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Resources for TeachingGrade 6: Early Civilizations of India

Environment and the Indus Civilization

HOW DID THE ENVIRONMENT INFLUENCE THE EMERGENCE AND DECLINE OF THE INDUS CIVILIZATION?

The Indus Valley civilization, also known as the Harrapan civilization, began from around 4000 B.C. until its decline around 1500 B.C. Extensive archaeological evidence, found primarily in the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, serve as important sources for understanding the history of the Harappan civilization. As a result, scholars have used “Harappan” as a name for the civilization, reflecting the site where traces of the civilization were first found.1

Initial theories about the origins of the Harappan civilization traced its beginnings as an offshoot of Mesopotamian civilization. Recent archaeological discoveries have suggested that the

Harappan civilization grew out of farming

settlements in modern-day Baluchistan, not from Mesopotamia. Trade and migration certainly existed between the Harappan and Mediterranean civilizations, but there are stark differences

between them: different scripts, different uses of bronze, as well as different settlement and irrigation layouts.2

The significance of the Indus River as an environmental site around which the Harappan civilization settled has do with several factors. Firstly, the fertility of the soil around the Indus River valley made it an ideal location for agricultural production. Among the crops that were grown were wheat, barley, rice, and millet.3 An advanced irrigation and canal system, which also included an underground system, helped enrich agricultural production. Secondly, the Indus River was an important waterway for travel and commerce. The Harappan civilization was heavily involved in trade throughout the region, and the river would have been an important means to transport goods to and from Harappa, but also within the vast civilization itself. Thirdly, having access to a major source of water contributed to the Harappan city-planning system. Because of annual flooding from the river, Harappan cities developed mechanisms to manage flooding by building homes on secure brick foundations and a sophisticated drainage system.4

While the Indus River was a major reason for the rise of the Harappan civilization, it is likely that it was also a major reason for its decline. Based on archaeological evidence from soil sediments, frequent flooding may have been one of the key causes for the civilization’s decline.5 Such flooding accompanied with soil salinity would have not only disrupted agricultural production, but it would have destroyed city infrastructure and led to disease and deaths. Additional theories suggest that environmental change, including lack of

1 Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Chennai: Pearson Education in South Asia, 2009), 138.

Copyright © 2019 1 The Regents of the University of California All Rights ReservedSynthesized and Curated by Samia Errazzouki, GSR, Department of History

The major sites of the Harappan civilization in relation to the Indus River and in reference to

modern-day cities. Source: Encyclopedia Britannica



rainfall, deforestation and desertification caused by over-exploitation of the soil may have also caused the civilization’s decline. These factors, along with the strain of a growing

population and declining trade, may have all resulted in the Harappan civilization’s decline.

Bibliography

2 Ibid, 139.3 Thapar, 83.4 Ibid, 82.5 Ibid, 87.




“Historical Map of the Indus Valley,” Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 28 January 2019. https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/54159

Romila, Thapar. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).

Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Chennai: Pearson Education in South Asia, 2009).Source 1: Harappan Seal, 2600 B.C.-1900 B.C.

Visual Citation: British Museum Online Collection. “Stamp-seal. Carved with a unicorn standing before a standard; inscribed above. Made of stone (steatite); chipped upper left corner.” [London: British Museum, 2600 BC-1900 BC] Online entry. https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=224175&partId=1&searchText=harappan&images=true&page=1

Background Information: Pictured here is a stamp-seal depicting a unicorn standing before a standard, with an inscription above it, found in Mohenjo-Daro and dated between 2600 B.C.-1900 B.C. Animals on seals were common discoveries in Harappan sites, although their significance and uses remain unknown: “The most common animal is one that is thought to be a mythical unicorn, although a more mundane identification describes it as a stylized rhinoceros. It is often depicted together with an object that has been variously interpreted, often described as an altar or even a brazier.”6 Some possible explanations for the seals include: as a way to authenticate merchandise or as tokens used for buying and selling goods; as amulets used for identification purposes by wealthier or more prominent individuals, such as priests or merchants; as a religious inscription.7 How does the Harappan script compare to other forms of early writing in other civilizations? Due to the importance of trade in the Harappan civilization, how do you think these seals may have been related to commerce?

6 Thapar, 85.7 Ibid, 170.


https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=224175&partId=1&searchText=harappan&images=true&page=1




Source 2: The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro, 2014

Background Information: Mohenjo-daro was the largest of all the Harappan settlements and the site where many archaeological artifacts related to the Harappan civilization have been uncovered. According to Singh, while Mohenjo-daro displays a distinctly urban character, the city heavily relied on surrounding villages for both food and labor.8 The materials used for building houses and structures in Mohenjo-daro were primarily sun-dried and burnt bricks, with some walls reaching as high as 16 ft.9 According to some estimates, Mohenjo-daro would have housed approximately 41,000 people.10 One of the significant features of the city was the Great Bath, which measures at 47 ft x 23 ft, and a depth of about 8 ft. According to Singh, the “Great Bath was probably the scene of an elite ritual activity involving ceremonial bathing.”11 Pictured here is an image of the Great Bath, which also reveals stairs and a sitting area along the side, suggesting its use a public and communal space.12 What does the Great Bath tell us about how the Harappan civilization made use of public spaces and water resources?

Visual Citation: “Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath in the

8 Singh, 147.9 Ibid, 147.10 Ibid, 149.11 Ibid, 173.12 Image from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg




foreground and the granary mound in the background.” Wikipedia, 8 March 2014. Online entry. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpgSource 3: Harappan Beadmaking and Jewelry

Background Information: The wealth and comfort derived from an advanced city-planning and steady agricultural production meant that Harappan people were able to dedicate their time in producing crafts that had multiple uses beyond sustenance and survival. Among the most common artifacts found in Harappan sites have been elaborate piece of jewelry. The jewelry, including earrings, necklaces, bracelets, and pendants, were made of various materials, such as gold, copper, silver, and shells and special stones for beading.13 According to Thapar, “This was not the work of casual craftsmen and required considerable skill and organization.”14 The remains of drilling tools and bead-making factories suggest that not only was this craft well-developed in the Harappan civilization, but that it was an important product that was traded within and beyond the civilization. Bead-making factories and workshops, for example, have been identified due to the presence of a large number of unfinished products. What does the development of jewelry and beadmaking tell us about the kinds of resources that were available in the Harappan civilization?

Visual Citation: “Jewelry: Necklaces of carnelian beads, gold; bangles of terracotta, copper, stoneware, lapis lazuli beads; gold spiral pin; gold and terracotta beads,” in Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Chennai: Pearson Education in South Asia, 2009), 163.

13 Singh, 161.14 Thapar, 81.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg



Source 4: Dancing Girl, about 2500 B.C.

Background Information: One of the most famous archaeological discoveries from the Harappan civilization has been what is commonly known as the “Dancing Girl.”15 Made out of bronze, it was found in a house in the Mohenjo-daro excavation site. The following is a description from Upinder Singh on the figurine: “The figure is 10.8 cm high and was made by the lost-wax method. The lost-wax method involves first making a wax model and then covering it with a clay coating, leaving some holes as passageways. When the clay-covered molds are heated in the ovens, the wax melts out. Molten bronze is then poured in, and takes the place of the wax. She represents a very thin woman standing with her right hand on the back of her hip and left hand resting on her left thigh, just above the knee…She wears a necklace and has 24-25 bangles on her left arm and just 4 on her right arm.”16

15 Singh, 162.16 Ibid, 162.




Visual Citation: “Bronze dancing girl, Harappan/Indus Valley Civilization,” Columbia University. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/dancer/dancer.html


http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/dancer/dancer.html



Bibliography

“Mohenjo-daro.” Wikipedia. Retrieved Wikipedia Commons online. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg

“The Dancing Girl.” Columbia University. Retrieved Columbia University online. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/dancer/dancer.html

“Stamp-seal.” 1947, 0416.2. British Museum. Retrieved from British Museum online collection. https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=224175&partId=1&searchText=harappan&images=true&page=1

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Chennai: Pearson Education in South Asia, 2009).




http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/dancer/dancer.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg

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