food security through permaculture: a case study of
TRANSCRIPT
FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY
OF SAMBURU COUNTY
BY
WANGARI THIONG’O
644870
A Thesis Submitted to the School of Humanities and Social
Sciences in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the
Award of the Degree of Master of Arts in International
Relations (Integrated Studies)
UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY- AFRICA
SPRING SEMESTER 2016
ii
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any other
college, institution or university other than the United States International University- Africa
in Nairobi for academic credit.
Signed: ________________________ Date: __________________
Wangari Thiong’o
This thesis has been presented for examination with my approval as the appointed supervisor.
Signed: ________________________ Date: _____________________
Mr. Dan N. Odaba
Signed: _________________________ Date: ____________________
Dr. Tom L. S. Onditi
Dean, School of Humanities and Social Sciences (SHSS)
Signed: _______________________ Date: _________________
Amb. Prof. Ruthie C. Rono, HSC
Deputy Vice Chancellor- Academic Affairs (DVCAA)
iii
© Copyright 2016 by Wangari Thiong’o
All Rights Reserved
iv
Abstract
There is a serious threat posed to human survival by food insecurity, especially among
vulnerable communities such as nomadic pastoralists. Food security remains a key
developmental agenda, evidenced by its inclusion in the global sustainable development goals.
The second goal seeks to end hunger and achieve food security. Therefore there is need for
viable solutions to the global hunger problem, particularly focusing on sustainable agricultural
practices that will increase yields and also protect the environment. This paper will look into
food insecurity among nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya who live in arid areas and
propose permaculture as a model of smart farming. The paper will then look into the
implementation of the permaculture model in Samburu County of Kenya. There is limited
literature on the application of permaculture in Kenya’s arid and semi-arid as a means to
sustainable food security as well as additional income sources. This study looks into alternative
methods of agriculture that are sustainable as well as environmentally friendly. It relies heavily
on primary data collected from Samburu County residents. This will allow for sound
conclusions on whether the permaculture model can be used to bring food security to the
nomadic pastoralists of Samburu County.
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Acknowledgement
To my supervisor, Mr. Dan N. Odaba, who guided me through this journey
The USIU fraternity, thank you for your guidance and support.
Sadhana Forest Kenya, you embraced me as one of own and allowed me to bank on your
resources, Special mention goes to Bruce, Nicholas and Mark
Mr. Thiong’o Gatheru, as my other supervisor, for the invaluable academic guidance and moral
support throughout this journey.
Mrs. Bilha Gatheru, for checking up on me and urging me on.
Shiru, Sylvia, Tusmo and Victoria, for keeping me on my toes so that we graduate together.
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Table of Contents
STUDENT’S DECLARATION ii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgement v
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ix
Definition of Terms x
Chapter 1 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Background Information .......................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Food Security ................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Nomadic Pastoralism among the Samburu .................................................................. 4
1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................. 9
1.3.1 General Objective .............................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................. 9
1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 10
1.5 Significance of the Study......................................................................................... 10
1.6 Organization of the Study ...................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2 12
Literature Review 12
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Samburu County .............................................................................................................. 13
2.2.1 Overview of Samburu County ..................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Geography and Climate ............................................................................................... 13
2.2.3 Demography and Economic Activities ........................................................................ 15
2.3 Food Security .................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Hunger, Food Insecurity and Malnutrition ................................................................ 17
2.3.2 Climate Change and Food Insecurity ......................................................................... 18
2.3.3 Government Measures to Address Food Insecurity and Climate Change .............. 20
2.4 Climate Smart Agriculture ............................................................................................. 23
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2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 Permaculture as a climate-smart farming model ...................................................... 27
2.4.3 Case Study: Implementation of Sadhana Forest Kenya in Samburu County ........ 31
2.5 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 3 36
Methodology 36
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 36
3.2 The Site of the Study and Units of Analysis .................................................................. 36
3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................... 37
3.4 Study Population and Sample Selection Procedures .................................................... 38
3.5 Data Collection Methods and Procedures ..................................................................... 39
3.6 Data Analysis Methods .................................................................................................... 40
3.7 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................. 40
Chapter 4 41
Research Findings 41
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 An Overview of Farming Practices in Samburu County ............................................. 42
4.3 Data Collection and Analysis Process ............................................................................ 43
4.4 Results of the Study ......................................................................................................... 44
4.4.1 Demographic Data and Household Characteristics................................................... 44
4.4.2 Food Security ................................................................................................................. 45
4.4.3 Farm Characteristics .................................................................................................... 47
4.4.3 Adoption of Good Farming Practices ......................................................................... 48
4.4.4 Sadhana Forest Kenya Interventions .......................................................................... 51
4.4.5 Benefits of Improved Methods and Support Needed for Adoption of Practices .... 53
4.5 Summary of Results ......................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 5 57
Recommendations and Conclusions 57
5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 57
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 58
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5.2.1 Water Conservation ...................................................................................................... 58
5.2.1 Fencing ........................................................................................................................... 59
5.2.3 Access to Farming Inputs ............................................................................................. 59
5.3.4 Management and Conservation of Rangelands ......................................................... 61
5.3.5 Permaculture ................................................................................................................. 61
5.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 62
References 63
Appendix 1: Location of Samburu County in Kenya 68
Appendix 2: Map of Samburu Sub-Counties 69
Appendix 3: Introduction Letter 70
Appendix 4: Questionnaire Cover Letter 71
Appendix 5: Questionnaire 72
Appendix 6: Focus Group Discussion and Interview Questions 75
Appendix 7: NACOSTI Permit 78
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List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
ACTED – Agency for Technical and Co-operation Development
ASALs- Arid and Semi-Arid Lands
CSA – Climate Smart Agriculture
FAO – Food and Agricultural Organisation
FGD – Focus Group Discussions
GHG – Green House Gases
IFAD – International Fund for Agricultural Development
KNBS – Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
MDGs – Millennium Development Goals
NGO - Non-governmental Organisation
Permaculture – Permanent Agriculture
SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals
SFK – Sadhana Forest Kenya
UN – The United Nations
UNEP – United Nations Environmental Programme
WHO – World Health Organisation
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Definition of Terms
Agroforestry is a land management system that optimizes the benefits from the biological
interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or
livestock.
Aquaculture refers to the breeding, rearing and harvesting of plants and animals in all types
of water environment
Climate Smart Agriculture refers to agricultural practices that sustainably increase
productivity and system resilience while reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Food security refers to availability and adequate access at all times to sufficient, safe,
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.
Nomadic pastoralism is a form of pastoralism where livestock are moved from one place to
another, following an irregular pattern of movement, to find fresh pasture for grazing.
Pastoralism is a subsistence farming pattern through which people make their livelihoods by
tending large herds of animals.
Permaculture is the development of agricultural ecosystems intended to be sustainable and
self-sufficient by modelling them on naturally occurring ecosystems.
Transhumance is the seasonal movement of people with their livestock between fixed
pastures. In most cases, nomadic pastoralism and transhumance are used interchangeably even
though they are different.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1. Background Information
Food security is a global concern. According to the UN, globally, one in nine people in the
world today are undernourished (United nations, 2015). This means they lack access to
sufficient quantities of nutritious, well balanced meals. In addition to this, the majority of the
people who suffer from hunger live in developing nations. As such, hunger permeates to other
areas of development.
Food security is a complex sustainable development issue, linked to health through
malnutrition and reduced immunity increasing proclivity to disease (World Health
Organisation, 2015). More so, the problem of hunger and food insecurity threatens efforts
towards sustainable economic development, environmental preservation and trade. Therefore,
it is crucial for the world to find sustainable ways to secure adequate, nutritious food for its
peoples. This means looking into agricultural practices across the globe.
Agriculture as a sector remains the world’s largest source of employment. It is the largest
source of income and jobs for poor rural households, providing livelihoods for 40 per cent of
today’s global population (United nations, 2015). Most of this farming is carried out on small
farms that are heavily dependent on rain cycles. These farms provide almost 80 per cent of the
food consumed in most of the developing and developed world. Therefore, it is vital to invest
in smallholder farmers as a way to increase food security and secure nutrition for the world’s
most vulnerable populations, as well as increased food production for local and global markets.
Some of the most vulnerable populations are nomadic pastoralists. Nomadic pastoralists make
their livelihoods through subsistence farming of large herds of animals. The livestock and the
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herders move from place to place to find fresh pasture and water, in an irregular pattern. Across
the world, nomadic pastoralists inhabit the less fertile areas of the earth. These areas are also
prone to harsh climatic conditions that make settled agriculture difficult. Therefore, the risk of
food insecurity among these populations is increased greatly as a result of the environment they
live in.
One of the nomadic pastoralist communities in Kenya is the Samburu. They predominantly
inhabit the North Rift area of the country. This area is classified as an ASAL area by the
government. It experiences little and intermittent rainfall and the soils are infertile. This makes
the area prone to drought and famine as smallholder agriculture is difficult. Therefore, the
Samburu have to trade animals or animals for food, often for an exorbitant price. There is
therefore need for the Samburu to find and implement a sustainable agricultural model that
complements traditional nomadic pastoralism.
Permaculture provides a suitable model for sustainable agriculture that diversifies food sources,
increases yield and still protects the environment. Permaculture is based on a philosophy of
working with nature, after protracted and thoughtful observation, and looking at plants and
animals in all their functions and interactions (Mollison, 1979). It bases farms on naturally
occurring ecosystems specific to a given climate and thereby making them self-sufficient.
Permaculture farms would complement nomadic pastoralism and go towards enhancing food
security in Samburu County. More so, once it is successful, the model can be replicated across
the county to raise overall food yield. This way, any excess produce can be marketed,
generating income for the local communities. In the long run, this will lead to better livelihoods
and increased focus on development activities for people in the region.
1.1.1 Food Security
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The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines food security as existing when all people at all
times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life (World
Health Organisation, 2015). Food security encompasses both physical and economic aspects.
Physically, food must be nutritious to avert both malnutrition and dietary excess health
problems like obesity. At the same time, people need economic resources to afford a nutritious
diet. Food security is built on three pillars:
1. Food availability which refers to having sufficient quantities of food available steadily.
2. Food access whereby people have sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a
nutritious diet.
3. Food use where there is appropriate use based on knowledge of basic nutrition and care,
as well as adequate water and sanitation.
Therefore, food security represents a key developmental area that influences other key areas
such as health, agriculture, the environment and economic growth
At the end of the MDGs in 2015, the UN published its annual State of Food Insecurity Report.
The report gives progress relating to MDG one which was “to eliminate extreme poverty and
hunger by aiming to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from
hunger” (The United Nations, 2015). A key indicator for hunger was the pervasiveness of
malnourishment in a country’s population. According to the report, 72 out of 179 developing
countries halved hunger defined that way. However, with an increase in global population,
absolute hunger decreased only from 1010 million to 795 million today (Renz, 2015).
Food production has risen substantially to cater for the growing demand and consumption. This
is attributable to increased automation of the agricultural process, irrigation to supplement
changing rainfall cycles and the use of fertilizers. However, there has been little regard for the
amplified energy inefficiency associated with the use of these methods. More so, the
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environmental impact of increased agricultural activities has been overlooked in order to
maintain focus on food security. Current projections of required increases in yield often fail to
account for the losses in yield and land area due to environmental degradation. Therefore, food
production and yield has gone up at the expense of the environment.
Food prices have steadily risen since the mid-2000s. In 2007, the FAO food price index rose
by 23 per cent from the previous year. The surge in prices is attributable to factors such as
weather related production shortfalls, reduction in stock levels, increased costs to produce and
the emergence of the biofuels market as an alternative use of food. This increase in food prices
has exacerbated the situation for many countries already in need of emergency interventions
and food assistance (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2008).
Narrowing down within countries, in the short term, the worst hit households by increased food
prices are the poor urban and rural ones. More so, among the poor, female headed households
are the most vulnerable to shocks in food prices.
The cumulating effects of all these factors has exacerbated food insecurity, especially among
the vulnerable communities in developing nations. Consequently, there is a need to re-evaluate
and tailor traditional agricultural practices to meet these new challenges while still fighting
hunger.
1.1.2 Nomadic Pastoralism among the Samburu
The Samburu people are a nomadic pastoralist community from Kenya. They are Nilotic
speaking people with close ties to the Maasai. Traditionally, the Samburu are pastoralists whose
life has been revolving around the wellbeing of their goats, sheep, cattle and camels (County
Government of Samburu, 2015). Initially, the Samburu economy was purely pastoral but with
longer drought and famine, population growth and declining pastoral land, some have
diversified to crop growing while others have abandoned agriculture altogether and are looking
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for employment in cities within Kenya. They live north of the Equator in Samburu County
which lies in the Kenyan Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs). This is a dryland area with little
rainfall.
The Kenyan Arid and Semi-arid Lands (ASALs) is a region prone to harsh weather conditions
which render agro-pastoral communities in this area highly vulnerable to natural hazards,
particularly droughts. The above factors have made transhumance as a way of life increasingly
difficult. Additionally, herd sizes and animal qualities have declined as they are decimated by
persistent drought. The incomes earned by the pastoralist families from sale of the animals and
their products have also fallen thereby reducing money to purchase food to supplement their
traditional diet. Thus, there has been growing food insecurity and malnutrition in the Samburu
community.
Agro-pastoralist households in Samburu employ various coping strategies during times of
drought, most of which relate to food consumption: reducing how much and often they eat;
switching to lower-quality, cheaper cereals; turning to traders for credit; seeking gifts of food
from friends or neighbours and relying on relatives, social support and humanitarian assistance
(ACTED Appraisal, Monitoring and Evaluation Unit, 2011). These mechanisms, however, are
not sustainable and have significant long-term impacts on household nutrition and health. In
turn, pastoralists in Samburu are increasingly relying on these negative coping mechanisms—
particularly accessing food on credit—which contributes to a downward spiral of vulnerability
and risk.
Pastoralists’ attitudes towards livestock and long-term strategies are also often inappropriate in
the face of increasing climatic risks. For example, the respect for a livestock owner in Samburu
is typically secured by the size of livestock herds, not the degree to which animals are healthy
or their productivity rate; Samburu and other pastoralists are typically unwilling to sell animals
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during times of good body condition and high market prices. This poor livestock herd
management contributes to significant animal losses during drought (through distress sales and
increased animal morbidity), owing to herd sizes that are too large to be maintained with
diminished financial and environmental resources.
Additionally, cattle farming is one of the world’s most environmentally destructive activities:
it devours resources, pollutes groundwater and is a climate killer (Heine, 2015). More so, meat
and dairy production is very energy intensive and leaves a larger carbon footprint than other
food production processes. Additionally, with the competing need to grow crops, conflict arises
with regard to land use and management practices. The land is classified by the government of
Kenya as low potential rangeland, meaning that only a small portion of the land is suitable for
agricultural production. Currently, only a small percentage of the agriculturally productive land
is cultivated, growing wheat, barley, maize, beans, and green vegetables.
Perversely, as more land is put under cultivation in the highland areas of Samburu, vegetation
cover has been reducing and soil is increasingly exposed to additional erosion agents. An
increasing population has also led to increased demand for utilization of natural resources
which provide a key source of income particularly for poorer families, such as timber, charcoal,
and other fuel wood. Vulnerable pastoralists have also been led to over-exploit remaining
pasture while at the same time traditional methods of livestock and rangeland management
have been eroded with increasing sedentarization (Sadhana Forest Kenya, 2016). For example,
the increase of both human and livestock populations and their concentration around ‘urban’
centres such as Kisima or Maralal where they have adopted a sedentary pattern of life has not
been followed with appropriate measures of conservation.
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Degradation of dryland areas is therefore closely linked with changing systems of livestock
management, livelihood strategies, increasing poverty, and repeated cycles of drought that
result in simultaneous over- and under-grazing of rangeland.
1. Problem Statement
The second of the seventeen goals of sustainable development purposes to end hunger, achieve
food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. This means that
there is a need to evaluate the ways in which we grow, share and consume food globally. There
is need for nutritious food that is grown through sustainable means that protect the
environment, generate decent incomes and support people-centred development (The United
Nations, 2015). This works towards eliminating both hunger and poverty.
It is therefore important to look for new, innovative ways to combat food insecurity via
sustainable agriculture that harnesses productive yet safe methods of food production and
sharing. Additionally, food must also be nutritious. This is especially true for traditionally
nomadic pastoralist communities that are facing increasingly longer periods of drought and
famine.
Additionally, the thirteenth goal is to take urgent action to combat climate change and its
impacts. Climate change has affected all the continents of the globe. The impacts are now being
felt in national economies and affecting lives, costing people, communities and countries dearly
today and even more tomorrow (The United Nations, 2015). The impacts of climate change are
being felt across the globe with phenomena such as extreme weather event and rising global
temperatures being indicative of a proliferation of these impacts. The poorest and most
vulnerable communities will be affected the most (The United Nations, 2015).
One of the most vulnerable groups of people are the nomadic pastoralists, mostly in Sub-Sharan
Africa. Nomadic pastoralism, also known as transhumance, relies heavily on predictable
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rainfall patterns for the pasture and water for the animals. Additionally, these animals serve as
both food and an asset base for nomadic families. With the double pronged problem of food
insecurity coupled with malnutrition and climate change, the lives of nomadic pastoralists are
under threat as their way of life is slowly ending. This has been evident among the Samburu in
Kenya’s Samburu County. The Samburu practice transhumance which has been threatened by
prolonged and more frequent drought. Malnutrition and food insecurity is prevalent in the
community. Consequently, the Samburu are unable to have decent livelihoods and an improved
quality of life.
There is therefore need to urgently revaluate transhumance as a way of life for the Samburu
people. This requires creating sustainable yet effective solutions that allow the pastoralists to
create food security and generate decent incomes while at the same time promoting eco-
friendly agricultural practices. This can be achieved through the practice of permaculture which
utilises sustainable agro-forestry management and ecosystem transformation to enhance
agricultural based livelihoods.
There is substantial literature on the use of permaculture to rehabilitate degraded land. Popular
examples are the setting up of permaculture farms by Sadhana Forest in Haiti to aid in economic
recovery following the catastrophic earthquake in 2010. Sadhana Forest is an NGO founded in
2003 whose aim is to partner with local communities and carry out the rehabilitation of severely
degraded land. The model originated in Australia where it was utilised to recover degraded
land from years of Aborigine use without proper reclamation and rehabilitation (Mollison,
1979). More so, the model has been used across Britain to transform agricultural practices into
more environmental friendly means.
There is a wealth academic work on food security across diverse geographical areas of the
world. Scholars have focused on causes, contributory factors and solutions to food insecurity
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and hunger. Additionally, as the problem of food insecurity continues to pose a threat to human
survival, there is a lot of literature on new ways of agriculture and overall improvement of
farming. Gerd Muller asserts that innovation and knowledge management are the driving forces
behind successful small scale agriculture especially in developing countries (Muller, 2014).
However, the literature on permaculture is heavily biased towards developed nations. There is
strong emphasis on permaculture being utilised to reverse the negative impact of energy
intensive agricultural practices. As such, permaculture is predominantly proposed as a model
for mitigation of the effects of climate change and reversal of environmental degradation. Food
security is seen as a secondary benefit.
There are abundant research avenues into the link between permaculture and food security,
specifically in the dryland areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Permaculture has been successful in
other areas in the globe and as such, it can be examined as a solution to the persistent hunger,
drought and famine problem in Eastern Africa.
2. Objectives of the Study
1. General Objective
The general objective of the study is to assess the impact of application of the permaculture
farming model on food security in Samburu County.
2. Specific Objectives
1. To identify the extent of food insecurity and malnutrition in Samburu County.
2. To argue for the implementation of the permaculture model alongside traditional
nomadic pastoralism as a sustainable solution to food insecurity in Samburu County.
3. To evaluate whether the permaculture model can be replicated to other arid areas in the
region.
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1. Research Questions
1. What is the extent of food insecurity and malnutrition in Samburu County?
2. Can the permaculture model be implemented alongside traditional nomadic pastoralism
as a sustainable solution to food insecurity in Samburu County?
3. How can the permaculture model be replicated to other arid areas in the region?
1. Significance of the Study
There is minimal academic work on how permaculture can be used to address food insecurity
especially in ASAL areas. Most literature draws on the use of permaculture to combat adverse
climatic effects of use of environmentally harmful agricultural practices. Permaculture has
been used successfully in developed nations to improve overall crop and animal yields while
utilizing environmentally friendly practices. It has been used to change the way agriculture is
carried out. The model has been successfully implemented in various climate conditions, most
of them humid and wet. The adaptation has however been less popular in dry and arid areas.
This study aims to add to the body of knowledge concerning the use of permaculture as a means
for achieving food security for the vulnerable communities that live in ASAL areas. The
discussion on permaculture and food security especially for developing nations is very limited.
This study therefore seeks to catalyse debate on the use of permaculture as a sustainable
agriculture model especially in arid lands. It is also expected to initiate academic research into
the opportunities and impact of permaculture in food security for drylands in developing
nations.
2. Organization of the Study
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This thesis comprises of five chapters. The first chapter gives an introduction to the key
concepts under analysis. It gives a brief background into the areas of food security and
permaculture. It will also give an outline of how the permaculture model is designed. Food
insecurity and malnutrition will be quantified using statistical data. Focus will then be narrowed
down to Samburu County in Kenya.
The second chapter will give an in-depth analysis of nomadic pastoralism in Samburu County,
the impact of these practices on both the environment as well as on the persistent hunger
problem and the efforts made towards developing sustainable agricultural practices and policies
in pastoral communities. Material will be derived from existing research on the various areas.
The third chapter will outline the methodology used to interrogate the subject matter outlined
in the previous chapters. Chapter four will be used to present the findings from research carried
out in the field. Presentation of the data will be structured along the specific objectives and
their respective research questions. The fifth chapter will give a summary of the findings and
conclude by giving recommendations for future research.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Every living thing needs food for sustenance and survival. This makes food security is a global
concern affecting the livelihoods of different communities across the globe. With a growing
global population, increasing life expectancy and lower mortality rates, there is an urgent need
for sustainable food sources for the people of the planet. This has led to a drastic change in
agricultural practices. Most have become highly mechanized and automated. While this has
seen increased yield, most of these practices are not sustainable and often have adverse effects
on the environment they are carried out in. Permaculture represents a viable solution for the
world’s persistent food insecurity. The model that is built around the natural ecosystems in a
given region allows it to be replicated for sustainable food provision. This chapter will
introduce and discus how permaculture can be used to address food insecurity, especially
among the nomadic pastoralists of Samburu County.
The section will rely heavily on the work of Bill Mollison who authored books in how to design
and implement self-sustaining farms in Australia. This model was later adopted in different
parts of the world. Additionally, the section will look into the demographic and climatic
characteristics of Samburu County to establish the viability of permaculture for the region. This
will utilise a development report prepared by the County Government of Samburu. These
documents will provide a base for the investigation into the applicability of permaculture in
Samburu County alongside pastoralism as a method of sustainable farming that creates food
security. Some practical examples in other regions of Kenya will be discussed as a start to the
implementation of eco-friendly, self-sustaining farms. Further examples of the use of integrated
agriculture within Samburu County will be discussed. This will form the basis for the
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discussions of the research findings. The chapter will conclude by giving a theoretical
framework for the study.
2.2 Samburu County
2.2.1 Overview of Samburu County
The Samburu people are a nomadic pastoralist community from Kenya. They are Nilotic
speaking people with close ties to the Maasai. Traditionally, the Samburu are pastoralists whose
life has been revolving around the wellbeing of their goats, sheep, cattle and camels (County
Government of Samburu, 2015). Initially, the Samburu economy was purely pastoral but with
longer drought and famine, population growth and declining pastoral land, some have
diversified to crop growing while others have abandoned agriculture altogether and are looking
for employment in cities within Kenya. They mainly inhabit Samburu County which lies in the
Northern part of the Great Rift Valley in Kenya. It has an area of 21,022.1 square kilometres.
The county is divided into three sub counties namely: Samburu Central with Lorroki, Kirisia
and Malasso Divisions; Samburu East with Wamba and Waso divisions; and Samburu North
with Baragoi and Nyiro divisions.
2.2.2 Geography and Climate
Samburu County lies in the ASAL areas of Kenya and is bordered by Turkana to the Northwest,
Baringo to the Southwest, Marsabit to the Northeast, Isiolo to the East and Laikipia to the South
(Samburu County Government, 2013). In Kenya, the ASAL occupy 89% of the country and
are home to about 36% of the population and 70% of the national livestock herd (Ministry of
Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). The defining feature of the
ASALs is the high temperatures throughout the year alongside low rainfall, ranging between
550 to 880 mm per annum, and very high rates of evapo-transpiration. As such, the primary
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challenge is how to ensure food and nutrition security in a sustainable manner in environments
that are prone to drought, where people’s access to and control over critical livelihood resources
such as land is insecure, and where unpredictability is set to increase as climate change takes
hold (Ministry of Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). Overall, these
areas are prone to persistent drought which results in chronic food insecurity, degraded
ecosystem and severe effects of climate change.
Samburu County has a diverse climate. The altitude ranges from 2040 metres above sea level
to 600 metres above sea level. Additionally, rainfall varies across the county with the highest
being an average of 880 millimetres per annum while the lowest is below 700 millimetres per
annum (Samburu County Government, 2013). The higher areas are too cold for growing crops
and are therefore used for rearing livestock. The lower areas are warmer allowing for
cultivation of crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat and barley and for agroforestry.
The County experiences both short and long rains. The driest months are January and February.
The long rainy season falls in the months of March, April and May. A part from South Horr
and Wamba areas, short rains occur during the months of July and August, sometimes
extending into September. At Wamba and South Horr areas, the short rainy season is usually
delayed and occurs in October and November and sometimes extends into December. This
short rainy season succeeds a fairly dry spell during the month of June. Rain distribution varies
across the county. The southwest plains and the Lorroki Plateau receive between 500 mm and
700 mm of rain annually. The Nyiro and Ndoto Mountains and Matthews range, however,
receive the highest amount of rainfall between 750 mm and 1250 mm per annum. The central
basin and the plains east of the Matthews Range are the driest parts of the county with annual
rainfall of between 250 mm and 500mm. Temperatures in the County vary with altitude and
mean temperatures generally range between 24 degrees Celsius and 33 degrees Celsius. The
central plains and the region east of the Matthews Range have the highest temperatures while
15
the highland belts in the North Eastern side of Lorroki Plateau are cooler. The county has a
mean temperature of 290C. The fast blowing winds, especially in the lowlands areas of the
county like the Nyiro division, is a great resource especially if tapped for renewable power
generation. The month of January experienced the highest temperature of 33 degrees Celsius
and the month of July is the coldest month with 24 degree Celsius.
2.2.3 Demography and Economic Activities
An understanding of demographic characteristics is vital as it allows for development
planning. Population features allow for estimation of the labour force, the degree of resource
exploitation, allocation and utilisation, and the distribution of social amenities.
According to the 2009 KNBS Population and Housing Census, the population of Samburu
County was 223,947. Given a population growth rate of 4.45 percent per annum, as opposed
to the national growth rate of 3 percent, the county population is expected to have risen to
255,931 persons in 2012 comprising of 128,004 females and 127, 927 males. The population
is projected to increase to 292,484 in 2015 and 319,708 in 2017. These changes represent a
24.9 percent population rise between 2012 and 2017. There is therefore need to increase
economic output within the county in order to ensure that the county has food security and
can use excess produce to better the livelihoods of the people.
Overall, the county has a youthful population with over 80 percent of the population being
below 35 years of age. As of 2009, an estimated 103,987 people in the county were in the
labour force age category of fifteen to sixty four years. This is projected to have risen to
118,839 in 2012 and 148,453 in 2017 (Samburu County Government, 2013). This
economically active population represent a 46.4 percent of the total population in the county
resulting to a dependency ratio of 1:1.16. This, coupled with low literacy levels in the county,
significantly contribute to high levels of unemployment. Approximately 27 percent of the
population have the ability to read and write. Through adult education classes offered by the
16
department of adult education has seen this rate increase from 12 percent in 2008 to 27
percent in 2012 (Samburu County Government, 2013) .
Economic activity in the County is mainly agricultural. This is substituted by tourism that is
supported by the rich wildlife found in the County (Samburu County Government, 2013).
The primary land use practices are pastoralism and wildlife conservation. These account for
about 90 per cent of land use in the community. Additional activities include subsistence
farming in move favourable climatic areas of the county. Gazetted forests occupy 15% of
land area. These forests provide habitat and foliage for both wildlife and livestock.
The main crops grown within the county are maize, beans, wheat, barley and millet. There is
a government funded irrigation scheme is underway at Tuum which is expected to boost food
production in the area (Samburu County Government, 2013). Livestock farming is also key in
the area. The main animals kept are indigenous cows, sheep, goats, camels and donkeys.
These are used for meat, milk and transportation. However, as a result of the increasingly
harsh weather conditions in the region, this area is highly vulnerable to natural hazards,
particularly droughts. Projected temperature increases by the end of the 21st century are
expected to have a significant impact on water availability, with higher temperatures
increasing drought periods as well as increased unpredictability of rainfall patterns (Herrero,
2010). This has made transhumance as a way of life increasingly difficult. Additionally, herd
sizes and animal qualities have declined. The incomes earned by the pastoralist families from
sale of the animals and their products have fallen thereby reducing money to purchase food to
supplement their traditional diet. Thus, there has been growing food insecurity and
malnutrition in the Samburu community.
Other economic and agricultural activities in the area include: agroforestry, quarrying, sand
harvesting, fishing and tourism. More so, there are residents under formal employment such
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as teachers, health workers, security officers and employees of NGOs with branches in the
towns within the County.
2.3 Food Security
2.3.1 Hunger, Food Insecurity and Malnutrition
The world produces more food per head of population today than ever before in human history.
It produces nearly 500 kilogrammes per head of cereals and root crops, the primary sources of
food (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2015). Yet amid this
abundance, about 793 million people – one in every nine – in the world still lack sufficient food
for conducting and active and healthy life. They live in a state of undernourishment which is
defined as a level of food intake insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for more than
a year (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, 2015). As such, there are
places where little to nothing grows and there are other places where a significant part of the
population cannot afford to buy food.
Overall, the highest percentages of malnutrition recorded are in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.
Additionally, access to food also creates a threat to food security. An adequate supply of food
does not in itself guarantee household level food security. Access to food is determined by
incomes, food prices and the ability of households and individuals to obtain access to social
support. Individuals’ access to food is also heavily influenced by social variables, including
gender positioning and power hierarchies within households. In addition to economic
affordability, physical access to food is also facilitated by adequate infrastructure, such as
railway lines and paved roads. According to FAO, there has been a decline in food deficit
across the globe from a lack of 100 - 200 calories per capita per day in 1990 to a lack of 150 –
50 calories per capita per day in 2015. This is attributable to better infrastructure, technological
advancement and an increase in household incomes. However, a rapidly growing global
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population and an ever increasing wealth divide between rich and poor communities has seen
food insecurity persist over time.
According to FAO, in 2015 the prevalence of undernourishment in Kenya is at 21.2% of the
total population. Additionally, the country has a cereal import dependency ratio of 36.4% of
all its cereal needs. This is higher that global averages. The Samburu are among the most
vulnerable communities in Kenya to hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity is a constant
threat for nomadic pastoralists who traditionally inhabit ASAL areas. As a result of their way
of life, their diet primarily consists of dairy products such as meat and milk. Families,
especially mothers and children are therefore prone to malnourishment. This stems from a lack
of alternate sources of key nutrients necessary for good health. Additionally, with the
decimation of herd sizes and quality by factors such as drought and shrinking rangelands, the
pastoralist sources of income have also diminished. Therefore, the amount of money available
to allow families to purchase food to supplement their diet has declined. Increased food prices
have served to also put important sources of food out of reach for these vulnerable
communities. Government and NGO intervention to provide assistance is often in times of
extreme drought and is also limited because many people in diverse areas are in need of these
scarce resources.
2.3.2 Climate Change and Food Insecurity
In recent years, recurrent droughts have become more severe and frequent and are
progressively eroding livelihoods in pastoral, agro-pastoral and agricultural zones. The number
of people receiving food aid as a proportion of the total affected by drought increased from 60
per cent in 2006 to 91 percent and 88 per cent in 2009 and 2010 respectively (Ministry of
Devolution and Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015) (Ministry of Devolution and
Planning and the Kenyan Presidency, 2015). The Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA)
showed that 2008-2011 drought slowed GDP by an average of 2.8% per annum and cost Kenya
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US$ 12.1bn (KES 969 billion). The frequency and severity of drought periods appear to be
increasing. Northern Kenya recorded 28 major droughts in the last century, four of which
occurred in the last decade. Other pressures, such as population growth and settlements,
undermine the capacity of communities to manage drought.
Kenya’s average annual temperatures increased by 1 °C between 1960 and 2003 (UNEP,
2009)and by 1.5 °C in the nation’s drier regions in the same time period (Osumba & Rioux,
2014). Additionally, rainfall seasons and patterns have become more erratic and unpredictable.
Given that most of Kenya’s agricultural production is from small scale farmers who are heavily
reliant on rainfall for farming, production levels have been affected significantly. Extreme
weather and climate events have also become more common. Since agriculture in Kenya is
largely dependent on regular climatic patterns, the sector is extremely vulnerable to floods,
droughts and temperature changes. Such weather patterns, manifested through longer and more
frequent dry periods interspersed with intense but shorter and unpredictable periods of rainfall,
are likely to deplete water and pasture resources, leading to natural resource scarcity
(Government of Kenya, 2007). This has had severe implications especially for rural
smallholder farmers who derive their livelihoods from farming. They are often subject to
livestock losses, crop failures and related income and livelihood losses, without sufficient
recovery times in between events.
Another key aspect of climate change is the degradation of land through damage to soils and
vegetation. The degradation results from activities such as leaving pasture land devoid of plant
cover after the pastures have been depleted, deforestation and sedentarization especially in
developing towns. Soils are vital for growing both crops and pasture and it is important to
replenish and protect them. According to UNEP, it is thought that some 10–20% of the world’s
drylands suffer from one or more forms of land degradation. As of 2006, government statistics
indicated that 20% of soil and vegetation cover in Samburu County was “severely damaged”
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and in need of rehabilitation measures such as reforestation. Among dryland subtypes,
ecosystems and populations of semi-arid areas like Samburu Central are the most vulnerable
to loss of ecosystem services owing to high population density, while conversely the sensitivity
of dryland ecosystems to human impacts that contribute to degradation increases with
increasing aridity. Therefore, risk is more highly concentrated in semi-arid areas with high
population density.
These threats are even more pronounced for nomadic pastoralists who traditionally inhabit dry
areas. As a result of their way of life, their diet primarily consists of dairy products such as
meat and milk. Families, especially mothers and children are therefore prone to
malnourishment. This stems from a lack of alternate sources of key nutrients necessary for
good health. Additionally, with the decimation of herd sizes and quality by factors such as
drought and shrinking rangelands, the pastoralist sources of income have also diminished.
Therefore, the amount of money available to allow families to purchase food to supplement
their diet has declined. Increased food prices have served to also put important sources of food
out of reach for these vulnerable communities. Government and NGO intervention to provide
assistance is often in times of extreme drought and is also limited because many people in
diverse areas are in need of these scarce resources. This makes climate change one of the key
causes of food insecurity through stress on the resilience of the ecosystem, its constituents and
especially on agriculture. There is therefore need to address this two-pronged problem urgently
through sustainable yet environmentally friendly agricultural practices.
2.3.3 Government Measures to Address Food Insecurity and Climate Change
The government has taken various measures to combat food insecurity in Kenya. This is
especially after recurrent droughts in the East African region have made food insecurity a
recurrent threats. The most commonly used short term solution is to provide relief food to the
poor families in rural areas that are often the worst hit. However, this solution is often short
21
lived and insufficient. In most cases the government will partner with donors and aid agencies
to supplement their efforts. However, other longer term initiatives have been pursued as a
viable yet sustainable solution to food in security. These are often to address the different
sectors that affect food insecurity. Some of these sectors are discussed below.
1. Agriculture sector
The government aims to develop and provide certified drought resistant seed varieties of hardy
and nutritious crops such as maize, sorghum, millet and wheat. Additionally, there is
establishment of water harvesting structures especially in arid areas that will be used to ensure
that there is adequate water for increased crop production. There is a renewed drive for
rehabilitation of irrigation schemes across the country. Additionally, there is increased bulking
up of drought tolerant crops and increased capacity building on post-harvest management to
reduce losses.
2. Livestock sector
Activities undertaken by the government under the livestock rearing sector include: constant
surveillance for disease, provision of vaccinations and treatments for any sick animals. They
also assist farmers in restocking of small stock such as sheep and goats and in camels. Livestock
feed supplementation and pasture conservation are also part of government measures to curb
herd decimation and aid in recovery.
3. Water Sector
The government has focused on rehabilitation of water sources as well as cleaning up any
polluted sources. More so, there is increased focus on the use of water tankers to provide water
to the very remote areas. Fuel subsidies are often provided to these tankers to reduce the costs
of water supply.
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4. Food and Nutrition Sector
The government carries out periodic nutrition and food availability surveys to ascertain the
levels on food security and nutrition. There is the building resilience to future shocks through
food-for-assets programs and cash-for-assets programs and general food distribution where the
other two are not possible to implement. Government also seeks to provide food commodities
and associated costs for all the people who are in need of food assistance, usually for a period
of the coming six months
With regard to climate change, Kenya was among the first non-LDC countries in Africa to
develop government plans for responses to climate change across key economic sectors
(Maina, Newsham, & Okoti, 2013). Specifically, the government in 2010 unveiled the National
Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS). This is the main document that outlines the need
to identify the challenges that are created by climate change across various sectors of the
economy and put down policy that will guide the responses to these challenges. However, the
NCCRS was not a policy document, but rather an outline of government strategy. Therefore in
2012, the government launched a National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) in order to
operationalise the NCCRS.
Agriculture is a key part of the NCCRS, and the NCCAP given that the national economy is
heavily dependent on agriculture. Eighty per cent of the Kenyan population lives in rural areas
and is reliant on agriculture for their livelihoods, either directly or indirectly. The agricultural
sector comprises twenty four per cent of Kenya’s GDP and nineteen per cent of the formal
wage employment. Furthermore, it is estimated that sixty per cent of all households are engaged
in farming activities. In this regard, the main agricultural policies pursued by stakeholders in
the sector revolve around transforming Kenya’s agricultural sector into an innovative,
23
commercially oriented, competitive and modern industry for poverty reduction, improved food
security and equity in rural and urban Kenya.
However, there is very little mention of climate change and how the policy will guide
agricultural development in these documents. There is a lack of clear linkage between NCCRS
and the agricultural sector. Agricultural sector goals revolve around increasing productivity
and income growth, especially for smallholders; enhanced food security and equity, emphasis
on irrigation to introduce stability in agricultural output, commercialisation and intensification
of production especially among small scale farmers; appropriate and participatory policy
formulation and environmental sustainability. Therefore, it is assumed that if the agricultural
sector aligns its operations to the tenets of the NCCRS and now the NCCAP, then the
agricultural sector will respond effectively to the challenges of climate change and climate
variability. However, this is not always the case. There is therefore need for a need for robust
policy to guide the agricultural sector concisely towards climate smart practices that
complement the other policies being pursued. This means actively pursuing climate smart
agriculture as the means to transform the agricultural sector to allow it to adapt to and mitigate
the effects and impacts of climate change.
2.4 Climate Smart Agriculture
2.4.1 Introduction
The world’s population is set to increase by one third by the year 2050. Majority of these
additionally people will live in developing countries and in cities. If current income and
consumption growth trends continue, FAO estimates that agricultural production will have to
increase by 60 percent by 2050 to satisfy the expected demands for food and feed. Agriculture
must therefore transform itself if it is to feed a growing global population and provide the basis
for economic growth and poverty reduction (Food and agricultural Organisation of the United
24
Nations, 2013). Climate change is making this goal increasingly difficult as traditional
agriculture is heavily dependent on predictable rainfall patterns and suitable temperatures. To
circumvent the dependence on rainfall, farmers are moving towards the use of green housing
to grow crops more efficiently. However, this alongside increased mechanisation, has resulted
in an overall heavier carbon footprint from the agricultural sector.
Livestock farming, which is the primary means of livelihood for nomadic pastoralists, is a
carbon intensive practice. The agricultural sector is the largest source (58.6%) of total GHG
emissions in Kenya, and livestock related emissions account for the overwhelming majority
(96.2%) of those emissions (World Bank; CIAT;, 2015).. Agricultural emissions are projected
to increase from 20 mega tonnes CO2 equivalent (Mt CO2 eq.) in 2010 to 27 Mt CO2 eq. in
2030, driven in large part by livestock methane emissions (Osumba & Rioux, 2014).
Additionally, livestock farming is partially responsible for the land degradation seen in arid
areas. This means that soil in these areas has been stripped of nutrients and there have been
little to no efforts to replace them. This results in chronically poor yields and productivity. As
such, farmers are unwilling to invest and engage in agricultural production.
In countries where the economy is heavily based on agriculture, development of the agricultural
sector is the most efficient poverty reduction measure. Yet agricultural expansion for food
production and economic development which comes at the expense of soil, water, biodiversity
or forests, conflicts with other global and national goals. There is therefore growing need for
climate smart agriculture. This is agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances
resilience to climate change, reduces emissions, and enhances achievement of national food
security and development goals (Kituyi, 2011).
Climate-smart agriculture occurs across different scales. At the international and global level,
it could equate to setting rules for the global trade of biofuels and guidance on carbon emissions
25
from the practices. At a national scale, a government or its relevant agencies could work on
providing a framework that incentivizes sustainable management practices. Locally, CSA may
be may provide opportunities for higher production through improved management techniques
such as more targeted use of fertilizers. Finally, for smallholder farmers in developing
countries, the opportunities for greater food security, increased income, more secure
livelihoods together with greater resilience will be essential to adopting climate-smart
agriculture. Where agricultural operations are intensively mechanized, the opportunities to
reduce emissions will be of greater interest. The table below gives a summary of climate-smart
practices that are useful in smallholder agricultural production.
Table 1. Climate-smart practices useful in smallholder agricultural production
Crop
management
Livestock
management
Soil and water
management
Agroforestry Integrated food
energy
systems
Intercropping
with
Legumes
Improved feeding
strategies (e.g. cut
’n
carry)
Conservation
agriculture (e.g.
minimum tillage)
Boundary trees
and
hedgerows
Biogas
production and
use
Crop rotations Rotational grazing Contour planting Nitrogen-fixing
trees
on farms
Production of
energy
plants
New crop
varieties
(e.g. drought
resistant)
Fodder crops Terraces and bunds Multipurpose
trees
Improved stoves
Improved
storage and
processing
techniques
Grassland
restoration
and conservation
Planting pits Improved
fallow with
fertilizer shrubs
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Table 1: Climate-smart practices useful in smallholder agricultural production. Reprinted from
Neufeldt H, Kristjanson P, Thorlakson T, Gassner A, Norton-Griffiths M, Place F, Langford
K, 2011. ICRAF Policy Brief 12: Making climate-smart agriculture work for the poor.
Nairobi, Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).
These practices provide mitigation benefits such as: maintaining or improving soil
carbon stocks and soil organic matter content, reducing methane emissions, reduction
in the amount of inorganic fertilizers required, facilitating carbon sinks in soils,
reduction of nitrogen loss, provision of an alternative on-farm energy source,
improvement of foliar biomass and increased carbon sequestration. In addition, there is
a notable increase in productivity among the farmers. This is evidenced by: improved
yields, greater yield stability during dry seasons, increased yield per unit area of land,
reduced economic vulnerability through diversified production, increased plant and
animal product quality and overall increased incomes for families.
However, most of these practices are used in isolation or combination of one or two.
Uptake for most of these practices is especially slow in rural areas because of various
challenges, such as financial, infrastructural and skill and knowledge limitations. More
so, policies and legislation, especially in developing nations, are often weak and
Greater crop
diversity
Manure treatment Water storage (e.g.
water pans)
Woodlots
Improved livestock
health
Alternate wetting and
drying (rice)
Fruit orchards
Animal husbandry
improvements
Dams, pits, ridges
Improved irrigation
(e.g. drip)
27
unsystematic because agriculture is a vital industry and the priority is on increased yield
as opposed to green initiatives.
The solution is to combine practices that deliver short-term benefits with those that give
longer-term benefits can help reduce opportunity costs and provide greater incentives
to invest in better agricultural management practices. One model that advocates for
combination of these practices is the implementation of permaculture farms.
2.4.2 Permaculture as a climate-smart farming model
The term permaculture refers to permanent agriculture and permanent culture. It
provides a philosophy and ethic for agricultural transformation. Permaculture is defines
as: consciously designed landscapes which mimic the patterns and relationships found
in nature, while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and energy for provision of local
needs (Holmgren, 2012).’ Permaculture involves the design of sustainable agricultural
systems and human habitats that are based on the patterns and relationships found in
natural ecologies. The approach seeks to reduce reliance on industrial agricultural
production methods which have systematically destroyed the earth’s environment. The
alternative is a creation of a permanent self-sustaining farm as opposed to the seasonal
production systems currently in practice. These systems include: seasonal tillage,
planting, weeding and harvesting. Thus, the main aim of permaculture is to encourage
people to redesign their environments into self-sustaining settlements that are self-
regenerative and can solve their problems internally.
According to Mollison and Holmgren, permaculture is guided by three ethical, equal
priorities. These are:
5. Care of the earth – all life on planet Earth is interdependent, and in developing
our farms, that we have regard to the living ecosystems that already live there
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(including soil biota) as well as creating an agro-ecology to support ourselves
and other imported animals and plants, and that we do no harm and restore
damaged environments where we are the stewards of the land.
6. Care of the people – whilst the humans who live in a place need to develop and
maintain an ecosystem that supports them (as opposed to only caring for the
natural environment), we need to support and help each other in developing
ways of living that do not harm ourselves or the planet, and that we work
together to restore and develop a healthy society.
7. Return of the surplus to the system – limiting our own consumption of
resources, ensuring that we use Planet Earth’s resources in an equitable and wise
manner, that abundant production is shared, and that we use our land and
community resources to be self-sufficient, wherever possible.
These ethical principles provide restrictions to the human tendency to pursue survival
as the sole goal. At the same time, they provide a guiding baseline for the establishment
of farms.
In the practical application of permaculture, Mollison and Holmgren provide twelve
guiding principles that provide the scientific foundations for the establishment of the
systems. The principles provide insight into the various methods that can be utilised
under the systems that are being implemented. They are discussed briefly below.
1) Observe and interact: By taking the time to engage with nature we can design
solutions that suit our particular situation.
2) Catch and store energy: By developing systems that collect resources when they are
abundant, we can use them in times of need.
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3) Obtain a yield: Ensure that you are getting truly useful rewards as part of the work
that you are doing.
4) Apply self-regulation and accept feedback: We need to discourage inappropriate
activity to ensure that systems can continue to function well.
5) Use and value renewable resources and services: Make the best use of nature's
abundance to reduce our consumptive behaviour and dependence on non-renewable
resources.
6) Produce no waste: By valuing and making use of all the resources that are available
to us, nothing goes to waste.
7) Design from patterns to details: By stepping back, we can observe patterns in nature
and society. These can form the backbone of our designs, with the details filled in as
we go.
8) Integrate rather than segregate: By putting the right things in the right place,
relationships develop between those things and they work together to support each
other.
9) Use small and slow solutions: Small and slow systems are easier to maintain than
big ones, making better use of local resources and producing more sustainable
outcomes.
10) Use and value diversity: Diversity reduces vulnerability to a variety of threats and
takes advantage of the unique nature of the environment in which it resides.
11) Use edges and value the marginal: The interface between things is where the most
interesting events take place. These are often the most valuable, diverse and productive
elements in the system.
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12) Creatively use and respond to change: We can have a positive impact on inevitable
change by carefully observing, and then intervening at the right time.
In summary, permaculture design mimics natural systems by using all of our scientific
and technological skills to design a system for a particular site that mixes different types
of animals and plants, in multiple layers that support each other including human life
(Frederick, 2010).
Permaculture farms can be tailored to suit different types of landscapes. Some of the
climate conditions that have been addressed include: humid areas, low and high islands,
granitic landscapes and more recently, arid areas. For arid areas, the primary goal is to
carry out a lot of water conservation. Water is vital for support of all the life forms in
the ecosystem and the farm. Drip irrigation and mulching are used to sustain crops that
are often a mix of those that require a lot of water as well as drought resistant varieties.
Animal farming, especially through nomadic pastoralism, is environmentally destructive.
However, it carries benefits that include such as improving soil quality, preserving biodiversity,
keeping nutrient cycles intact and helping to maintain regional food security. These benefits
can be harnessed and supplemented with sustainable crop farming, agroforestry and
aquaculture. Under the project, farms that incorporate different methods will be set up. The
various methods are interdependent which allows utilizing the benefits to mitigate the
harmful effects. For instance, animal dropping provide manure and fish food while the crop
residues from the harvest can be used to feed the animals. Allowing the animals to range graze
will help to turn the soil and improve quality. The planting of trees will boost the water and
air cycles that are essential for agriculture.
Environmental management is important in the reversal of climate change and environmental
degradation. Agricultural practices are a good way to halt and reverse environmental
degradation. Farming practices can be used to re-establish and improve water, nutrient and
31
air cycles, reclaim arid areas, accelerate soil creation, improve farming energy efficiency and
restock marine resources.
In Samburu, planting drought resistant crops and trees will help to reverse the impacts
of environmental degradation especially through the practice of pure transhumance.
Incorporating other forms of farming will also help reclaim areas at risk of
diversification, help in soil creation and prevention of erosion and improve water
management practices. More so, the exploration of green practices such as herd
thinning, agroforestry, use of manure as opposed to fertilisers and pursuit of alternative
renewable energy sources, are vital to creation of permanent farms.
For the Samburu, the establishment of these farms will result directly in increased
yields, for both animals and crops. This will translate to increased incomes and better
livelihoods. This will successfully address the multifaceted challenges that have
hindered food security in the area.
2.4.3 Case Study: Implementation of Sadhana Forest Kenya in Samburu County
Sadhana Forest was founded in 2003 with the aim of working with local communities in Southeast
India to rehabilitate a 70 acre piece of severely eroded, arid land. In 2007 after four years of intensive
water conservation work, the underground water level had risen by 6 meters from an average of 26
feet deep to an average of 6 feet. By 2013, more than 30 kilometres of trenches had been dug and
eight earth dams built, storing more than 50,000 cubic meters of rain water. In addition to this, over
31,000 Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest plants of 170 different indigenous species have been planted.
The average survival rate has been between 80-90%.
Due to the immense success of Sadhana Forest India, Sadhana Forest Haiti was founded in 2010 in
direct response to the devastating earthquake that impacted the country. The organization works in
southeast Haiti to provide nutrition and food security to one of the poorest communities in Haiti, the
town of Anse-a- Pitre. To date, the organization has planted more than 80,000 food producing trees
32
in thousands of households and public areas, and has trained over 7,000 local people in agro-forestry
techniques.
In 2012, Sadhana Forest Kenya was established in the dry-lands of Samburu County, northern Kenya.
Following in the footsteps of Haiti, Sadhana Forest Kenya focuses on resiliency-building and food
security among the agro-pastoralist communities of Samburu. The Samburu are increasingly
marginalized from the development that reaches most other areas in Kenya, while at the same time,
are most affected by climatic and non-climatic shocks. Specifically, the organization works to build the
capacity of local villagers in conservation, resource management and dry-land tree planting
techniques. It also facilitates households planting their own indigenous and food-producing trees for
long-term food security and livelihood enhancement. In 2014 with funding from the UNDP under the
Global Environment Facility Small Grants Programme, Sadhana Forest Kenya established the
Community Agro-Forestry Learning Centre (CALC). The Centre is a public space for community
members, partners and stakeholders to learn more about agro- forestry, conservation, agriculture,
environmental conservation and sustainable living methodologies. This is achieved through trainings
and tours of demonstration areas and pilot plots. In the years since implementation began, Sadhana
Forest Kenya has worked with local staff and over 100 volunteers to train over 600 community
members and students in dry-land tree planting and water conservation techniques and to plant over
400 trees in 200 households and a variety of public spaces, including churches and schools. In this
time, the project has impacted close to 2,000 people.
The Community Agro-Forestry Learning Centre (CALC) is an 11 Hectares (27.4 acres) plot of land
owned by Sadhana Forest Kenya. It is a fully fenced campus inside which the organization has drilled
a bore well and established a 20,000 litre water storage capacity. Water is offered for free 24 hours a
day to the local Samburu community. The project promotes sustainable use of resources through the
use of renewable energy. A hybrid solar and wind energy system has been installed which powers all
the needs of the compound including water pumping, computers and communication and lighting. In
33
addition it provides a free phone charging station to the local community charging on average 150
phones per day. The centre includes a classroom for local people and a few plots demonstrating
different water conservation, tree planting and kitchen garden techniques. Simple accommodation is
provided for trainers and volunteers, and the project team stays on-site at the centre. Part of Sadhana
Forest’s successful strategy has been to link community-driven development with research from
international institutions through partnerships with the Institute of Earth Sciences of the University of
Lausanne in Switzerland and the University of Montreal. Sadhana Forest, therefore, ensures that
selection of appropriate tree and plant species, horticultural techniques, and other agro-forestry
practices are driven by the most recent developments in environmental research.
Looking for ways to increase its mitigating effect on global warming, Sadhana Forest incorporates the
planting of oxalogenic species. These tree species sequester carbon permanently in the soil in the form
of calcium carbonate (lime stone). In every region, priority is given to planting oxalogenic trees.
Additionally, the current environment is severely degraded. Trees, which hold the soil together and
have myriad other benefits are scarce in this area. The older members of the community reported
that there were many mature indigenous trees but they were felled for timber, construction and
fuelwood. They also linked the destruction of natural forests to persistent droughts and floods.
Sadhana Forest Kenya is partnering with the community and promoting the planting of trees in
homesteads. The long term objective is to establish food forests for long term food security and
climate modification.
Sadhana Forest also utilizes a strong community-driven approach to project implementation,
which has been crucial to the sustainability and success of project activities in each country of
operation. Local community members are active participants in all aspects of Sadhana Forest
activities, from the initial infrastructure creation and water conservation efforts, to planting
trees in their households and public areas. Public workshops and trainings are held to educate
community members on sustainable livelihood practices and environmental conservation
34
efforts, held jointly by skilled volunteers and local advocates. For the quality and innovative
nature of the work achieved in Haiti, in 2010 Sadhana Forest won third place for the
Humanitarian Water and Food Award.
Building on the work of Sadhana Forest’s climate-smart farming, stakeholders in the
community have suggested the implementation of a full permaculture farm. However, there are
inadequate studies on such a farm in the arid areas of Africa and specifically in Kenya. The
increasing embrace of substitute farming methods by the Samburu to supplement their
transhumance is a positive indicator that they are open to the approach of permaculture.
2.5 Conceptual Framework
The Conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between the independent variables (food
security) and the dependent variable (through the application of the permaculture model). The
model will supplement conventional pastoralism with other climate-smart farming methods
that are tailored to improve the livelihoods of pastoralists, provide sustainable food security
and conserve and rehabilitate the environment.
35
Dependent Variable Independent Variable
Sustainable sources of
nutritious food for households.
The food should be sufficient in
quantity and nutrients.
Food Security for the people of
Samburu County.
The County is prone to
recurrent drought and famine
which severely compromises
food security in households.
This is exacerbated by land
degradation resulting from
nomadic pastoralism
Improved livelihoods for the
nomadic pastoralists
The pastoralists can sell off
excess produce to meet the
needs of their households, such
as better education for their
children.
Government, NGOs and the
local community
Environment rehabilitation and
conservation.
It is vital to reverse land
degradation stemming from
nomadic pastoralism. Then,
utilise permaculture to
implement systems that
conserve the environment.
36
Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the methodology which will be employed in conducting the research. The
chapter details the target population, research design, data collection methods, instruments and
analysis that will be used in the research.
3.2 The Site of the Study and Units of Analysis
This study will be carried out in Samburu County, in North Rift Kenya. Kenya is classified as
a lower middle income country by the World Bank. As of May 2015, the total population of
the country is estimated to be 45.6 million people. Out of these, 45.9 per cent are estimated to
be living below the poverty line. As of 2014, FAO estimates that there is a 35.5 per cent
prevalence of food inadequacy in the country. Additionally, the prevalence of
undernourishment was at 24.3 per cent. According to the Global Food Security Index, in 2015,
Kenya was ranked an overall 83/109 in food security. 35.2 per cent of the population can afford
sufficient food, while availability is at 46.6 per cent. Finally, the quality and safety of the food
is at 41.3 per cent. As such, food security remains a major issue for the country.
Samburu lies in the geographical area that is classified by the Government of Kenya as dryland
areas. Samburu County is mostly arid with ninety per cent of the county being dry while ten
per cent is viable for agriculture. According to the County government, less than five per cent
of this is under cultivation. As such, the county is not self-reliant for food security. Livestock
grazing is more pre-eminent with thirty seven registered ranches in the county, occupying thirty
seven thousand acres.
37
These activities are concentrated in Samburu Central, specifically in Maralal town. This is also
the largest town and headquarters for the County government. It has the highest population
density. Hence it will be the site of the study. The units of study will be pastoralists in the town
who are engaging in other farming methods to substitute their food supply. NGOs handling
food security in the area as well as local government officials will be studied as well.
3.3 Research Design
There are two broad methods of doing research namely, quantitative and qualitative research
methods. To develop a general understanding of food insecurity among nomadic pastoralists
in Samburu, a descriptive survey will be employed. (Orodho, 2005), argues that a descriptive
study involves finding out who, where, when and how something is done. This particular study
will make use of specific variables, namely food insecurity and alternative agricultural
practices, common to all respondents. The design was chosen since it is more precise and
accurate since it involves description of events in a carefully planned way (Babbie, 2002). A
survey is defined as an “attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to
determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables” (Yin,
2009, p. 46). It is claimed to be the best available method to social scientists interested in
collecting original data for the purposes of describing a population which is too large to observe
directly (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003)
A qualitative research method will be further employed to help draw conclusions on the
association between food security and permaculture practices in Samburu. This will give
deeper insight into the complexities of the two variables. It will also allow for a thorough
understanding of the food security problem and why permaculture provide a viable yet
sustainable solution. The study will review primary data obtained through questionnaires,
interviews and observation. The secondary data will be sourced from books, journals, scholarly
38
publications in magazines, and assessment research and strategy reports by different agencies.
Descriptive research will be used to source data concerning the research problem in respect to
both independent and dependent variables.
3.4 Study Population and Sample Selection Procedures
(Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) Described population as, the entire group of individuals or items under
consideration in any field of inquiry and have a common attribute. This study will target nomadic
pastoralists in Samburu County, specifically Samburu Central sub-county. Specifically, these farmers
are also trying out other methods of farming in collaboration with different stakeholders. Respondents
in this region will be the sole area of focus because they are considered to be the best representation
of nomadic pastoralists in arid lands who are at risk of food insecurity. They are also adopting other
methods of farming to substitute their sources of food as well as take care of their environment.
Research shows that Samburu Central has a population density of 21 persons per km², the highest in
the entire county. This study will incorporate findings from key informants to this research including;
the local administration in Samburu West such as community leaders, local pastoralists, and various
staff from agricultural and food security NGOs based in the region. These groups represent the major
stakeholders of food security in the region and will provide essential and relevant data regarding
agricultural methods in use in Samburu.
Sampling frame is the listing of all elements of the population from which a sample was drawn.
It is a complete and correct listing of population members only (Cooper & Schindler, 2003).
Krecjie and Morgan (1970) will be employed in estimating the sample size which is a widely
used research method. The Krecjie and Morgan (1970) sample size formula and table will
provide guidance on the appropriate sample size necessary for the qualitative study. Based on
the population under study, the sample size will be 25 Samburu pastoralists and from this
population, purposive sampling will be employed. According to Kerlinger (1986), purposive
39
sampling is a non-probability sampling method, which is characterized by the use of
‘judgment’ and a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples by including typical areas
or groups in the sample. On the other hand, (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) note that purposive
sampling allows the researcher to use cases that have the required information with respect to
the objectives of the study.
3.5 Data Collection Methods and Procedures
Various data collection instruments that ensure validity, reliability and objectivity of data will be used
in the survey. An interview schedule will be used to assist in filling in the questionnaires. This is a data
collection instrument commonly used in social surveys and traditionally takes the form of a printed
document with a list of questions. An observation checklist will also be used to capture data obtained
through observation. As and when needed, community volunteers will be used to assist in translation
when cases of language barrier arise during the study. This means of data collection is appropriate in
reaching a wider population as it is less time consuming and causes less disruptions to the
respondents’ schedules. The researcher collecting the primary data collection instruments from the
respondents will ensure that they have been duly filled. Only questionnaires with 70% of the questions
filled will be included in the data analysis.
Interviews will also be conducted with NGOs addressing food insecurity and agricultural practices in
the area. Additionally, members of the county government will also be interviewed to provide a view
of the government’s role and input in improving the acceptance of permaculture. These interviews
will then be transcribed and reviewed.
Finally, focus group discussions with local farmers and women group will be conducted as a follow-up
to the use of questionnaires. This will allow for open-ended discussions where the farmers can give
their analysis of the improved farming practices they have been utilising. They will also give insight
into which methods are most effective and which have been received with difficulty. Likewise, they
40
will analyse the economic benefits and livelihood improvements of better farming practices. They will
give feedback on areas they need more support and who should provide this support.
3.6 Data Analysis Methods
Data collection will result in the accumulation of a large amount of data, primarily qualitative.
Prior to formal analysis of the data, the researcher will put in place several data management
procedures to organize and stabilize the data collected. MS Excel will serve as the primary tool
for data management and analysis. The data will be presented in tables, graphs and charts. From
the results, an analysis of food security, sustainability of food security and sustainable
development will be made. Since the indicators for these measures are not well established, the
concepts will be analysed by looking into all the components that influence the variables. These
will include the concerns raised in the development of the permaculture model and also through
observation of the knowledge of the stakeholders in the study.
3.7 Limitations of the Study
The primary respondents for this study are Samburu nomadic pastoralists. Literacy levels
within the County are among the lowest in the County. This creates a communication barriers
since the primary data collection tool is a questionnaire. More so, the questionnaire is in English
which might not be a prevalent language in the community.
The study also relies on information from NGOs and Country government officials. It might
be difficult to source information from these two groups. County government may use
bureaucracy to slow the information gathering process down.
However, these challenges do not negate the credibility of the thesis. Instead, they allow the
study to make use of measures such as the use on interpreters to bridge the gap.
41
Chapter 4
Research Findings
4.1 Introduction
Nomadic pastoralists in Africa and particularly Kenya have relied on the predictable weather
patterns of the areas they inhabit to for the renewal of water and pasture sources for their
animals. With consistent weather patterns, they were able to move with their animals from one
area to another without lack. More so, they often carry out little to no tillage or replanting of
the grazing land. Instead, they rely on the natural ecosystems of the ASAL areas to regenerate
the pasture. Climate change and global warming have drastically changed weather patterns
across the globe. Weather is now highly unpredictable and erratic. There has been an increase
in extreme phenomena such as floods, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis. The effects of
these occurrences has adversely affect agricultural practices across the globe. Most the world’s
food supply comes from small scale farmers, most in developing nations, who rely on rainfall
to grow crops and provide pasture for their animals. Climate change has thus made agricultural
production more difficult. This is especially true for farmers in vulnerable environments such
as arid and semi-arid areas.
Having looked at permaculture as a viable solution to food insecurity through improved and
climate smart agriculture, this chapter now focuses on the uptake and effect of improved
agricultural practices among the Samburu nomadic pastoralists of Northern Kenya. It will
examine the specific practices that farmers are utilising so far to improve both animal and crop
yields. Then, it will analyse the economic benefits of these practices and the impact on the
livelihoods of the pastoralists. It will look at the practices that are most favourable among
pastoralists and those whose uptake has been limited and the reasons behind this. Finally, the
42
discussion will end by assessing what resources are needed for full implementation of
permaculture and which stakeholders play a vital role in this process.
4.2 An Overview of Farming Practices in Samburu County
Traditionally, the Samburu are nomadic pastoralists who migrate with their animals in search
of water and pasture. They would predict weather patterns and use these as a guide to determine
when and where they will move to. They had large, open tracts of land for grazing. They
depended on open grazing along community based structures. However, with the onset of
colonialism, some of this land was gazetted and protected as wildlife reserves. As such, the
Samburu pastoralists lost some of their grazing land, most of it prime source of pasture. This
forced the pastoralists into smaller parcels of land that were inadequate and unsuitable for both
pure nomadic pastoralism as well as other agricultural practices.
After independence. Kenya has witnessed increased modernization and changing land
management and ownership practices. Modernization has seen increased demand for land to
put to alternate uses such as putting up of housing, infrastructure and commercial buildings.
Changes in ownership of land saw the land subdivided and allocated to individual owners.
Grazing land which was once a community resource now became smaller and subject to
alternative use by the title or leaseholders.
The areas inhabited by the Samburu already have low rainfall and harsh climate. Climatic
changes have led to more frequent, prolonged droughts that decimate animal herds and leave
insufficient time for recovery. The low tillage of land leaves it exposed to degradation and
desertification. This is exacerbated by low rainfall and increasing global temperatures.
In order to mitigate these effects, the farmers are diversifying into crop growing. The main aim
of crop growing is to supplement traditional sources of food to increase food security and
improve livelihoods through sale of surplus. Traditional sources of food are milk, blood and
43
meat from the animals. This is coupled with purchases of items such as maize meal and leafy
vegetables from shopping centres along grazing corridors. Additionally, they gather fruits and
herbs from the forests in their vicinity. These are used to enrich their meals as well as for
medicinal purposes. Additionally, as their animals are grazing and walking over the land, they
help to turn over the soil. This helps to aerate the soils, break up the rock bed to enhance soil
formation scatter seeds for planting and germination. This self-sustaining practice has in turned
helped pastoralists make a living through sale of animal products. The large herds are also a
source of prestige for families as they are perceived as evidence of wealth for families and
communities.
Food often has to be transported for long distances with poor infrastructure to reach the
pastoralists. For instance, the food for Maralal and Kisima Towns comes from Nyahururu
which is about two hundred and fifty kilometres away. This is a four hour journey by road with
only three buses per day going in either direction. Thursday is the market day per week. The
culmination of all these factors leads to a high mark up on food items. This makes them
expensive and out of reach for many families. As such, the families are seeking alternative
sources of food leading to an uptake of crop farming. Additional practices such as agroforestry,
bee keeping, fodder growth and poultry farming have also been adopted by the farmers.
4.3 Data Collection and Analysis Process
Data was collected through a structured questionnaire (Appendix 5). The questionnaire asked
about: 1) household information 2) food security status 3) farm characteristics 4) training and
adoption of improved farming practices and 5) benefits of the adoption of these practices.
The data collection begun with a focus group discussion with members of staff and volunteers
from Sadhana Forest Kenya. This provided vital insight into the activities carried out, the
uptake of those activities and any challenges faced during implementation. This was followed
44
the filling in of questionnaires by the local community around Sadhana. This comprised of
members of a local women’s group as well as randomly selected respondents with farms in
Kisima, around Sadhana area. To conclude, there was a focus group discussion with the same
respondents through a community meeting forum to allow the respondents to give responses to
open-ended questions. Overall, there were 18 respondents out of an expected 25. This
represents a 72 per cent response rate which is within the acceptable margin of at least 70 per
cent of all questionnaires must be completed in full.
Data was analysed through MS Excel software. The common themes were coded and grouped
together. Prior to entry into Excel, basic data organisation and cleaning as recommended by
(Verbeek, 2008) was done. The responses from the FGD were transcribed onto MS Word. The
results of the data collection are presented in tables, graphs and narratives in the text.
4.4 Results of the Study
4.4.1 Demographic Data and Household Characteristics
There were total of 18 respondents to the survey. Out of these, twelve were female while six
were male. The females made up 66.7 per cent of the population while the males represented
the remaining 33.3 per cent. The balance was in favour of females because they are usually left
to take care of the households while the men move with the livestock. Additionally, Sadhana
partners with women groups in the area so respondents came from one of the groups.
The average size of households is seven family members, including the parents. For some of
the families, the household includes grandchildren or nieces and nephews left in their care as
their parents go to urban areas to seek employment or ways to generate revenue. The range of
the household size varies from a minimum of four members to a maximum of ten members per
household. Most households are male led, with the man being responsible for major decision
making while the woman runs the household on a daily basis.
45
4.4.2 Food Security
Food security presents a major challenge in the community around Sadhana. From the data
collected, it was clear that most households sometimes ran out of money to buy food. Thirteen
respondents said that in the span of one year, they sometimes ran out of money for food. This
was approximately once in every quarter. The remaining five respondents said that they rarely
ran out of money for food, approximately twice in a year. It is interesting to note that all five
respondents who said that they rarely ran out of money for food were men. The majority who
sometimes ran out of food were women. When further queried on this, the women alluded to
the fact that they rely heavily on the men to provide funds for use within the home. Sometimes,
the men would give money that was insufficient to meet all the household needs. For instance,
for a given sum of money, there are competing needs such as clothing, medical care, groceries
and food. The woman must allocate funds to each of these need yet the funds often fall short.
The women fail to ask for more money for fear of repercussions such as creation of disputes
within the home.
As a result of lack of funds, most households had to rely on limited food to feed their
households. The staple diet consists of meat, milk and ugali. This is sometimes supplemented
by maize, beans, cabbage and dark leafy vegetables grown on their farms. However, the
farming is heavily dependent on rainfall. The rainy season spans approximately four months
of the year. For the remaining eight months, households have to buy food from vendors
bringing food from Nyahururu. The food, mainly vegetables, legumes and fruits, is often
overpriced due to transportation, making it dear and out of reach for the community. In such
periods, households will resort to limited foods to feed their households. These foods are
mainly milk, ugali and a two sisters stew comprising of maize and beans.
In addition to this, some households will skip meals or cut the size of meals to make up for the
lack of money to buy food. Out of eighteen people polled, fifteen indicated that they sometimes
46
cut back on the size and number of meals per day. Respondents who were mothers said that
they relied heavily on school feeding programs for lunch meals for their children. During
holidays, they made food portions smaller or just gave a cup of milk to their children as a meal.
For themselves and their spouses, they would skip meals or rely on water and tea to ward off
the hunger. Fifteen respondents also indicated that they sometimes went without meals for a
whole day because they couldn’t afford to buy food.
With regard to government interventions, all eighteen respondents said that they rarely relied
on government food rations to substitute their needs. This is mainly because government has
cut back on supplying food ratios to the community. During the past year, the government only
provided rations once. There is a heavy NGO presence in Maralal town, around twenty
kilometres away from Kisima area. These NGOs are involved in a variety of areas, one of them
being food security. They help to provide food to communities as well teach new farming and
livelihood sustenance techniques. However, the reach has not yet permeated into Kisima. The
government has also pulled back on provision of food and farming support to focus on creation
of physical infrastructure to support the increasing NGO presence. This has seen a decline in
food rations which has left households more vulnerable to food insecurity. Below is a summary
of the food security in Samburu.
Figure 1: Summary of Food Security in the County
Variables Ran out of
money for
food
Reliance on
Limited foods
Skipped meals
or cut portions
Not eat for a
whole day
Reliance on
government
rations
Female
Sometimes 12 12 12 12 0
47
Rarely 0 0 0 0 12
Male
Sometimes 1 4 3 3 0
Rarely 5 2 3 3 6
Total 18 18 18 18 18
4.4.3 Farm Characteristics
Land ownership in Samburu County is predominantly communal ownership of traditional land.
The land is held as community trust land which under the custody of local governments.
Community land includes land lawfully held, managed or used by specific communities as
forests, grazing areas or shrines and land traditionally occupied by hunted gatherer
communities. The land occupied by the Samburu fits both of these categories. However, some
land owners have purchased tracts of this land which they own as freehold land. Most of this
land is maintained as communal grazing rangelands. However, households are allocated
smaller portions where they set up their households and engage in small scale farming. Out of
eighteen respondents, fifteen were on communal land, two had purchased or inherited freehold
land and one respondent did not own any land.
The average size of the allocated tracts of land for each farmer is 0.83 acres. The minimum size
is quarter an acre while the maximum is two acres of land for each household. The respondents
all practice mixed agricultural practices on their land. These practices include: animal
husbandry, crop farming, bee keeping and agroforestry. The men will graze the cows, goats
and sheep while the women plant crops and manage bees and poultry. Grazing is carried out
on communal rangelands in the areas around Kisima area as opposed to on the smaller patches
48
of household land. Fifteen respondents with livestock carry out this form of grazing. The
farmers do not utilise stalls in their homestead or paddocks on their land to feed animals. They
rely on traditional nomadic pastoralism where they move with their animals according to
changes in season. These activities are means that the community employs to achieve food
security. They also rely on remittances from family members who are either employed or have
started business ventures in urban areas. These remittances are mainly through MPESA.
The number of livestock kept per household varies as explained below: cows range from a
minimum of none to a maximum of twenty per household. Sheep and goats are often counted
together by the community. The average size of the herd is fifteen animals with the minimum
being one animal and a maximum of sixty sheep and goats. Poultry is kept in small number
with the maximum being ten chicken in one household.
4.4.3 Adoption of Good Farming Practices
In order to secure their food needs, the community in Samburu have begun to substitute the
traditional nomadic farming with improved agricultural practices. During the FGD, the farmers
said that they would like to be self-reliant with regard to their food needs. Their main challenges
to food security are erratic weather, insufficient government and NGO support, a lack of
knowledge on new farming techniques and food variants and conflict with wildlife. Most of
the farmers are willing to try new farming methods but they don’t know how to go about the
new methods. They also lack knowledge on which foods to plant and which variants of these
foods suit their climate. Ideally, government agricultural extension officers should step in and
help to meet training and demonstration needs. However, they are few and they tend to focus
on animal health and breeding.
Some of the improved practices that have been adopted are discussed below. Three of the
farmers polled are growing fodder on their farms. This is mostly indigenous grass found in
49
their locality which makes it suitable to the climate. A variant of Napier grass that has been
developed for arid areas has been to some of the farmers for trial purposes. The uptake is still
slow among the farmers. They have planted this grass in segregated portions of their farms and
are not intercropping it with other crops such as maize or beans. The main benefit given by the
respondents is access to animal feed at a convenience. This reduces the need to travel to far
distances to feed animals. However, none of the farmers polled conserve their feed in any way.
They just cut what they need and feed it to the animals directly. This has left a gap because
during extended dry periods, these farmers do not have preserved fodder which they can rely
on to sustain their animals or even sell to other farmers for money.
Agroforestry remains one of the most popular methods of improved agriculture that farms in
Samburu are adopting. Out of eighteen respondents, thirteen had planted agroforestry trees on
their farms. Some of the trees variants they have planted are those given to them by Sadhana.
SFK gives seedlings for drought resistant food trees to farmers around Kisima area. These trees
provide fruits, roots and leaves with nutritional and medicinal values. The benefits accruing
from the trees are given as: a source of food, wind breaking, giving fresh air, providing shade
and providing medicine. However, there were five respondents who had not planted trees on
their farms. These farmers said that the rainfall in the area was little and unreliable which made
tree planting difficult. In response to this, SFK provides free water to farmers for various uses.
These five farmers said that SFK is somewhat far from their farms therefore they have to
prioritise their water needs when they go to fetch water. They will use the limited water for
household needs first before they use it for growing trees. Another popular farming alternative
is bee keeping. Five respondents have kept bees and harvest honey. The honey is mainly for
household consumption because marketing channels are very poor. Farmers said that the
market for honey in Maralal is virtually non-existent. However, the market in Nyahururu is
50
thriving and the farmers lack ways to get into this market with their refined product. They have
therefore resorted to either consuming it themselves or giving it to their friends free of charge.
All the farmers polled collected manure from their farms. Usually, they collect it from the area
where they keep their animals, then store in in heaps just outside the compound. Most of these
farmers use manure to grow crops in their farms. However, the use is on a small scale so most
of the manure remains unused. Two of the farmers interviewed also use the dung as
construction material. Once they have finished construction of their houses using mud or
bricks, they smear wet dung on the inside and outside to seal off any cracks thereby making
the houses waterproof.
Most of the farmers use small scale irrigation to grow food items on their farms. They mainly
grow maize and beans on their farms. They also allow wild green leafy vegetables to sprout
seasonally on their farms. However, irrigation is limited to the use of manual methods and is
contingent on the distances they have to travel to get the water. During the rainy season, there
are several seasonal rivers flowing in the area that ease access to water. However, in the dry
season, the farmers usually have to travel for some distance to access the water. SFK has helped
to solve this problem by creating a water point where farmers can get water for free any time
for their needs. While this is a very good solution, most households still have to carry the water
to their homes. The main mode of transportation is on the backs of the women and their
daughters. Therefore they can only carry limited amounts of water for competing needs. Most
households will utilise the water for needs such as drinking, cooking and cleaning as opposed
to be for irrigation. They also don’t recycle household water which can be used for instance for
cleaning and irrigation. The community has not also harnessed the seasonal rivers by looking
for ways to store the water. There are no communal water reservoirs such as dams or ponds.
Water tanks for households are also few with reliance being mainly on rainfall and community
water points.
51
One of the main barriers to agriculture as brought out in the FGD with the farmers is human
wildlife conflict. Some of the land around Maralal is gazette wildlife conservancies. These are
set aside as wildlife sanctuaries and are not fenced. The Samburu have also lived in harmony
with wildlife throughout therefore they discourage animal poaching, mainly through taboos
handed down over generations. The farmers said that they don’t have access to good fencing
materials to protect their farms. This leaves the farms exposed to animals such as zebras which
trample on the crops destroying them. The farmers have tried to mitigate this by rigging up
rudimentary fencing from tree branches or by staying up late to watch their shambas and chase
away the animals. However, this is often ineffective because the animals break through the
fencing. Sometimes it is not always possible to stay up overnight so this is not a viable long
term solution.
Access to quality seeds is another barrier to agro-pastoralism. The government provides seeds
that mature within six months yet the rainy season in Samburu is three months. This means that
in the middle of growth, the plants lack water and dry out. This results in less than adequate
harvests across seasons. More so, the seeds given are limited to maize and beans as opposed to
other drought resistant crop varieties like millet and sorghum. Additionally, agricultural
extension officers rarely visit farmers to advise them on planting and farm management. This
community has been based on hunting and gathering and is only now diversifying into crop
farming. Therefore, they need all the government support that they can get.
4.4.4 Sadhana Forest Kenya Interventions
The Samburu community has been actively involved in looking for solutions to improve their
food security. However, these interventions have not always been sufficient or sustainable.
SFK stepped in to fill this void. All the respondents had heard of SFK, gotten water from them
or charged their phones at their centre. Out of these, thirteen of them had participated in
52
capacity building activities arranged by Sadhana. Below is a summary of the participation by
community members.
Figure 2: Participation in SFK Activities
Activity Number that have participated
Training on nursery establishment and management 9
Training on tree planting and management 13
Training on manure management and composting 7
Training on soil management 7
Training on rocket stove construction and use 10
Climate change awareness sessions 11
Sadhana’s main focus is on improvement of food and water security through environmental
transformation. Their interventions focus on methods that create sustainable food security
while at the same time transform and conserve the environment. They do this through provision
of water, tree seedlings and on trainings on improved farming methods. The most attended
trainings by local farmers have been those on tree planting and management, rocket stove
construction and use, and climate change awareness. Manure management and soil
management have seen the lowest attendance. The farmers are very willing to try new
technologies to improve not just their food security but also their livelihoods. However, their
primary focus is on tree planting, energy saving stoves and taking care of their environment.
The Samburu have been interacting with drylands areas for generations. They realise that this
is their home and they must take care of it especially in light of recent changes in climate. They
therefore want to play a pivotal role in preventing and reversing climate change. Most of the
53
farmers collect but don’t use manure extensively on their farms. The farmers are only now
beginning to plant crops, trees and fodder. They are sometimes uncertain about the use of
manure on their farmers. This has directly affected the training on manure and composting.
The training on soil management has also had fewer participants mainly because the farmers
tend to focus on yields and animal health as compared to on soil quality.
4.4.5 Benefits of Improved Methods and Support Needed for Adoption of Practices
The main benefits surveyed were increased food security and increased household income from
employment of improved agricultural practices. The respondents were each required to assess
the extent of the impact of these practices on their households. The qualitative scale ranged
from not at all to a lot with a little and somewhat as the middle measures. The responses were
the collated and summarised in the tables below.
Figure 3: Increased Food Security
Variables Frequency Percentage
A little 1 5.6
Somewhat 5 27.8
A lot 12 66.7
66.7 per cent of the respondents held that the improved practices that they were undertaking
increased food security a lot in their households. 27.8 per cent held that their food security had
somewhat increased. The new approaches have let farmers increase their crop yields as well as
diversify the nutrition that their families have access to. Thus, both the quality and the quantity
of their diet has improved. Farmers are planting crops, planting fruit trees, tending to wild
54
growing leafy vegetables and keeping honey. This has helped to give farmers access to
increased food supplies as well as to products they can sell or exchange for other food varieties.
Figure 4: Increased Household Income
Variables Frequency Percentage
Not a lot 3 16.7
A little 4 22.2
Somewhat 3 16.7
A lot 8 44.4
In comparison, only 44.4 per cent of the farmers in the survey said that their household income
had increased a lot from improved practices. 16.7 per cent said somewhat while 22.2 per cent
said a little. However, 16.7 per cent of the farmers felt that their income had not increased by
much. These results show that the benefits that the farmers are getting from trying new farming
methods may not be translating to increased income. This is because most of the harvests are
just enough to meet household needs with nor surplus to sell. Also, the marketing channels are
weak or non-existent. This was evident for farmers who engage in bee keeping. They would
either consume the honey at home or give it to their friends and relatives for free because they
lacked adequate channel to market and sell their products.
4.5 Summary of Results
Food insecurity remains a major problem for the people of Samburu County. Most households
are at risk of inadequate and poor quality meals. The households will employ short term coping
mechanisms that are detrimental in nature. These measures include: reliance on limited food
55
sources to feed themselves, cutting down on portion sizes, skipping meals in a day or not eating
anything for a whole day. This has wide reaching ramifications such as malnutrition and stunted
growth as well as lower immunity levels. This poses a risk to the health of the entire community
which in turn will slow down their development process.
On their own, nomadic pastoralists have taken initiative to seek more viable and sustainable
options. Most of these are in diversification into alternative farming methods. The biggest
method has been agroforestry which combines both crop farming and tree planting. This has
been somewhat successful in increasing household food quality and quantity. Yet, there are
still some major barriers to sustainability for these methods, primarily lack of adequate water
for farming, human-wildlife conflict and a lack of robust government support. Other farming
methods that have been implemented include the use of compost, poultry farming and bee
keeping.
In addition to what the farmers are doing for themselves, there have been interventions by other
stakeholders. One such stakeholder is Sadhana Forest Kenya who have provided various
solutions to farmers in an effort to transform the drylands of Samburu and at the same time
ensure food security for the farmers. One of the key interventions by Sadhana has been
provision of capacity building activities for the farmers. These include: trainings,
demonstrations and awareness creation. These activities have seen farmers learn more on tree
planting, composting and manure management, construction and use of energy-efficient stoves
and climate change impacts on their environment. This has directly translated into an increased
willingness to improve their farming methods while at the same time protecting their
environment. The farmers are already experiences changes in their food status as well as in
their income levels. If practised more consistently, these farming methods will definitely
translate into overall improved livelihoods.
56
57
Chapter 5
Recommendations and Conclusions
5.1 Introduction
From the research findings, it is clear that the journey to food security for the Samburu has
begun but it is long and filled with a lot of challenges. However, the community is very willing
to take the lead in engaging in activities that will boost their food status while at the same time
preserving the climate in their home. This willingness needs to be harnessed and fully utilised
in partnership with other strategic stakeholders. The ones that come to mind immediately would
be SFK, who have already begun to work with them, and both local and national governments
who are pivotal in resource allocation as well a provision of a policy framework.
SFK has already set up a demonstration centre for improved farming methods. Their main
focus is on agroforestry and dryland environmental transformation. They have demonstration
centres where they show farmers how to go about these improved planting and management
methods. Additionally, they also use renewable green energy sources to power the facility as
well as provide free phone charging services for local residents. The local community has been
very involved with Sadhana with most of them taking part in the activities they have to offer.
In spite of the progress made, there are still major challenges faced. The first challenge is the
lack of reliable sources of water. The farmers rely heavily on rainfall which is erratic with the
rainy season lasting only three months. The farmers do not have a reservoir to store the water
for the drier months of the year. The second challenge is conflict with wildlife. The Samburu
inhabit areas that have been gazetted as wildlife conservancies. They have lived alongside the
animals for generations. However, with the advent of farming on smaller pieces of land, the
animals have become a nuisance because they trample on the crops or eat them, leaving nothing
for the family. The third challenge is lack of proper support from government agencies. The
58
farmers have been using seeds that don’t match the rainfall cycle in arid areas. Agricultural
officers have failed to come train and demonstrate to farmers on proper farming techniques.
Fertilizers have been subsidised but they are still out of reach for most of the farmers. More so,
government has ceased to provide food rations, limiting this to once a year. The fifth challenge
are the harsh effects of climate change in arid areas. Climate change has resulted in adverse
weather patterns such as longer and more frequent droughts and reduced rainfall. This has
affected the yields from crops and has decimated herd sizes in the community.
These challenges can be handled with recommendations given by both the community and
Sadhana Forest Kenya.
5.2 Recommendations
5.2.1 Water Conservation
One of the major challenges facing the farmers in Samburu is lack of access to a reliable source
of water. Additionally, the water supply needs to be sufficient and accessible for farmers. SFK
has worked towards provision of a solution to this problem by providing water to the residents
around Kisima in Maralal for free. This water comes from a borehole and is pumped to taps
where the community can access it from. However, the women in the community usually carry
the water back to their homesteads which is over an average distance of one kilometre. This
limits the amount of water that gets to the household. With competing needs for the water, very
little is often left over for irrigation.
To mitigate this, SFK is looking to purchase a water truck that will allow them to distribute
water to the farmers. This will eliminate the need to walk for long distances to get water. The
water supplied can be used to water the crops and trees as well as for the animals. In addition
to this, there is a permanent fresh water lake and two intermittent streams in Kisima. These are
Lake Kisima and Nontoto and Engare Narok streams. These are mainly used by herders to
59
provide water for their animals. However, there is potential for piping of the water to the
households in Kisima to create easier access. Irrigation methods that conserve water while
protecting the soil, such as drip irrigation, are being taught to farmers especially for nursery
management. This can be expanded to crop production.
5.2.1 Fencing
One of the main concerns brought out by farmers is the destruction of crops and trees by both
domestic and wild animals. The animals eat the shoots of growing crops which kills the crops.
There are also instance where animals such as zebra trample on the crops. The farmers usually
put up rudimentary fences made from tree branches for their farms and combined with thorns.
Alternatively these fences are easily ran over by the animals which leaves the crops exposed.
The community needs support with proper access to robust fencing material to keep the animals
away from the crops. The fences would be made with wooden planks or posts that are strong
enough to keep out both domestic and wild animals. These materials require a substantive
capital investment which is restrictive for most farmers. The community can appeal to county
government to subsidise the fencing materials for farmers. Alternatively, the farmers can
identify stronger branches from trees in the vicinity which can be cut and processed. This would
significantly reduce the cost of sourcing for fencing materials.
The farmers are keen to utilise untreated wood as the fencing medium because it is
biodegradable and eco-friendly yet still strong enough to keep animals away from the crops.
Treated posts may adversely affect the animals, crops and even their immediate environment.
Therefore, the farmers will utilise natural wood products.
5.2.3 Access to Farming Inputs
Farming inputs encompass both crop and livestock interventions. These are mainly backed by
the government and distributed to farmers at a subsidised price. The interventions include:
60
provision of seeds for planting, provision of fertilizer, creation of animal breeding schemes and
dispersion of agricultural extension officers to train and offer practical support to farmers.
Currently, the government provides maize seedlings to farmers. These seeds have a six month
long growth cycle. The rainy season is three months meaning that the crop lacks water,
becomes stunted and give poor yields. There are three month seed varieties which would take
a shorter growth time in line with the rainfall patterns. The government should issue this variant
to the farmers in ASAL area. In addition to maize seeds, the government should also issue
seeds for other drought resistant crops such as sorghum and millet. These foods are nutritious
yet at the same time suited for dry climates.
According to The Samburu Community Protocol, government-backed schemes often provide
exotic breeds on the basis that these breeds would provide higher yields. However, the
community has observed that these breeds die much faster that indigenous breed during
droughts or disease outbreaks. Climate change has led to longer and more frequent droughts
which has decimated herd sizes. Additionally, during disease outbreaks, traditional medicine
is less effective on exotic breeds therefore they have to spend more money on drugs and
veterinarians. Therefore, the community, with government assistance would like to revert back
to indigenous breeds. Indigenous breeds are particularly suited to local conditions because of
adaptation through natural selection, as well as genetic development through selective
breeding.
Agricultural extension officers are few and do not often work closely with the community.
These officers are under the jurisdiction of the local or county government. The county
government need to mobilise more officers to support farmers in their quest for food security
through farming. These officers should be able to visit farms, attend community organised
61
training activities and offer advice to farmers especially on improved practices that they have
not tried before.
5.3.4 Management and Conservation of Rangelands
The Samburu live in areas that are rich in animal and plant biodiversity as well as
environmental resources. They live harmoniously with the animals and share resources such as
watering holes and grazing rangelands. They also utilise taboos and customary law to conserve
the environment. For instance, it is taboo for the Samburu to eat game meat. Community elders
will often enforce laws limiting the use of forests for grazing, firewood provision to allow the
forests to recover from use. This sustains the sources of food, medicine and wood. The same
committees made up of elders also govern the use of the seasonal grazing lands. This ensures
that they are not overstretched.
With the increase in land demarcation and allocation to other uses such as construction of
commercial property, the rangelands are shrinking, threatening the Samburu heritage and way
of life. The government needs to step in and regulate the change of use for this land. The
rangelands need to be demarcated and protected as a vital resource by the government.
Consent must be sought for any activities that will be undertaken within the Samburu
community lands. In addition to this, government must consult the community widely on any
policies concerning the lands they inhabit through participatory engagement. Any agricultural
practices they intend to implement must have the approval of the community as they are the
key stakeholder.
5.3.5 Permaculture
The Samburu are willing to take up new practices that will work in harmony with their
traditional farming methods to improve their food security and livelihoods as well and mitigate
the adverse effects of climate change and environmental degradation. Since their problems are
62
shared within a tight-knit community that has robust structures into place, the community can
come together to establish a climate-smart that harness the benefits of both permaculture and
pastoralism. Seeing that the community has access to vast rangelands, they can section off a
part of the rangelands that has access to a permanent water source such as Lake Kisima for
crop growing and tree planting as a start. SFK already supplies seedlings to farmers in the area
for hardy fruit and food trees. These can be planted within the communal farm. Additionally,
the demonstrations carried out at SFK can be implemented on a larger scale to grow vegetables,
tubers and fruits. Any remains from the harvest can be preserved into silage for the herds and
flocks during the dry season. Manure collected from the animals can be collected and brought
to the communal farm for composting and application to the crops and trees. The manure can
also be put into biogas converters to generate clean energy for use, both on the farm or via
distribution to nearby homes. Wind and solar energy will also be harnessed not only on the
farm but also in individual households. This communal farm will be managed by local women
and community groups who will be tasked with tillage, weeding and harvesting. The harvest
can be distributed among the households involved in the project and any surplus sold in nearby
centres such as Maralal. Any profits will be ploughed back into the farm or distributed among
families in the project.
This set up will also allow for protection of rangelands as the pastoralists will utilise the
segregated rangelands for grazing. Pastoralism boosts the soil cycle when the animals break up
the rocks as they walk on the land. They also help to aerate the soil as they turn it over. This
can be used as an alternative to mechanised tilling which degrades the environment. Animals
also act as pollination agents to transport seeds across pastures which will boost biodiversity.
Therefore a community managed climate-smart farm is a sustainable solution to food security.
5.3 Conclusion
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The President of Kenya on 6 May 2016 signed into law the Climate Change Bill. The aim of
this Act is to develop, manage, implement and regulate mechanisms to enhance climate change
resilience and low carbon development in Kenya (Kenyatta, 2016). This will provide vital
policy for Kenya to take measures towards adapting to and mitigating climate change. In
addition to this, at the 2015 Paris UN Conference on Climate change, Kenya voluntarily
pledged to take national measures to enhance adaptation to climate change. Some of the
measures include: expansion into green energy options, introduction of low carbon
transportation systems and increasing the country’s tree cover from 7.3 per cent to 10 per cent
of the total land area. These measures all reflect steps that the nation is taking to combat climate
change. This is key in shaping the developments in agricultural process as this is one of the
biggest industries in Kenya. The measure to increase tree cover specifically touches on this
sector.
Climate change goes hand in hand with water and food security. Therefore, measures taken to
mitigate adverse climate change impacts will translate to better farming conditions. Equally,
measures taken to improve agricultural yields must be eco-friendly to preserve the
environment, ensuring that these increased yields are sustainable. The most vulnerable areas to
degradation are ASAL areas. These provide a home and a source of livelihood for nomadic
pastoralists. Adverse climate change effects have led to persistent food insecurity for the
Samburu. They have resorted to diversification of their agricultural processes and activities to
try combat hunger. However, there is need to ensure that these improved methods are tailored
to suit the ecosystem in ASAL areas. The solution to this is the adoption of permaculture
practices to both protect the environment and ensure food security.
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64
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Appendix 1: Location of Samburu County in Kenya
Source: Kenya Open Data 2016
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Appendix 2: Map of Samburu Sub-Counties
Source: Samburu County Government
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Appendix 3: Introduction Letter
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Appendix 4: Questionnaire Cover Letter
Dear Respondent,
RE: FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF
SAMBURU COUNTY
I am a student at the UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY-AFRICA and
currently pursuing a Master of Arts degree in International Relations. As a requirement of the
program, I am undertaking a course in research. Therefore, I am currently carrying out a study
on FOOD SECURITY THROUGH PERMACULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF SAMBURU
COUNTY and this will involve use of questionnaires.
There are no correct and wrong answers to these statements and they are intended just to obtain
opinions, views and feelings. Please spare a few minutes of your precious time and answer the
following questions. The information you will provide in this study will be treated with the
utmost confidence and will be used strictly only for the academic purpose mentioned above.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Yours faithfully,
Wangari Thiong’o
Researcher.
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Appendix 5: Questionnaire
Section A: Demographic Data
1. Name:__________________________________________
2. Age:___________________________
3. Gender:_______________
4. Marital Status:________________
5. Size of household(number of all members that stay within your household):_________
Section B: Food Security
1. In the past one year, how often did your household run out of money for food?
Sometimes_____
Rarely____
Often____
2. In the past one year, did you rely on limited foods to feed your household because you
didn’t have money?
Sometimes_____
Rarely_____
Often_____
3. In the past one year, did members of your household skip meals or cut the size because
there is no money for food?
Sometimes_____
Rarely_____
Often_____
4. In the past one year, did members of your household not eat for a whole day?
Sometimes_____
Rarely_____
Often_____
5. In the past one year, did you rely on government provided food rations?
Sometimes_____
Rarely_____
Often_____
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Section C: Farm Characteristics
1. What is the size of all the land managed by the household in acres? ________
2. What is the type of ownership for the land you have?
Traditional/Communal_____
Freehold without title______
Freehold with title_____
Leasehold/rented_____
Other (specify) _____
3. Do you practice any agriculture and/or livestock keeping on your farm?
None_____
Cropping only_____
Livestock only_____
Cropping and livestock_____
4. What type and number of livestock do you own?
Type Number
Cows
Goats
Sheep
Poultry (chicken, duck, turkey, quail)
Pigs
Donkeys
Rabbits
5. Where do you feed your cattle?
In a stall in the homestead ____
Grazing on paddocks _____
Grazing on communal land _____
Section D: Training and Adoption of good agricultural practices
1. Have you participated in the Sadhana Forest Capacity building activities like trainings,
awareness creation and demonstration activities?
Yes____
No____
2. If yes, please indicate which of the following activities you participated in:
Activity Participation(Yes/no)
Training on nursery establishment and management
Training on tree planting and management
Training on manure management and composting
Training on animal health, breeding and rearing
Training on biogas
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Training on pasture management
Climate change awareness sessions
Field days
3. Have you planted fodder on your farm?
Yes_____
No_____
4. How do you conserve feed for your livestock?
No conservation_____
Bale hay_____
Make silage_____
5. Have you planted any agroforestry trees on your farm?
Yes_____
No _____
6. If NOT, why? (tick all appropriate)
Lack of preferred seedlings _____
High cost of seedlings ____
Small land size _____
Unreliable rainfall _____
Other (please specify) _____
7. What are the benefits of agroforestry trees? (tick all appropriate)
Source of wood fuel _____
Source of construction materials _____
Source of income _____
Wind breaking _____
Fresh air _____
Other (please specify) _____
8. Have you collected livestock manure in your farm in the last 12 months?
Yes_____
No _____
9. What do you use the manure for? (tick all appropriate)
Crop and fodder production _____
Dry dung for fuel _____
Biogas generation _____
Use as construction material _____
Sell to others ______
Other (please specify) _____
10. Do you use irrigation on your farm?
Yes_____
No _____
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11. Do you practice bee keeping on your farm?
Yes_____
No _____
Section E: Benefits
1. In your view, to what extent has the implementation of the improved practices increased
your household food security?
Not at all _____
A little _____
Somewhat _____
A lot _____
2. In your view, to what extent has the implementation of the improved practices increased
your household income?
Not at all _____
A little _____
Somewhat _____
A lot _____
3. If you are not applying these practices on your farm, what do you need to adopt these
improved practices (Please tick ONLY THREE)?
Improved Practice Need for adoption (ONLY THREE)
More trainings and demonstrations
Lower cost of initial investment
Access to planting materials and seeds
Visiting farms where practices have been adopted
More benefits/farm income
Access to affordable credit facilities
Remunerative markets for farm produce
More assistance from a project
Secure land ownership
More government support to access inputs
Easier access to markets
Thank you for your responses.
Appendix 6: Focus Group Discussion and Interview Questions
1. PROJECT STAFF FROM SADHANA FOREST
1. What are the activities and improved practices advocated by Sadhana Forest Kenya?
76
2. What are the most popular improved practices among farmers? What proportion of
farmers working with SFK has adopted at least one of the improved practices? Why do
you think these practices are favoured by farmers?
3. What are the benefits of these practices?
4. Are there activities that have been abandoned or not adopted at all? Why were they
unsuccessful?
5. What institutional support would facilitate wider promotion and adoption of these
improved practices? Which institutions or organisations would be pivotal in the
promotion and implementation of improved agricultural practices?
6. What policy framework would support the utilisation of improved agricultural practices
in the area? Please share with us any efforts by the government (both county and
national) to create and implement policy that favours uptake of improved agricultural
practices.
7. In your assessment, how prepared is the community and other relevant stakeholders to
continue with the advancement of the improved practices in the area?
8. PARTICIPATING FARMERS AND ONE WOMEN GROUP
1. Are you food secure?
2. What livelihood assets and practices do you rely on (livestock, poultry, skilled labour,
remittances from relatives)?
3. What measures have you taken as an individual farmer to boost your food security?
77
4. What interventions have been provided by other groups such as self-help groups, NGOs
and government agencies?
5. What benefits have been realized as a result of the improved farming practices adopted?
How has farm productivity (milk, crop yields) changed? Have there been changes in
farm incomes and rural livelihood opportunities? What environmental co-benefits have
you seen from these improved practices? Kindly share with us the success stories.
6. Which practices have been abandoned after some time of practicing them and why?
Which ones were not adopted at all and what hindered their uptake? How can the
adoption of these improved farming practices be enhanced?
7. What are farmers doing to empower themselves to continue implementing these
improved practices (e.g. farmer-farmer extension, exchange visits, farmer trainers, table
banking, group credit access, etc.)? What kind of support and by who is required to do
more?
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Appendix 7: NACOSTI Permit