteraksi dengan caj negatif surfactant anionik dan menjanakan elektostatic interaksi.

Interaksi ini menyebabhan penjerapan surfactant di permukaan antara air-udara dan juga

mengaktifkan permukaan zarah dan menghasilkan buih yang lebih stabil. SDBS

vii

dibuktikan bahawa lebih effektif sebagai ajen pengakitfan permukaan bagi silika

surfactant mikro-zarah daripada AOS.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEGMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION xvii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES xx

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problem Statement 4

1.3 Objectives 5

1.4 Scope of Work 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Gas Flooding 7

2.2 Mobility Control in Gas Flooding 8

2.3 Foams 9

2.3.1 Foam Classification 10

ix

2.3.1.1 Bulk Foam 10

2.3.1.2 Foam in a Porous Media 12

2.3.2 Foam Properties 14

2.3.2.1 Foam Quality 15

2.3.2.2 Foam Texture 17

2.3.2.3 Foam Rheology 18

2.3.3 Mechanisms of Foam Generation 19

2.3.3.1 Snap-off 19

2.3.3.2 Lamella Division 21

2.3.3.3 Leave Behind 22

2.3.4 Mechanisms of Foam Destruction 24

2.3.4.1 In Absence of Oil 24

2.3.4.2 In Presence of Oil 25

2.3.5 Fluid Mobility with Foam 25

2.3.5.1 Gas Mobility with Foam 25

2.3.5.2 Liquid Mobility with Foam 26

2.3.6 Foam Stability 27

2.3.6.1 Film Drainage 27

2.3.6.2 Gas Diffusion 29

2.3.6.3 Disjoining Pressure 30

2.3.6.4 Oil Effect 31

2.3.6.5 Surfactant Concentration 32

2.3.6.6 Salinity 32

2.3.6.7 Temperature 33

2.4 Surfactant – Foaming Agent 33

2.5 Solid Particle-Stabilized Emulsions/Foams 34

2.6 Mechanism of Surface Activation 36

2.6.1 Homogeneous Surface Coating 37

2.6.2 Janus Particles 37

2.6.3 In-Situ Surface Activation 38

2.7 Anionic Surfactant and in-situ Surface Activation 38

x

2.8 Chapter Summary 39

3 METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 Equipment 40

3.1.1 KRÜSS: Tensiometer EasyDyne 41

3.1.2 Orbital Shaker 42

3.2 Material 43

3.2.1 CAB-O-SIL M-5 Fumed Silicas 43

3.2.2 Sodium Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate (SDBS) 44

3.2.3 Alpha Olefin Sulfonate (AOS) 44

3.2.4 De-ionized Water (DI water) 45

3.3 Methods 45

3.3.1 Characteridfzation of Aqueous Foams 46

3.3.2 Measurement of Accumulation of Silica Micro-

particles at the Air-Water Interface

48

3.3.3 Measurement of Surface Tension 48


4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 50

4.1 Characterization of Aqueous Foams 50

4.1.1 Foamability and Foam Stability 50

4.1.1.1 SDBS & Silica Micro-particles 51

4.1.1.2 AOS & Silica Micro-particles 56

4.1.2 Synergistic Effects on Foamability and Foam

Stability

60

4.1.3 Foam Quality 65

4.2 Measurement of Accumulation of Silica Micro-particles

at the Air-Water Interface

67

4.3 Measurement of Surface Tension 69


xi

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 72

5.1 Conclusions 72

5.2 Recommendations 74

REFERENCES 75

APPENDIX A - E 82 - 103

xii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Foam Quality (Friedmann and Jensen, 1986) 17

4.1 Effects of concentration of silica micro-particles on the Copt

(Sf) and maximum Sf

65

4.2 Effects of concentration of silica micro-particles on the Copt

(Sfs) and maximum Sfs

65

4.3 Minimum concentration of surfactant SDBS and AOS to get

stable foam at different concentration of silica micro-particles

67

A.1 Foam volume generated at various concentration of surfactant

SDBS with 0 ppm and 5,000 ppm silica micro-particles.

83


SDBS with 10,000 ppm and 20,000 ppm silica micro-

particles.

84


AOS with 0 ppm and 5,000 ppm silica micro-particles.

85


AOS with 10,000 ppm and 20,000 ppm silica micro-particles.

86

B.1 Synergistic effect on foamability of surfactant SDBS and

AOS at the presence of 5,000 ppm micro-particles.

88

B.2 Synergistic effect on foamability of surfactant SDBS and 89

xiii


B.3 Synergistic effect on foamability of surfactant SDBS and


90

B.4 Synergistic effect on foam stability of surfactant SDBS and


91



92



93

C.1 Foam quality for SDBS at the presence of silica micro-

particles with concentration of 0 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 10,000 ppm

and 20,000 ppm

95

C.2 Foam quality for AOS at the presence of silica micro-particles

with concentration of 0 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 10,000 ppm and

20,000 ppm

96

D.1 Calculation steps for the percentage of particles adsorbed at

the air-water interface for surfactant SDBS

98

D.2 Calculation steps for the percentage of particles adsorbed at

the air-water interface for surfactant AOS

99

E.1 Raw data obtained from the KRÜSS Tensiometer EasyDyne

for surfactant SDBS without and with silica micro-particles.

101

E.2 Raw data obtained from the KRÜSS Tensiometer EasyDyne

for surfactant AOS without and with silica micro-particles.

102

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 An Illustration of the Typical Foam System (Schramm, 1994) 10

2.2 A Schematic Illustration of the Surfactant Molecules Adsorbed on

the Surface Creating the Lamella (Shen, 2006)

11

2.3 The Curve of Disjoining Pressure vs Lamella Thickness (Shen,

2006)

12

2.4 Schematic Illustration of Continuous and Discontinuous Gas Flow

in Porous Media in the Presence of Foam (Tanzil, 2001)

14

2.5 A Curve of Relationship between the Foam Quality and Foam

Viscosity (Bullen et al., 1975)

16

2.6 Snap-off mechanism of bubble generation mechanically (Kovscek

and Radke 1994). (a) Gas enters the pore throat that is filled with

liquid. (b) liquid film swells at the pore throat. (c) the snap off

repeated continually

20

2.7 Lamella division mechanisms (a) lamella stretches at a splitting

point (b) two lamellae form (Kovscek and Radke 1994)

22

2.8 Schematic of lamellae creation by Leave-Behind Method. Rock

grains are represented in lined circles, liquid in gray color, and gas

in white color (Kovscek and Radke 1994)

23

2.9 Pressure difference between the foam lamella surface (Schramm,

1994)

29

2.10 (Upper) Schematic diagram of position of particles at fluid-water 36

xv


interface for a contact angle Ɵ < 90˚ (left), Ɵ ~ 90˚ (center), and

Ɵ > 90˚ (right). (Lower) Corresponding emulsion morphology o/w

emulsions are favored (Ɵ < 90˚; left), and w/o are expected (Ɵ >

90˚; right) (Binks, 2002)

3.1 KRÜSS Tensiometer EasyDyne 41

3.2 Orbital shaker 42

4.1 Foam volume of SDBS solutions at different concentration without

silica micro-particles

52

4.2 Foam volume of SDBS solutions at different concentration with

5,000 ppm silica micro-particles

52



53



53

4.5 Comparisons of Foam volume of SDBS solutions at different

concentration with and without 5,000 ppm silica micro-particles

54



55



55

4.8 Foam volume of AOS solutions at different concentration without


56

4.9 Foam volume of AOS solutions at different concentration with


57



57



58

xvi


4.12 Comparisons of Foam volume of AOS solutions at different


59



59



60

4.15 Effects of Surfactant concentration with 5,000 ppm silica micro-

particles on foamability (Sf)

61

4.16 . Effects of Surfactant concentration with 5,000 ppm silica micro-

particles on foam stability (Sfs)

62



62



63



63



64

4.21 Foam quality of foam generated at various surfactant concentration

of SDBS at different concentration of silica micro-particles

66

4.22 Foam quality of foam generated at various surfactant concentration

of AOS at different concentration of silica micro-particles

66

4.23 Fractions of Silica Micro-particles adsorbed at the air-water surface

at different SDBS and AOS concentration

69

4.24 Surface tension of SDBS solutions with and without 20,000 ppm


70

4.25 Surface tension of AOS solutions with and without 20,000 ppm


71

xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AOS - alpha olefin sulfonate

CMC - Critical Micelle Concentration

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

EOR - Enhanced oil recovery

HLB - Hydrophile-lipophile

OPEC - Organization of petroleum exporting countries

ROS - Residual oil saturation

SDBS - Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate

WAG - Water alternate gas flooding

xviii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Cmin - Minimum concentration of surfactant needed to stabilize the foam

Cmin (Qb) - Minimum surfactant concentration needed to get stable foam based

on the foam quality

Copt (Sf) - Optimum surfactant concentration that contributes to maximum

synergistic effect on foamability

Copt (Sfs) - Optimum surfactant concentration that contributes to maximum

synergistic effect on foam stability

Ɵ - contact angle at the fluid-water interface

PA - Liquid pressure at center lamella

PB - Liquid pressure at Plateau border

PCA - Capillary pressure at center lamella

PCB - Capillary pressure at Plateau border

PG - Pressure in gas- phase

Qb - Foam quality

R - Radius of curvature

R1A - radius of curvature at the lamella center

R1B - radius of curvature at the plateau border

Sf - Synergistic effect on foamability (%)

Sfs - Synergistic effect on foam stability (%)

T - Room Temperature

V0 - Foam volume generated immediately after shaken

V0P+S - Foam volume generated immediately using surfactant with particles

only after shaken

xix

V0S - Foam volume generated immediately using surfactant only after

shaken

V30 - Foam volume after 30 minutes

V30P+S - Foam volume generated using surfactant with particles only after 30

minutes

V30S - Foam volume generated using surfactant only after 30 miniutes

Vg - Gas foam volume

VL - Liquid solution volume

w - Amount of silica micro-particles drained into the beaker

w0 - Amount of silica micro-particles initially added to the dispersion

x (%) - Percentage of silica particles adsorbed at the air-water interface

σ - Interfacial tension

xx

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Results of Characterization of Aqueous Foam

(Foamability and Foam Stability)

85

B Results of Characterization of Aqueous Foam

(Synergistic effects on Foamability and Foam

Stability)

90

C Results of Characterization of Aqueous Foam

(foam quality)

97

D Results of Measurement of Accumulation of

Particles at Air-Water Interface

100

E Results of Measurement of Surface Tensions 103

1

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Energy demand increased significantly from 1996 to 2012 reaching 89.6 million

barrels per day. Oil and gas has been the global leading energy generating resources. By

2035, it is expected by OPEC that the energy demand figure is increased to 109.7

million barrels per day. It is due to the growing energy demand from developing

countries. Nowadays, the global oil supply is gradually outpaced by the global oil

demand and it imposes a threat of energy security in the world. On the other hand, it

becomes harder to discover new oil well to substitute the produced reserves (Alvarado

and Manrique, 2010).

Therefore, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods are the key techniques applied

to increase the oil recovery from the existing oil reservoirs, and to increase the oil field

production life cycle by mobilizing the remaining trapped oil. Enhanced oil recovery

(EOR) involves the injection of fluids that are not present in the underground reservoir

to mobilize the immobile remaining oil (Lake, 1989). There are several common types

2

of enhanced oil recovery techniques that are chemical flooding, thermal recovery

processes, gas flooding, microbial enhanced oil recovery and vibro-seismic technology.

Gas flooding is one of the most widely applied EOR methods in field

applications. Gas flooding is normally applied on the reservoir that has been water-

flooded. The type of gas injected in this method can be hydrocarbon (light natural gas)

and non-hydrocarbon. The non-hydrocarbon gas can be nitrogen, carbon dioxide, flue

gas, hydrogen sulfide, and others. The fundamental mechanism of gas flooding method

is to increase microscopic sweep efficiency of the oil displacement and reduce the

residual oil saturation (Lake, 1989).

The main issues of the gas flooding are the viscous fingering and gravity

segregation of displacing gas due to frontal instability. To mitigate these problems,

water alternating gas injection (WAG) has been used in several field applications

(Dicharry et al, 1973, Warner, 1977). One of the drawbacks is that the contact between

the resident oil (displaced fluid) and injected gas (displacing fluid) is blocked by the

large quantity of injected water leading to a larger ROS. This water-blocking

phenomenon is more detrimental in water-wet reservoir or the reservoir that has been

water-flooded previously as secondary recovery technique (Stalkup, 1970). Some of the

injected gas (such as CO2) has high solubility in water and it increases the consumption

of that gas making the project less economically feasible.

Concept of applying gas foam for mobility control was first proposed by Bond

and Holbrook (1958). To alleviate the challenges of gas flooding and WAG process,

foam flooding using the injected gas can be the potential solution to it (Fried, 1961;

Kovscek and Radke, 1994; Rossen, 1996; Du et al., 2007; Farajzadeh et al., 2009). It is

very useful applying foams in EOR techniques to improve displacement efficiency

because of its high viscosity and mobility during the displacement across a porous a

3

medium (Green et. al., 1998). Extensive experimental studies were performed on using

surfactant as the foam generation agent to stabilize the foam to reduce the gas mobility

in gas flooding (Kim et al., 2005). However, there are several weaknesses on surfactant-

stabilized foam that are high surfactant retention in porous media, relatively low foam

stability, and degradation of surfactant at reservoir condition (Kim et al., 2004;

Ransohoff et al., 1988; Wang, 1984).

Solid particles can be employed as surface-active agent to stabilize the foams

besides surfactant. Like the surfactant, the solid particles can be adsorbed at the interface

between aqueous and non-aqueous phases, which makes it surface active. The solid-

stabilized foams have been applied in a variety of industries due to its higher adhesion

energy for the particle adsorption at the foam interface. Surfactants and solid particles

have been compared for their ability to stabilize foams/emulsions (Binks et al., 2002,

Horozoy 2008). Furthermore, colloidal particles can provide better stability because

when the colloidal particles are held at the interface, the adsorption can be irreversible

and the particles are not easily desorbed from the interface. Bink and Horozov (2005)

reported that a particle with size of larger than 100 nm could be irreversibly adsorbed on

the interface. Furthermore, Wilson (1980), and Sun and Gao (2002) reported that solid

micro-particles with size of several µm could be employed as the foam stabilizer to

generate stable foam or emulsion dispersion.

However, the raw commercial particles are normally not surface active at most of

the liquid interfaces. For silica particles, they are normally extremely hydrophilic. To get

ultra-stable particle stabilized foams/emulsions, the particle surface must be activated by

the wettability modification. The surface activation can be performed by several

methods: homogeneous surface coating, Janus particles and in-situ surface activation.

Homogeneous surface coating can be done on the silica by having surface silylation to

modify the surface hydrophobicity to be more hydrophobic but it costs highly in

commercial scales. Janus particles is the particles at which part of surface is coated to be

4

hydrophilic and part of the surface is treated to be hydrophobic but there is a limitation

to have large commercial scale of production. In-situ surface activation is the well –

known as an easy wettability modification method, which is to just interact the particles

with amphiphilic compounds. In-situ surface activation can be relatively less

complicated and much cheaper methods to produce the surface-active particles.

Cui et al. (2010) highlighted that the unmodified silica particle can be surface

activated by the anionic surfactant. The anionic surfactant can provide the negative

charges to have electrostatic interaction and form monolayer adsorption of the surfactant

at the particle-water interface. The electrostatic interaction modifies the surface

properties of the particle from hydrophilic to partially hydrophobic forming an ultra-

stable foam or emulsion stabilizer.

1.2 Problem Statement

The implication of foam in mobility control was brought up by Bond and

Holbrook (1958). One of the foaming agents commonly used is surfactant. There were

many extensive research efforts carried out on surfactant-stabilized foams and they

presented several weaknesses that are unstable foam properties, high surfactant retention

in porous media and surfactant degradation at reservoir condition (Kim et al., 2004;

Ransohoff et al., 1988; Wang, 1984). The surfactants of small molecular weight had

been widely researched and applied in the industries; solid particulate stabilizers pique

the interest of researchers in their applications.

5

Bink and Horozov (2005) reported that a particle with size of larger than 100 nm

could be irreversibly adsorbed on the interface. Furthermore, Binks (2005) highlighted

that there are only two examples in which solid micro-particles are used as foam

stabilizers. The functions of micro-particles were reported by Wilson (1980), and Sun

and Gao (2002) to be used as the effective foam stabilizer to generate stable foam or

emulsion dispersion. However, the raw commercial micro-particles are not surface-

active and highly hydrophilic. To obtain ultra-stable particle stabilized foam or emulsion,

the surface properties of the particles must be modified to be partially hydrophobic. Cui

et al. (2010) shows that in-situ surface activation with anionic surfactant can efficiently

increase the foamability and foam stability of the particles. However, the studies on the

in-situ surface activation for the micro-particles are not widely performed.

1.3 Objectives

In this research, anionic surfactants such as Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate

(SDBS) and alpha olefin sulfonate (AOS) are used as the in-situ surface activation agent

for unmodified CAB-O-SIL fumed silicas with size range of 0.1 – 0.3 µm. The main

objectives of this study are:

• To investigate the impact of the treated micro-particles on the foamability

and foam stability

• To compare anionic surfactants SDBS and AOS and identify which of it

is more efficient.

6

1.4 Scope of Work

The focus of this study is to examine the behavior of anionic surfactants on the

foamability and foam stability without and with the presence of micro-particles. It is also

to study the in-situ surface activation of the untreated CAB-O-SIL fumed silicas (micro-

particles) by interaction with anionic surfactant, and to assess the impact on the

foamability and foam stability of the aqueous dispersions.

76

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