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FOOD, TONICS, AND MEDICINES Case study: Pangolin and rhinos WILDLIFE AS FOOD, TONICS, AND MEDICINE

7

Map 1 Main flows of pangolin seizures, 2007-July 2015

Wild sourced animals and plants con-tinue to serve as an important food source for people around the world, even where cultivated alternatives are plentiful. The use of wildlife as food and the use of wildlife as medicine are closely related, because in some countries, there is a persistent belief that consumption of wild products is beneficial for health. There are very few popular foods, either animal or plant, that cannot be cultivated. Even rather exotic meats are commercially farmed to meet niche demand. But wild-sourced foods may be valued precisely because they come from the wild.

A range of wild-sourced products can also be found that are not truly medicines but which are consumed as supplements or tonics. These

products are often believed to confer some qualities of the animal or plant from which they come. Even for those who do not subscribe to this belief, use of wild tonics may have a place in tradition that makes them difficult to ignore. In practice, the same spe-cies are often used for food, tonics, and medicine. Even when cultivated alternatives are available, as is the case with bear bile (Box), they may not be regarded as efficacious as the wild-sourced alternative.

Some people depend on wild meat for their annual protein supply because they have no other source ora cannot afford alternative sources.1 Rural cui-sines often call for wild products. As a growing share of the world’s popula-tion moves to urban areas, demand for these products persists, and may be

Cameroon

Mali

Belgium

Myanmar

Thailand

Malaysia

Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic

Viet Nam

Philippines

UgandaCôted'Ivoire

SierraLeone

China

Indonesia

Nepal

Scie

nces

Po

- Ate

lier d

e ca

rtog

raph

ie,

31,700

18,500

4,000

150

Number of seized pangolinsConversions applied, see methodology

Values below are not shown.

Source of shipment

Transit country or destination of shipment

Sources: World WISE

Note: The boundaries shown on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Dashed lines represent undetermined boundaries. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). The final boundary between the Republic of the Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

Bear bile

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), the active ingredi-ent in bear bile, is a recognized drug in both Western and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), and is currently a recommended treatment for a liver disease known as primary biliary cirrhosis.2 Although a synthetic form of UDCA has been developed and both herbal and other animal substitutes are available, wild bear bile is still preferred by some consumers. Five bear species are typically targeted for the bile trade: Asiatic black bears, brown bears, sun bears, American black bears, and sloth bears. The Asiatic black bear and the brown bear appear to be preferred, possibly due to higher UDCA levels, but the American black bear is also considered a good source of bile.3 According to one study, one kilo-gram of wild-sourced bear bile requires the kill-ing of 118 bears.4

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little of this remains today. Tens of thousands of wild-sourced pangolin skins were traded in the past, but this stopped abruptly in 2000 when the zero export quota for Asian pango-lins was imposed (Fig. 1). As with reptile leather, Singapore appears to have been a major player in the pangolin skin trade. Between 1980 and 2000, Singapore imported over 50,000 pangolin skins, mostly from Malaysia, and exported over 150,000 skins, mainly to Japan and the United States of America. The imposition of zero quotas precipitated a spike in trade, with Singapore alone buying some 21,000 skins that year. After that, the traders involved in this niche market appear to have moved on to other things.

Pangolin scales, used in traditional medicine in both Africa and Asia, are another matter entirely. In Africa, particularly West Africa, they are used to treat a wide range of physi-cal and spiritual maladies.12 In Asia, whole scales are sold, raw or fried, from traditional medicine retailers. These scales have multiple uses in traditional medicine: to cure skin diseases, improve blood circulation, and to stimulate milk production in lactating women.13

Oddly, the legal trade in pangolin scales is only first recorded in 1994, nearly 20 years after export permits were required. In terms of live animal equivalents, the legal scale trade has never risen to the level of the skin trade. In illegal trade, however, some 20 metric tons of scales are docu-mented in World WISE between 2007 and 2015, equivalent to about 54,000 live pangolins.14 In addition to whole scales, pangolin is also used in processed medicines. Like other medicinal preparations, however, the quantity of pangolin contained in a derivative product, if any, is unknown, and so these have been excluded from the analysis.

Pangolins are also consumed as food in both Africa and Asia, despite being protected through much of their range. Their international trade

birth to a single offspring after an extended gestation, and so are vul-nerable to overexploitation.

There are eight species of pangolins, four species in Africa and four species in Asia. They have been consumed tra-ditionally as food in both regions, and their scales are also used in traditional medicine. Pangolins are difficult to breed and mortality rates amongst pangolins in captivity is known to be very high.7 Aside from a few zoos,8 there are no known captive breeding facilities for any pangolin species.

Of the four Asian pangolin species, two are classified as “Critically Endan-gered”, and two as “Endangered” by the IUCN. All four African species are classified as “Vulnerable” by the IUCN.9 Some species have been CITES listed since 1975, and the entire genus (Manis) was put on Appendix II of CITES in 1994. At the meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties in 2000, zero export quotas for wild-caught Asian pangolins were agreed. The Asian species are pro-tected under national law over most of their range.10

Legal and illegal tradeSince its CITES listing in 1975, most legal trade in pangolin has involved animals sourced in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam. According to the CITES trade data, pangolin have been used for three main purposes in the past:

- -- Their skins were used in the exotic leather trade.

- -- Their scales were used in traditional medicine.

- -- Their meat was consumed as a food.

Each of these markets has its own characteristics. Due to the variety of products available, the trade flows and seizures described below are often converted to whole pangolin equiv-alents, based on field observations published in the academic literature.11

The legal international pangolin skin trade used to be big business, but

seen as a way of preserving traditions that would otherwise be homogenized in the city mix.

Traditional use often involves the entire animal, and those parts which cannot be regarded as foods are often used as medicines. Food is at the root of culture, as are beliefs about health, so consumption of wildlife can be seen as a way of expressing ethnic and national identity. In some parts of the world, indigenous people have secured recognition of their cultural right to hunt as their ancestors did.

Aside from cultural motivations, there may be practical reasons why wild harvesting persists. When demand for a food product grows, cultivation surely follows, but medical demand may remain too small to justify farming. For example, the toxins of certain animals are extremely valuable for research and pharmaceutical use, but demand may not be of a scale or predictability to justify commercial production. Some toxins, such as that of the poison dart frog, are reliant on the creature consuming its natural wild diet.5 Under 1,000 medicinal plant species are cultivated, with fewer than 400 on a commercial scale.6 The base material for many niche med-icines is therefore reliant on wild collection.

PangolinsThe pangolin, or scaly anteater, is an example of a creature that is con-sumed as both a meat and a medicine. Despite their scaly appearance, pango-lins are mammals, and are unrelated to the armadillos, aardvarks, and anteaters who they resemble in some respects. They are insectivorous, sub-sisting almost entirely on ants and termites, which they eat with their elongated tongues. Due to long claws on their forelimbs, they walk on their knuckles, and one species even ambles on its rear two legs. They occur over a wide range, and are both noctur-nal and solitary. These characteristics make population estimates somewhat challenging, and no current estimate of their numbers exists. They give

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range, so their harvesting may be legal in many instances. As African species of pangolin are also not pro-tected in some destination markets, their consumption could be legal once past the border in destination countries. Between these markets, the only protection these pangolins experience is their CITES listing. The criminal elements connecting these two legal markets are those traffickers who evade this protection.

often make use of traps and snares, or trained dogs. The price per animal is low enough, and the species is rare enough, that few hunters make a living off the trade. The profits appear to be concentrated close to the retail end of the supply chain. In Nepal, for example, hunters receive US$7 to US$13 per kilogram, with the price doubling with each resale up the trafficking chain. In border areas, the price rises to over US$500 per kilogram.17

Seizures made in Africa often involve traders in multiple species. When meat is seized, it is almost always destined for the domestic market. The primary pangolin export appears to be scales, commonly shipped illegally in large grain bags. The volumes involved, often upwards of 100 kilograms at a time, suggest networks capable of accessing and processing thousands of individual pangolins. Traffickers from Asian destination markets have been arrested in Africa. In Nigeria, whole pangolins (depending on the size) can range in price from US$7 to US$15.18 Their scales alone would sell for as much as US$250 per pangolin in destination markets, so the profit incentive is clear.19

Pangolin species are not uniformly protected throughout their African

for this purpose is almost entirely illegal, however, as very few permits have been issued for the shipment of live pangolin or pangolin bodies to countries that consume pangolin. In some Asian culinary traditions, pan-golins are presented live before being slaughtered for the meal, so the illegal live trade of pangolins is commonly seen. Whole frozen pangolins are also shipped for use as meat. Almost 13,000 live pangolins were seized between 2007 and 2015, as well the equivalent of 33,000 more live pan-golins in the form of meat.15 Together, pangolins seized that were destined for culinary use accounted for about 55,000 pangolins.

World WISE records seizures equal to more than 120,000 live pango-lins between 2007 and 2015.16 Asian countries were the source of the bulk of all the pangolin products seized, although Uganda and other African countries accounted for 20% of all seizures. Many of the seized pango-lin scales originating from Africa were found in mixed consignments, along-side rhino horn or ivory. Most (92%) of these shipments were destined for China or Viet Nam.

Supply of pangolinsSince the animal is nocturnal and reclusive, Asian pangolin hunters

Fig. 1 Number of pangolins skins legally imported, 1978-2014

Source: CITES Trade Database

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

19

79

19

81

19

83

19

85

19

87

19

89

19

91

19

93

19

95

19

97

19

99

20

01

20

03

20

05

20

07

20

09

20

11

20

13

Nu

mb

er

of

pa

ng

olin

skin

s im

po

rted

Fig. 2 Share of seized pangolins by country indicated as source (thousands of whole pangolin equivalents), aggregated 2007-2015

Source: World WISE

Indonesia

31

Thailand

7

Sierra Leone

4

Phillipines

4

Other

9

Uganda

7

Myanmar

5

Malaysia

7

Fig. 3 Share of seized pangolins by country indicated as destination (thousands of whole pangolin equivalents), aggregated 2007-2015

Source: World WISE

Viet Nam

19

Phillipines

2Other

2

China

32

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the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 102, No. 33 (2005), pp. 11617–11622.

6 Belgian Development Agency, Wild-Col-lected Botanicals and the EU Market. Brussels: Trade for Development Centre, 2015, p. 28.

7 Norman Lim and Peter Ng, “Home range, activity cycle and natal den usage of a female Sunda pangolin Manis javanica (Mammalia: Pholidota) in Singapore”, Endangered Species Research, vol. 3 (2007). Liushuai Hua,and others, “Captive breed-ing of pangolins: current status, problems and future prospects”, ZooKeys, vol. 507 (2015), pp. 99-114.

8 Hua L, Gong S, Wang F, Li W, Ge Y, Li X, Hou F (2015) Captive breeding of pan-golins: current status, problems and future prospects. ZooKeys. 

9 D. Challender and others, Manis javan-ica. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12763A45222303; D. Challender and others, Manis pentadactyla.

Endnotes1 See, for example, the United States

National Institutes of Health: http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/liver-disease/primary-bil-iary-cirrhosis/Pages/facts.aspx

2 A. Dutton, C. Hepburn and D. Macdon-ald, “A stated preference investigation into the Chinese demand for farmed vs. wild bear bile”, PLoS One, vol.6, No.7 (2011).

3 H. Haikui and L. Zhi, “Bear farming and bear conservation in China” in Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Trade in Bear Parts (4 October 2006, Nagano, Japan), D. Williamson, ed., (2007).

4 Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu, Wildlife and food security in Africa. FAO Conservation Guide 33: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7540e/w7540e00.htm

5 Valerie C. Clark and others, “Convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between Mada-gascar and the Neotropics”, Proceedings of

Demand for pangolinsAs noted above, the seizure data illus-trate that the primary destination market for illegal international trade in pangolin is Asia, particularly China and Viet Nam. These two countries have documented markets for pango-lin as a medicine and a food.

Semi-structured interviews in China and Viet Nam have provided some insight into the demand for scales and meat. Scales are sold through traditional medicine shops in both countries. Pangolins have been deemed commercially extinct in China.20 A survey of 18 high-end restaurants in Viet Nam found that pangolin meat was available in all of them, and in 16 of them, it was the most expensive item on the menu. Rising demand for pangolin products is evinced in rising prices in Viet Nam (Fig. 4).21

AnalysisPangolin is different from many other species in the sharp distinction between legal and illegal markets. The zero export quotas for the Asian range states appear to have decimated the market for pangolin skins. In con-trast, the market for pangolin meat appears to be almost entirely illegal, and many metric tons of contraband pangolin have been seized destined for this market.

As is the case with elephants and rhinos, buyers appear to be turning to the four African species of pangolin that do not enjoy protection in Asian destination markets. Very little legal trade in pangolin occurs today, and its value is dwarfed by the value of the seized shipments alone. Accord-ing to World WISE, between 2007 and 2013, an average of over 15000 live pangolin equivalents were seized annually. This is likely a fraction of the actual illegal trade.

Fig. 4 Price paid for pangolin products in Viet Nam (US$/kg), selected years

Source: Challender, Harrop, MacMillan 201522

$201

$485

$163

$305

$0

$100

$200

$300

$400

$500

$600

2008scales

2013scales

2007meat

2012meat

US$

per

kilo

gra

m

Fig. 5 Number of pangolins legally traded and seized globally (live pangolin equivalents), aggregated 2007-2013

Source: For legal trade, CITES Trade Database; for seizures, World WISE

107,0601,467

Seized

Legally traded

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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12764A45222544; L. Lagrada, S. Schoppe and D. Challender, Manis culion-ensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T136497A45223365; C. Waterman and others, Phataginus tetrad-actyla. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12766A45222929; C. Waterman and others, Phataginus tricuspis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12767A45223135; C. Waterman and others, Smutsia gigantea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12762A45222061; D., Pietersen and others, Smutsia temminckii. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014: e.T12765A45222717..

10 Daniel Challender, Stuart Harrop and Douglas MacMillan, “Understanding mar-kets to conserve trade-threatened species in CITES”, Biological Conservation, vol. 187 (2015), pp. 249–259.

11 See online methodological annex for details.

12 M. Boakye and others, “Knowledge and Uses of African Pangolins as a Source of Traditional Medicine in Ghana”, PLoS ONE, vol. 10, No 1 (2015)..

13 Challender, Harrop, MacMillan, 2015, op cit.

14 For an explanation of conversion figures, see the online methodological annex.

15 Ibid.16 Ibid.17 Hem Bahadur Katuwal and others, “Pango-

lins in eastern Nepal: trade and ethno-me-dicinal importance”, Journal of Threatened Taxa, vol. 7, No. 9 (2015), pp. 7563-7567.

18 Durojaye Soewu and Olufemi Sodeinde, “Utilization of pangolins in Africa: Fuelling factors, diversity of uses and sustainability”, International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, vol.7, No. 1 (January 2015), pp.1-10.

19 Most pangolin species carry about half a kilogram of scales, which, at US$485 per kilogram in Viet Nam in 2013, would be worth about US$250. See online methodo-logical annex for details.

20 Challender, Harrop, MacMillan, 2015, op cit.

21 Ibid.22 Ibid.

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Case study: Rhino horn WILDLIFE AS FOOD, TONICS, AND MEDICINE

Rhinoceros horn has historically been used in traditional medicine in Asia to treat fever and cerebrovascular disease. More recently, belief its effi-cacy in treating other ailments, from hangovers to cancer appear to have increased demand. The prices that it currently commands – usually cited in the tens of thousands of dollars per kilogram1 – are disproportionate to any medical utility it might have. Rather, it appears to be conspicuously consumed as a status symbol. Recent surveys of markets indicate a grow-ing demand for rhino horn jewellery and décor items, including traditional libation bowls.2

The present rhino population is a fraction of what there once was. As recently as 1960, there were estimated to be 100,000 black rhinos in Africa.3 Due to heavy poaching from the late 1970s through the mid-1990s,4 there are less than 5,000 black rhinos today. Indeed, there are less than 28,000 rhinos of any species left in Africa and Asia. About 70% of the remain-ing population are southern white rhinos living in the eastern prov-inces of South Africa, descendants of

In these two countries, it has been placed on Appendix II for the exclu-sive purpose of allowing international trade in live animals (for zoos and the like) and hunting trophies. The latter exception spurred a practice known as “pseudo hunting”, in which staged hunts were held so that horn could be exported to illicit markets.

Beginning around 2006, the number of rhino sport hunting applications for rhinos in South Africa began to increase.9 Less than 75 applications were received in 2004 and 2005, but this increased to more than 150 in 2006 and to over 200 in 2007. Between 2007 and 2010, an average of 116 rhinos were hunted in South Africa each year, as compared to between 35 and 70 per year previ-ously.10

It also became clear that these appli-cations were coming from people with no prior hunting experience, particularly citizens of Viet Nam, a country from which applications had not been received before. The number of sport hunting applications by Viet-namese nationals increased from 84

a population of less than 100 that has been protected there since the 1900s.5

Each rhino carries a small amount of horn,6 the global total of which is about 130 tons. Government stock-piles account for at least another 27 tons,7 and it is unclear how much is privately held. Demand for this horn has grown greatly over the past 10 years, driving an escalating wave of poaching. In 2014, most (94%) of the poaching in Africa took place in South Africa, and most (68%) of the rhinos poached in South Africa were taken from Kruger National Park, which is contiguous with Limpopo National Park in Mozambique. Many of these rhinos were taken by Mozam-bican poachers crossing between the two parks.8

In addition to traditional poaching, the high value of rhino horn has driven a peculiar means of evading CITES controls. The white rhino, which is both the most prevalent species and which carries the largest amount of horn, has been on Appen-dix I since 2005 throughout its range, besides South Africa and Swaziland.

Fig. 6 Number of rhinos poached by selected countries, 2006-2015

Source: Emslie 201611

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

20

06

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5 Richard Emslie, 2012. Ceratotherium simum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 26 August 2015.

6 Some species of rhino have two horns, and some only one. White rhinos, which have two, also have the largest horns, and carry an average of 5.88 kg of horn per rhino. As a result of their size and larger numbers, white rhinos carry 88% of the live rhino horn today. Black rhinos carry 2.65 kg apiece. D. Pienaar, A. Hall-Martin and P. Hitchins, “Horn growth rates of free-rang-ing white and black rhinoceros”, Koedoe, vol. 34, No. 2 (1991), pp. 97-105. All Asian species carry less than one kilogram apiece. See Esmond Bradley Martin and T. Ryan, “How Much Rhino Horn has come onto International Markets since 1970?” Pachyderm, vol 13, (1990).

7 In 1994, CITES Resolution Conference 9.14 urged all range States to register, mark and store all horns found (whether from natural mortality, dehorning operations or illegal activity) in a secure location. See

importance, Viet Nam, China, Ire-land, Czech Republic, United States and Thailand21 are indicated as des-tination countries (Fig. 2).

Endnotes1 Fieldwork at the end of 2015 has indi-

cated a whole horn retail price of about US$26,000 per kilogram. See online meth-odological annex for details.

2 See online methodological index for details.3 According to IUCN: https://portals.iucn.

org/library/efiles/documents/1999-049.pdf4 Tom Milliken and Jo Shaw, The South

Africa – Viet Nam Rhino Horn Trade Nexus: A deadly combination of institutional lapses, corrupt wildlife industry professionals and Asian crime syndicates. (Johannesburg, TRAFFIC, 2012).

(out of 111 applications) in 2009, to 116 (out of 166) in 2010, declining to 112 (out of 222) in 2011.12 To address this abuse, the South African government took the extraordinary measure of suspending the issuance of hunting licenses to Vietnamese nationals in 2012.13

According to CITES documents, in 2011, authorities in the Czech Republic also became aware of hunt-ing applications from other countries not historically associated with the rhino trophy hunting.14 The inves-tigation revealed that Vietnamese traders (with Czech mediators) had been recruiting Czech citizens to participate in pseudo rhino hunts for several years.15 During the investiga-tion that followed, at least 24 horns were detected and 16 people in the Czech Republic were indicted.16

Further investigations revealed an even wider range of participants. In 2012, a Thai national pled guilty to organizing 26 “fake” rhino hunts and acting as an agent for import and export groups and companies in Thai-land and Laos.17 In 2014, citizens of the United States were charged with conspiracy to sell illegal rhino hunts in South Africa, money laundering and trafficking of rhino horns.18 The investigation has resulted in the arrest of almost three dozen individuals.19

The value of rhino horn became such that professional criminals with no history in the wildlife trade and no connection to source or destination markets began to explore the market. According to media sources, during 2011 and 2012 members of the Rathkeale Rovers, an Irish Traveler group, raided museums and auction houses and stole rhino horns worth a reported sum of 57 million pounds.20

According to World WISE, in order of importance, South Africa, Mozam-bique, Zimbabwe and Kenya are the main sources of seized shipments (Fig. 1). The United Arab Emirates and European countries (including Slo-vakia, the Czech Republic, Belgium, Italy and Germany) are indicated as transit countries. And, in order of

Fig. 7 Share of seized rhino horns by country identified as source (kilograms), aggregated 2006-2015

Source: World WISE, conversions applied

Mozambique

186

Kenya

50Other

140

SouthAfrica

535

Zimbabwe

54

Fig. 8 Share of seized rhino horns by country identified as destination (kilograms), aggregated 2006-2015

Source: World WISE, conversions applied

China

205

CzechRepublic

26

Other

78Viet Nam

220Ireland

28

Thailand

23

United States

26

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However, authorities indicated that sus-pects were connected to the Vietnamese community in the Czech Republic.

CITES Res. Conf. 9.14 (Rev. CoP15). At the 2011 IUCN/SSC AfRSG meeting, several range States provided estimates of rhino horn stockpiles, which totaled close to 23,700 kg. See CITES Cop16 Doc. 54.2 Annex. In 2013, Zimbabwe reported 4,961 kg of rhino horn in stockpiles (See SC65 Doc. 43.2 Annex 2). Leaks from these stockpiles can (and have recently been) a source of illicit trade. Thefts from museums and illegal sales from private stockpiles are also on the rise. South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs, Pro-gress Report: rhino poaching. Portfolio Com-mittee Meeting, 13 November 2012.

8 South Africa Department of Environmen-tal Affairs, Progress Report: rhino poaching. Portfolio Committee Meeting, 13 November 2012.

9 See CITES CoP16 Doc54.2. (Rev 1) “Report of the Secretariat”: https://cites.org/eng/cop/16/doc/E-CoP16-54-02.pdf

10 Ibid and CITES CoP16 Inf. 38. “Rhino Conservation, the Illegal Killing and Hunting of Rhinoceros in South Africa and Comments on the Proposal Submitted by Kenya to Place a Zero Quota for the Export of Hunting Trophies of White Rhi-noceros”: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/16/inf/E-CoP16i-38.pdf

11 Richard H Emslie, Tom Milliken, Bibhab Talukdar, Michael H Knight and Susie Ellis (in prep.) African and Asian Rhinoc-eroses – Status, Conservation and Trade - A report from the IUCN Species Survival Commission (IUCN/SSC) African and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups and TRAF-FIC to the CITES Secretariat pursuant to Resolution Conf. 9.14 (Rev. CoP15) (2016).

12 M. Taylor, K. Brebner, R. Coetzee, H. Davies-Mostert, P. Lindsey, J. Shaw, M. t Sas Rolfes, The viability of legalising trade in rhino horn in South Africa. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs, (2014).

13 CITES CoP16 Doc54.2. (Rev 1) “Report of the Secretariat”: https://cites.org/eng/cop/16/doc/E-CoP16-54-02.pdf

14 CITES SC66 Doc. 51.1 Annex 6 “Report of the Secretariat”: https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/com/sc/66/E-SC66-51-01.pdf

15 CITES SC66 Doc. 51.1 Annex 6 and CITES CoP16 Doc54.2. (Rev 1), op cit.

16 CITES SC66 Doc. 51.1 Annex 6, op cit.17 The Supreme Court of Appeal, 2014.

Lemthongthai v S (849/2013) [2014] South African Supreme Court of Appeal 131 (25 September 2014).

18 Indictment in United States v. Dawie Jaco-bus Groenewald et al.: https://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/pdf/RhinoIndictment.pdf? and https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/owners-safari-company-indicted-illegal-rhi-no-hunts

19 United States Department of Justice “Operation Crash”: https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/press-releases/attach-ments/2014/10/23/operation_crash_sum-mary_october_2014.pdf

20 BBC News, Museum raids gang guilty over Chinese art and rhino thefts, 29 February 2016: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-eng-land-cambridgeshire-35667130

21 It is unclear whether the Czech Republic was a transit or a destination country.

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