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For the MUNICIPAL Project teams

By:

Pedro Terry R. Tuason Agroforestry Specialist

Upland Development Programme Sustainable Agriculture Development Component Project Management Office PO Box 81333, Davao, Philippines

June 2001


TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Rationale, Goals, and Objectives 2

Upland Defined 3

Ecological Significance/ Importance of Upland 3

Goals of Upland Development 3

Effects of Degradation of Upland Areas 4

Upland Development Issues 4

Agroforestry 5

History (time Line) 6

Agroforestry Development of DENR particularly ISFP 9

Agroforestry Defined 10

Rationale for Agroforestry 10

Salient Feature 11 Criteria of Good Agroforestry 12 Guidelines and Principles Involve 13 System Component 14 General Guidelines/ Consideration in selection of species and spacing for Agroforestry

15

Currently used and potential agroforestry crops in the Philippines 16

Some Agroforestry Technologies and Practices including Soil and Water Conservation

19

Feature of Agroforestry

1.) AGRISILVICULTURAL SYSTEM 25

a.) Alley cropping 25

b.) Multistorey cropping 25

c.) Boundary planting 25

d.) Windbreaks 25

e.) Improved Fallow System 26

f.) Taungya System 26

2. SILVIPASTURAL System

a.) Livestock-Under Tree System 26

b.) Protein Bank (Fodder Bank) System 27

c.) Live Fence System 27

d.) Improved Alley cropping with Improved pasture grasses and Trees Shrubs

27

3. AGRISILVIPASTURAL SYSTEM

a.) Agrisilvicultural System transformed to Silvipastural System

27

b.) Multistorey System + Animals 27

c.) Alley Cropping with pasture grasses and agricultural crops

27


Agroforestry Component Technology

1. SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

a.) Vegetative Measures 28

Hedgerow 28

Fascines 28

Wattling 28

b.) Mechanical/ Structural Measures

Bench Terracing 28

Contour Levee 28

Contour Canal/ditch 28

2. SOIL FERTILITY MAINTENANCE / IMPROVEMENT

a.) General considerations 29

b.) Determining nutrient deficiency in plant 29

c.) Fertilizer Application 29

3. CROP MANAGEMENT 29

Perennials (Fruit and plantation crops)

Types of Agroforestry Systems (Advantages, Limitations, and Factors of Adoption)

30

Diagnosis and design of Agroforestry 50

Conversion Table of Slope; Surface Run, and Vertical Interval 52

Deciding on Appropriate Interventions for Agroforestry 53

Conceptual Framework for productive and Protective Role of Agroforestry

55

Attachments

Quick Reference to Species characteristic

Training Design (AEZ-Agroforestry training)


Introduction to Sustainable Agriculture in the Uplands AGROFORESTRY

RationaleRationale: Increasing food production has shifted to fragile upland areas. Subsistence poor farmers have migrated to forestlands and converted what was once forest into food production areas. Lack of knowledge and skills in appropriate upland farming has resulted in the tendency to unilaterally transport inappropriate lowland technologies. Agroforestry has been more and more recognized through the past decade as a feasible system to produce a range of agricultural products while protecting environmental functions. This introductory course provides an overview of the state of the uplands and how agroforestry responds to the production and protection needs. It also introduces the participants to the steps that maybe undertaken in the diagnosis and design of appropriate systems. Goals:Goals: The training program aims to orient Municipal project teams, and UDP Municipal Support staff on the problems on the uplands and the approaches and practices of agroforestry technologies following the principles of sustainable agriculture. OBJECTIVES:OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the session, the participants should be able to: a. To understand the current upland issues and relates understanding of these to agroforestry concepts and principles. b. Discuss the History and characteristics (Definition, Rationale, Salient Features, and Criteria of a good agroforestry system, Guidelines and principles, System components of agroforestry. c. Enumerate the different types of agroforestry systems and Identify Advantages, Limitations, Factors affecting adoption and weaknesses of each system. d. Discuss the S.O.M.E strategy based on their appropriateness to specific conditions in given area.

TIME ALLOTEDTIME ALLOTED::

• 8 hours

SUGGESTED METHODS:SUGGESTED METHODS: • Sharing of experiences • Audio-visual presentation • Lecture-discussion • Field exposure

LEARNING MATERIALSLEARNING MATERIALS • Transparencies and slides • Overhead and slide projector • Monitor and player • Flip charts


(See attached training Design) CONTENTS:CONTENTS:

(FACILITATOR’S NOTE)(FACILITATOR’S NOTE) Objective # a: UPLAND DEFINED:

In the Philippines, the definition of upland areas varies across sectors depending on the government agency or the kind of project involved. The department of environment and Natural Resources (DENR), which has jurisdiction over most of the upland area in the country, uses the following definition:

“ Uplands are hilly to mountainous landscape greater that 18 % slope including the table land and plateaus lying at the higher elevation which are not usually suited to wet rice unless some form of terracing and ground water exists. These may be classified as public lands.”

ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE / IMPORTANCE OF UPLANDS: 1. It is the life support system of the lowlands and aquatic areas in a dynamic and

highly interactive landscape components of a rural system; 2. Place where increasing population of the “ poorest of the poor” lives and one which

is expected to absorb more of the expanding population; 3. Contains the tropical forest ecosystem which is the oldest productive and protective

ecosystem on earth; 4. Contains untapped mineral deposits; 5. A destabilization force in the peace and security situation of the country if

environmental and socioeconomic conditions are not improved; 6. Properly developed, it is a key to sustainable development and socioeconomic

progress. It can be a major government strategy to attain greater social stability. GOALS OF UPLAND DEVELOPMENT:

• Increased productivity and income using the Sustainable Agriculture (SA) principles

• Enhance sustainability through soil-nutrient/ water conservation • Community participation • Increased equitability

Note: Strategies for attaining goals will be discussed further in Agroforestry Concept.


EFFECTS OF DEGRADATION OF UPLAND AREAS:

Ø Loss of forest cover Ø Soil erosion Ø Loss of Nutrients (shortened fallow period of land resources) Ø Decrease in agricultural crop yield Ø Flood intensification Ø Drought intensification Ø Decline in genetic diversity Ø Shift in climate patterns Ø Lowered water table Ø Increased sedimentation/ Siltation Ø Degradation of coral reefs due to sedimentation originating from the upland

erosion Ø Loss of wildlife habitat Ø Increase in carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere.

UPLAND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES:

1. “ Shrinking land- Increasing population and Inheritance pattern”

• In the future land-based resources will not be sufficient to support the projected

population increases. • Our present inheritance pattern tends to promote land fragmentation and expansion

into forestlands.

2. Tenurial form; • The government is in the process of evolving various tenurial forms appropriate for

specific cause situation. Lack of sufficient time and research data makes identification of appropriate tenurial form difficult.

3. Appropriate education for the productive and sustainable uplands;

• At present, indigenous knowledge and culture are “eroded” by the so-called “

modern” educational system. This will have long consequences in the development of the uplands.


4. Employment:

• Upland conditions are variable and inaccurate and require highly flexible and

localized decision-making in the implementing upland programs. Requires maximum use of indigenous knowledge in planning. This will require empowerment of the local communities. The question is how can we effect this need in the present organizational set-up of the government line agencies.

5. Need for “neutral” and “bankable” program in the uplands and

Devolution;

• Merging of government agencies and placing the control of government projects in the hands of the local officials created confusion among project implementors

6. Equity:

• It is just a matter of time before land consolidation will again be in control of those

who have money and power. CSC although could not be sold or transferred except to immediate kin, find its way into the hands of the moneylenders and scrupulous individuals. This will in long run influence upland equity and will undermine objective of the Integrated Social forestry (ISF) program.

7. Lowland - Upland Interaction;

• Highly accelerated programs isolated upland from lowland development. Since

upland and rural landscapes are interesting, this should be considered in the rural resource management.

8. Peace and Order condition in the uplands;

• Presence of undisciplined armed groups, and military operations cause

displacements and loss in confidence of our upland farmers. Rising economic inequalities will lead to armed conflicts that hinder development efforts and delivery of services worsening the condition of the uplands.

9. Penchant for “Neutral” and “bankable” programs in the Uplands:

• The continuing use of “bankable criteria” in the upland will jeopardize the inclusion of

marginal upland farmers into the mainstream of economic development.


10. Upland Policy confusion:

• At present, there are major confusion and issues in the uplands, i.e., parks and

occupancy, conservation and protection strategies, ISFI, CBFM, CADC, Protected areas, mining claims and other reforestation programs. These issues need resolutions.

Objective # b.

AGROFORESTRY Agroforestry technologies were already in existence in the Philippines even before the government started managing the forest/ upland resources. However, these technologies were not know as AGROFORESTRY HISTORY (TIME LINE) 1889 TO 1975 PERIOD The forest / upland resource management in the country started in 1889 when the Definitive Forest Laws and Regulations (Royal Decree of the King of Spain) were implemented in the country. From 1889 up to 1975 approximately around 86 years there are no laws, regulations or legislation that encourages people’s participation in the development of the upland areas, except the logging group, where they were given the responsibility to reforest the areas they logged. Laws at that period of time concerning upland population were more of the prohibition of forest resources. Kaingin making, occupancy of forestlands was outlawed. However, at that period of time, we can glimpse that there exists and even proliferate the use of agroforestry production systems in the uplands. Two major types were noted, and their sub-variations are as follows: Ø The Alternative or cyclical System (Kaingin)

• Traditional Kaingin – the system uses fire and natural fallow with land rotation-mainly practiced by cultural minorities

• Kaingin – also uses fire with modified fallow and minimum or no land rotation- mainly practiced by lowlanders who migrated in the uplands.

Ø The simultaneous cropping system (Integral)- Basically of random mixed wherein

trees (fruit trees) and agricultural crops were combined together. Ø Naalad System – a recently developed agroforestry system wherein it combines

both the characteristic of the cyclical system and simultaneous cropping. It eliminates the use of fire and it has a very limited land rotation (within the farm)


All of these agroforestry systems were conceived, field tested through trial and error, and developed by the upland farmers themselves without outside interventions. 1975-1982 PERIOD This period is characterized by the government’s intention of involving people in forestry programs and project. Under this period, the Integrated Social Forestry (ISF) was initiated in the 1980s based on the DENR Upland development program and several legislations and guidelines were issued and the implementation of the three (3) people oriented programs.

• Forest Occupancy (Kaingin) Management Program (1975) • Communal Tree Farm Project (1979), and • Family Approach to Reforestation (1979)

This is also the period wherein the academe, research and non-governmental

organizations started to focus their attention on upland development involving the local population.

In terms of agroforestry technologies, the above-mentioned programs and projects tried to encourage the adoption of agroforestry technologies that are highly influence by the Western Culture. Some of these technologies are:

• Agro forestation – terms used before agroforestry were conceived which is basically the combination of trees (forest) and agricultural crops. Fast growing trees species were introduced. (Kantoan, Albizzia falcataria, Giant Ipil-ipil)

• Soil and Water conservation technologies (bench terracing, SALT) • Partial Overlap (Taungya system) • Tree Farm – production of non-wood product • Tree plantation – production of wood products

Basically, the main feature of the agroforestry technologies being encouraged is the introduction of trees (forest trees) in the existing system of the upland farmers. The main approach used by the government in encouraging the participation of the program participants is mainly the top down approach. These technologies were conceived and packaged and in some instances incentives were included prior to the introduction to the program/ project participants. 1982 – 1986 PERIOD This period is characterized by the integration of people oriented programs and projects known as Integrated Social Forestry program (ISFP). Further regulation and guidelines were issued to encourage the agroforestry development of upland farms. Upland occupants were provided Certificate of Stewardship Contract (CSC) for individuals and Community Forestry Stewardship Agreement (CFSA) for communities lasting 25 years, renewable for another 25 if the first period is satisfactory.


In terms of agroforestry technologies, farmers were provided technical and material support in the initial five years to make the land productive without depleting it and the SALT series were introduced to upland farmers. Further introduction of other fast growing tree species were also encouraged. It is also noted that this period, program participants started adopting portions rather than the whole packaged agroforestry technology. Basically, the upland considers their own needs and existing skills in adopting portions of the technology. Main emphasis in this period are:

• Soil and Water conservation measures • Cropping patterns/ system (annual/ perennial) • Livestock production

In terms of approach, the government is encouraging active participation of the upland farmers in the planning and implementation of agroforestry farms development in their farms. 1986 – early ‘90s This period is characterized by further strengthening of the ISF program and the concepts are also being internalized and adopted in other government programs and projects. The National Forestation Program (NFP) commence in 1988 to include reforestation of denuded forestlands with indigenous and exotic forest species, rehabilitation of degraded watersheds, and improvement of residual stands. The Strategies used are the Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) for reforestation, replanting and ANR for watershed rehabilitation, and Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) for growth of residual stands. This was carried through three-year contracts between DENR and the upland settler-families, community groups, religious organizations, entrepreneurs, or NGOs. Upon the expiration of NFT contracts, established plantations with at least 80% survival may be covered with Forest Land Management (FLM) contract between DENR and persons, families or organizations. In this agreement, the contractor may intercrop the young plantations with cash crops, fruit trees or agroforestry and sustained yield management. DENR tapped local NGOs to help organized communities and train them in forest management to acquire Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) and during the contract, the farmers may harvest, process and market timber from the mature trees using the sustained yield management techniques. In turn, the contractor will provide the DENR 30% of the proceeds until the whole cost of reforestation is recovered by DENR. Community Forestry Program (CFP) on the other hand, democratized access to forest resource and provides organized upland communities equitable share of forest benefits. It encourages communities to participate in the protection, rehabilitation and management of denuded uplands, residual or logged-over stands, and old growth forest.


For the Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICC), the government recognizes their rights and capabilities to protect and manage their ancestral domains by issuing the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Claims (CADC). The government through DENR assists the ICCs in the survey and delimitation of ancestral land. This serves as basis in the granting of CADC that extends on an indefinite period. By recognizing their right and the security of land tenure will encourage the ICCs their domains sustainability. 1995 - present The Community-Based Forest Management Program (CBFMP) was established in July 1995 through Executive Order No. 263 as a flagship program of forest conservation and development in the Philippines. It unifies and integrates all earlier DENR people-oriented forestry programs. The basic rules of operations of CBFMP are very similar with that of CFP and the various tenure instruments applied to earlier programs will be gradually converted to Community Based Forest Management Agreements (CBFMA). Policy, regulations were issued favorable to further development of the ISF program. In terms of agroforestry technologies, it is now more directed on income generation. Based on the previous experiences, a new scheme of development was being field tested in the different Upland Development Program of DENR. In agroforestry development, all the program participants were encouraged to choose technologies they can apply and implement in their own farms. They can choose from a list of indigenous, improved or developed agroforestry technologies. In terms of approach, the agroforestry development of upland farms is now using the middle way approach wherein the government set direction and the program participants choose their specific technologies for the development of their own farms. Agroforestry Development of DENR particularly the ISFP.

• Setting up favorable climate and directions for the adoption and utilization of agroforestry technologies in the uplands. This is through the issuance of policies, rules, regulations that encourage agroforestry development of the upland areas.

• Strengthen its institutional capabilities to implement the ISF program. Trainings, seminars, workshops, of personnel on community organizing, agroforestry, soil and water conservation measure, etc. were conducted on a nationwide scale. Program participants were also encourage participating in farmers training either on-site or cross-farm visitation. The DENR also coordinated with other agencies, academe, and research institution and non-government organization to actively involve in upland development.

• Introduce and encourage various agroforestry technologies as alternative for the development of the upland farms. The DENR is now introducing and encouraging


the participants to apply indigenous, improved and developed agroforestry technologies. Various options and alternatives were being offered to the program participants.

Agroforestry Define: The term agroforestry has been defined in many ways. For this purpose, this will be defined as:

“A sustainable land management system which increases the overall yield of the land: combines the production of agricultural crops (including fruit- tree crops) and forest plants simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land, and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population” (ICRAF, 1978).

In simpler terms, the project could define agroforestry as defined by PCARRD (1979), which states that:

“Is a system of land management whereby forest and agricultural products are produced on appropriate and suitable areas, simultaneously or sequentially for the social, economic and ecological benefits of the community.”

RATIONALE FOR AGROFORESTRY Many upland farmers have been practicing intercropping of trees and agricultural crops since time immemorial. They have developed their own (folk) technology through experience apparently without knowing about their ecological, engineering, and/or scientific basis. One of the best examples, which in it self is considered an engineering marvel, is the world-famous Ifugao Rice Terraces. From the point of view of agriculture and/or engineering science, the structure is suitable, adaptable and made possible through the cultural orientation of the local population. Viewed as a whole system, it could be regarded as an agroforestry system with the following components: the trees or forest vegetation in the watershed areas protecting the spring; the land or the terraced mountain slopes; and the agricultural crops such as rice, potatoes, vegetables and others on the terraced benches. Note that the Ifugao Rice terraces could be regarded as an agroforestry system with sustainable land management feature that has existed for so many centuries.

There are number of reasons why agroforestry as production system is being practice. Whether in a small scale, it is undertaken to attain some if not all of the following objectives:

1. Maximize production of food and wood crops per unit area; 2. Conserved soil (fertility) and water resources; 3. Stabilize and improve environment conditions;


4. Uplift the overall socio-economic conditions through proper land use management practices; and

5. Improve the aesthetic value of the countryside.

In general terms, agroforestry serves as an acceptable alternative in not only rehabilitating degraded forest lands and watershed area, but also in developing the countryside’s through the active participation of the upland rural community people who are the direct beneficiaries/ partners of the development technology. In more specific terms, agroforestry serves as a means of: 1.) Creating employment opportunities for rural farm labor; 2.) Producing raw materials for cottage industries, 3.) Providing food and other products for home consumption; 4.) Protecting and improving the production potential of a given site or environment thereby increasing the human ecological carrying capacity; and 5.) Safeguarding sustainability through appropriate intensification of land use. SALIENT FEATURES Agroforestry system possesses following common attributes: 1.) The land management system is sustainable; 2.) The practice optimizes yield and services per unit area; 3.) The cropping system combines the production of forest and agricultural crops and/or animal crops, either simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land; 4.) The system contributes to the socio-economic and ecological upliftment of the community and is compatible with the cultural patterns of the local communities; and 5.) The practice is consistent with sound ecological principles. Because of these attributes, agroforestry is classified as an agro-ecosystem, but the combination of perennial and annual crops makes agroforestry unique from other types of farm. Agroforestry systems exist in a variety of forms and hence classifying them may be useful. Agroforestry may be classified on the basis of crop combination, spatial relationships, temporal relations and cultural origin. Thus on the basis of crop combination we have “agri-silvicultural” for farms composed of agronomic crops and tree crops, and it is integrated with livestock it becomes “Agri-Silvipastural”. Systems featuring trees integrated with livestock is known as “Silvi-pastural”. Any of these systems may be integrated with fishpond and the name ramified by the addition of “with aquaculture”. On the basis of spatial relations, the system is regularly spaced if there is orderly pattern in the arrangement of the crops, otherwise it is randomly spaced although such could have been the result of the non-random decision of the farmer, like on-the-spot decision where the plant grows best. For example, an agri-silvicultural system such as alley cropping is regularly spaced while the agri-silvicultural multi-storied system may either be regularly spaced or randomly spaced. The system is multi-storied if the vertical profile of the farm is stratified in more than two layers, for example coconut + lanzones + coffee+ pineapple in one place. Much of the Southern Tagalog (Batangas and Cavite model) coconut-based farms are multi-storied regularly spaced systems, but most ethnic home gardens are multi-storied randomly spaced system.


On the basis of temporal relations, almost all mentioned farms so farm are classified as fixed systems because the use of the land is not shifted from one another. Those that cycle land, use rotational systems. A good example of rotational system is the improved fallow system of Naalad, Cebu, the Taungya system and ethnic swidden farms. On the basis of Cultural origins, the system is indigenous if ethnic as well as ordinary farmer communities have evolved the agroforestry farm. Agroforestry systems, which developed as a result of research by academicians and corporate practitioners, are a product of biological engineering or bioengineering. The various Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) of the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC) are examples of bioengineering agroforestry systems, while in contrast, the “muyong” system of Kiang an, Ifugao is a typical example of ethnic indigenous system. The agroforestry coconut-based farms are indigenous system culturally evolved by the people of Southern Tagalog.

In other words, agroforestry works on two premises:

a. Biological premise – advantage of forest on soil and environment. • Soil conservation and amelioration • Water conservation • Microclimate amelioration • Other benefits (e.g. aesthetic, wildlife, sanctuary, biodiversity)

b. Socio-economic premise – based on the potential of agroforestry in helping alleviate the socio economic conditions of the poor and landless upland farmers lacks resources/inputs, unemployed and are force to cultivate marginal lands. • Source of employment • Source of raw materials for handicraft/cottage industries • Source of food, energy (fuel wood), feed for livestock, medicine,

etc. • Source of raw materials for housing, farm implements, etc.

CRITERIA OF GOOD AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM The criteria for a sound or well-designed agroforestry system are productivity, sustainability, and adaptability with special emphasis on cultural compatibility.

1. Productivity Criterion

• Contributes to production of direct benefits (production of food, fodder, fuel, fiber, pole wood, etc)

• Indirect benefits as “service roles” like soil and water conservation (erosion control, mulch, etc.), fertility improvement (organic fertilizer, green manure, nutrient pump/cycling), microclimate amelioration (shelterbelt, shading), live fencing for windbreaks, etc.


• Increases farmer’s income from cash crops or from those in excess of the household consumption.

• Requires proper combinations of crops and technologies to achieve acceptable, if not the optimum, product mix to improve farmer’s conditions.

2. Sustainability Criterion

• Employs conservation strategies to ensure long-term productivity

even at the expense of decreased present productivity. • Can withstand sudden changes in weather, epidemics and market

productivity • Requires putting some form of incentive into the technology to ensure

adoption of conservation practices especially by those farmers who operate close to margin of subsistence (security of tenure, technical and financial support).

3. Adaptability Criterion

• Should be cultural acceptable/adaptable, e.g., compatible with their customs, tradition belief, etc?

• Farmers should have technical skills, financial resources and manpower to adopt it.

• To ensure adoption, the farmers should be involved directly in the planning and designing agroforestry systems.

GUIDELINES AND PRINCIPLES INVOLVED The whole agroforestry system remains technically feasible, economically viable, culturally acceptable and ecologically stable only when certain guidelines and principles are observed and carefully considered. Among these are:

1. Productive –Protective Principle. This ensures that the productive capacity of a given land unit is maximized while minimizing the destructive effects of particular management practice. In operational terms, this is done by minimizing tilling operation to minimize soil practices, which promote soil and soil moisture conservation as well as promote nutrient and mineral cycling within the system.

2. Choice of Species. This involves the careful selection of plant animal species that

will be grown and raised to increase production. Furthermore, it requires an in depth knowledge of the characteristic of the site, the potential species and the food/crop preferences of the people which are often manifested by the people’s cultural acceptability of the crops.


3. Crop Compatibility. Since agroforestry as a production system usually involves two or more crops in a given land unit, compatible species should be significantly considered. Normally, a species is chosen not because of its individual growing characteristic but because of its ability to be grown with other crops without adverse effects on itself and on the other crops, in most cases, the cultural management of the others which are simultaneously or sequentially growing within the same space.

4. Input Requirements. A major consideration in undertaking agroforestry activities

is the amount of input required to attain a desired level of output. Where crops and management practices require too expensive and unavailable input materials and knowledge, farmers are often not convinced by the farming alternative. Note that upland farmers for whom agroforestry is primarily directed to, are often not in a good position to financially support the expensive endeavors.

5. Sustainability of the System. This relates to the lifetime existence of agroforestry

as a production technology. Specially. It refers to the production of goods, services and amenities from a given agroforestry area on a continuing basis. This principle therefore underlines the importance of carefully choosing the appropriate crops and cultural management practices so as maintain the productive capacity of the land while ensuring ecological stability for a prolonged period of time.

System Components As in any other production system, agroforestry include various components, which are closely interrelated and interacting among each other and the outside environment. In broad categories however, we could group these components into the Environmental Components and Human Component.

1. The Environmental Component. This bigger component refers to the different sub-components like the environmental circumstances such as the physical components (e.g., land, water, etc.); the climate components; and the existing biological conditions in the site. These environmental circumstances directly affect the biological subsystem normally composed of trees, agricultural crops and animals that basically make up the agroforestry micro-ecosystem. From this biological subsystem, products, services and amenities are directly and/or directly obtained for domestic consumption, sale or enjoyment.

2. The Human Component. Man plays a vital role in maintaining the integrity of a

given agroforestry system. From a higher perspective of human circumstances, the societal factors dictating societal goals, socio-economic conditions and institutional resources affect to large extent the individual management subsystem, which directly manipulates the biological micro-ecosystem of agroforestry. Using most of the technical knowledge on improving a given production system, the human factor optimizes production while simultaneously minimizing environmental deterioration in a given agroforestry production area.


General Guidelines/Considerations in the selection of species and

spacing for Agroforestry The major features that have to be known are:

1. Climate Factors • Rainfall • Solar Radiation • Wind movement (direction and speed) • Frequency of occurrence of natural calamities (typhoons, fires, etc) • Temperature • Air humidity

2. Soil Factors

• Fertility • PH • Depth • Texture • Nature of parent materials • Permeability/ drainage/ aeration • Moisture regimes • Soil fauna composition

3. Topographic Factors • Elevations • Slope • Exposure to sunlight

4. Biotic Factors

• Influence of man • Fire • Domestic and wild animals • Pest, diseases, competing vegetations

The existing vegetation gives a valuable indication of site quality, itself being a

result of the interaction of climate, soil, topography and biotic factors.

Consideration in choosing species for planting:

1. Adaptability to the site; 2. Productivity in relation to the objective of the management 3. Resistance to pest and diseases 4. Seed supply availability


5. Establishment, whether easy or difficult 6. Regeneration characteristics 7. Economic returns, whether early or not

Since crops are mixed in an agroforestry system, it is important to know whether the species to be planted are compatible or not. In this respect, the following guidelines may be used:

1. Define the following • Dominant crop(s) • Cash crop(s) • Secondary crop(s) • Subsistence crop(s)

2. Choose shade-tolerant species as understorey of sun loving, upper-storey species.

3. Choose species not know to be host of pests and diseases of any of the other species in the mixture.

4. All species in the mixture should be adapted to the site.

To minimize competition between species and mixture, the following guidelines on spacing may be considered:

1. For permanent crops (e.g. trees)

• The spacing is governed by the width of the crown and extent of the root system at the peak of development (maturity)

2. In multi-storey system • Consider the canopy positions. Spacing that will maintain appropriate

crown stratification will lessen competition for light and crown space 3. For suckering plants (e.g. bananas, abaca, bamboos)

• The spacing is govern by their desired maximum spatial development 4. Choose species which occupy different root horizons

CURRENTLY USED AND POTENTIAL AGROFORESTRY CROPS IN

THE PHILIPPINES • Fuel wood/ Nurse Trees/ Hedgerow Trees

1. Ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala) 2. Agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia) 3. Kakawate (Gliciridia sepium) 4. Auriculiformis ( Acacia auriculiformis) 5. Katuray (Sesbania grandiflora) 6. Kamachile (Pithecelobium dulce) 7. Anchoan dilau (Cassia spectabilis) 8. Dapdap (Erythrina orientalis) 9. Flemingia (Flemingia congesta) 10. Rezonni (Desmodium renzonii)

• Pulpwood/ Nurse Trees/ Timber/ Polewood

1. Benguet Pine (Pinus kesiya)


2. Moluccan sau (Paraserianthes falcataria) 3. Yemane (Gmelina arborea) 4. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) 5. Mahogany (swietenia macrophylla)

• Fruit Trees

1. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 2. Nangka (Arocarpus heterophylla) 3. Coffee (coffea arabica, C.robusta) 4. Citrus 5. kalamansi (Citrus microcarpa) 6. Pomelo (C. grandis) 7. Mandarin (C. nobilis) 8. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) 9. Avocado (Persea americana) 10. Mango (Tamarindus indica) 11. Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

• Agronomic Crops

1. Abaca (Musa textiles) 2. Banana (Musa spp.) 3. Papaya (Carica papaya) 4. Black pepper (Piper nigrum) 5. Cadios (Cajanus cajan) 6. Cassava (Manihot utilissima) 7. Gabi (Colocasia spp.) 8. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) 9. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) 10. Corn (Zea mays) 11. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) 12. Mungbean (Vigna radiata) 13. Peanuts (Arachis hypogea) 14. Pineapple (Ananas comosus) 15. Tomato (Lycopersicom esculentum) 16. Sweet Potato (Ipomea batatas) 17. Eggplant (Solanum melongena) 18. Mulberry (Morus alba) 19. Beans

Below are the lists of suitable species for hedgerows in alley cropping. However, extension workers should not confine themselves to these species and should determine their capability with (a) site, (b) the agricultural intercrops, and (c) the end uses. Other species growing in the area, which possess the above qualities, should also be tried.


Scientific Name

Common Name

Uses Elevation Tolerance (meters)

Drought Tolerance

pH Additional/ other

characteristic A. Legumes

Calliandra callothyrsus

Red calliandra

EC/GM/FW/AF

0-2000

Moderate AcT Best range: 500-1500 m

Calliandra tetragona

White calliandra

EC/GM/FW/AF

0-2000

Moderate AcT

Gliciridia sepium

Madre de cacao

EC/GM/FW/AF

Good WT Best planted from seeds

Flamengia macrophylla

Flemingia EC/GM/AF

0-2000

Good WT Good shade tolerant

Cassia spectabilis

Antsoan dilao

EC/GM/FW

0-1500 Moderate AcT Does not fix nitrogen

Cassia siamea Thialand shower

EC/GM/FW

0-1500 Excellent WT Does not fix nitrogen

Desmodium renzonii

Renzonii EC /FW/A

F

0-1000 Moderate WT Not tolerant to lodging

Leucaena leucephala

Ipil-ipil EC/GM/FW/AF/P

0-1500 Good NAc Susceptible to psyllid

Leucaena diveesifolia

Acid ipil-ipil EC/GM/FW/AF/P

0-2000

Good AcT Less susceptible to

psyllid Cajanus cajan Pigeon pea EC/G

M/AF Moderate WT

B. Grasses Pennisetum purpureum

Napier EC/ AF

0-2000

Moderate WT

Pennisetum purpureum

(hybrid)

NB-21 grass

EC/ AF

0-2000

Good WT

Setaria sp. Setaria EC/ AF

0-2000 Good WT

Panicum maximun

Guinea grass

EC/ AF

0-2000

Excellent WT

Vetiveria zizamioides

Vetiver grass

EC 0-2000

Moderate WT

C. Other Plants

Ananas comosus

Pineapple EC /AF

0-1500 Moderate AcT

Hibiscus rosasinensis

Gumamela EC/GM/ AF

0-1500 Moderate WT


Note: A variety of additional plants are currently being tested for suitability as hedgerow species. These are not listed until they have proven appropriate.

Uses:

Ø Erosion control (EC), Ø Green manure (GM), Ø Fuel wood (FW), Ø Animal fodder (AF), Ø Source of food (F), Ø Poles (P)

Drought Tolerance:

Ø Excellent – withstand long drought period Ø Moderate – moderately tolerant of extended

dry period Ø Poor – requires high, evenly distributed rainfall

Soil Conditions: Ø AcT: Tolerance to acidic soil conditions Ø WT: Wide tolerance to soil conditions Ø Nac: Not tolerant to acid soil

Some Agroforestry Technologies and Practices Including Soil and Water Conservation Measure1

Agroforestry Technologies, Practices and

Soil and Water Conservation Measures Farm Area

Main Supplementary Optional

Boundary of the farm lot

Corner planting (planting of trees at the strategic corners of the farm lot)

• Use of trees either forest or fruit bearing trees;

• Use of seeds, seedlings or vegetatively propagated planting stock;

• Pollarding; • Intercropping with climbing

cash crops using trees as trellis;

• Establishment of additional fencing along the boundary.

At 5-10 meter adjacent to the boundary of the farm lot • Planting of banana

at 5m x 5m intercropped with shade tolerant fruit bearing trees.

Boundary planting (planting of trees with 5-10m interval along the boundary of the farm lot)

• Use of trees either forest or fruit bearing trees;


• Pollarding; • Intercropping with climbing



At 5-10 meter adjacent to the boundary of the farm lot • Planting of banana

at 5m x 5m intercropped with shade tolerant fruit bearing trees.

1 Based on the Implementation Manual for Participatory ISF Projects, July 1989


Agroforestry Technologies, Practices and Soil and Water Conservation Measures

Farm Area


Live fencing (planting of trees at 0.5 –1m interval along the boundary of the farm lot)

• Use of trees either forest; Use of seeds, seedlings or vegetatively propagated planting stock; • Pollarding • Intercropping with climbing


At 5-10 meter adjacent to the boundary of the farm lot Planting of one or more rows of root crops;


Planting of banana at 5m x 5m intercropped with shade tolerant fruit bearing trees

Combination of corner planting and live fencing

• Use of trees either forest or fruit bearing trees at the corner and forest trees in the live fencing;


• Pollarding for corner trees and pollarding of the live fence;

• Intercropping with climbing cash crops using trees as trellis;

At 5-10 meter adjacent to the boundary of the farm lot • Planting of one or

more rows of root crops;

• Planting of banana at 5m x 5m intercropped with shade tolerant fruit bearing trees.

Combination of boundary planting and live fencing

• Use of trees either forest or fruit bearing trees at 5 – 10m intervals and forest trees in the live fencing;


• Pollarding for boundary and pollarding of the live fence;

Intercropping with climbing cash crops using trees as trellis; • Establishment of additional

fencing along the boundary






Farm Area


Drainage canal (construction of drainage canal to serve as outlet of excess surface runoff)

• Construction of soil and water traps;

• Grass saddling of the drainage

Areas adjacent to the natural drainage

Planting of trees, bamboos and /or palms

• Use of trees (high valued trees or fruit bearing trees), bamboos and/or fruit bearing palms;


• Intercropping with climbing cash crops using trees, bamboos and palms as trellis;

• Pollarding of trees




Slope correction and planting with grasses

• Construction of Rauhbaum method of riverbank protection;

• Construction Groynes; • Plugging of riverbanks.

At 5-10 meter adjacent to the area • Planting of one or



Riprap planted with cuttings

• Construction of Rauhbaum method of riverbank protection;

• Construction Groynes; • Plugging of riverbanks.

At 5-10 meter adjacent to the area.

• Planting of one or more rows of root crops;

• Planting of banana at 5m x 5m intercropped with shade tolerant fruit bearing trees



Farm Area


Home lot Backyard orchard (fruit production for home consumption)

• Multi-storey cropping • Use of seeds, seedlings or

vegetatively propagated planting stock;

• Intercropping with climbing cash crops using trees, bamboos and

• Pasture area for small livestock

• Cover cropping

palms as trellis; • Pollarding; • Use of Multipurpose trees;

• Intercropping with climbing cash crops using trees as trellis

Backyard livestock (livestock production for home consumption)

• Livestock enclosed in shed/fenced or “on leashed”;

• Cut and curry feeding; • Golden kuhol / tilapia/ duck

production

• Live fencing of the home lot area using forage trees and/or intercropped with climbing forage crops;

• Construction of ponds

Backyard vegetable gardening (vegetable production for home consumption)

• Food always in home (FAITH);

• Bio-Intensive gardening; • Sequential planting or

staggered planting and harvesting;

• Mushroom / fungi culture

• Composting; • Vermiculture

Production Areas Agricultural (annual) production areas with less than 25% slope

Mono-cropping / Multi-cropping / relay cropping

• Mulching • Cover cropping • Crop rotation • Contouring • Strip cropping • Contour buffer planting • Hedgerows • Rock walling • Leevees • Terracing • Use of organic fertilizer • Use of indigenous plants • Fallow or accelerated fallow

• Construction of water impounding structure;

• Construction of irrigation / drainage canals;

• Use of multi purpose trees and plants as hedgerows for fruit/cash crop production, forage crop production;

• Tree farming;



Farm Area


• Livestock/ forage production;

• Tree plantation Livestock (small animal) forage production areas with 25° to 45°slope

Animal pasture/ grazing

• Use of fast growing forage trees at 4x4

• Use of forage grasses • Cover cropping

• Live fencing of the area for animal pasture;

• Pasture under trees

Cut and curry system

• Use of fast growing forage trees at 4x4

• Use of forage grasses • Cover cropping

• Construction of irrigation canals

• Construction of water impounding structures

Tree farming areas (products aside from wood) within 25° to 45°slope

Fruit bearing trees and plants

• Use of seeds and seedlings or vegetatively propagated planted stock

• Pollarding • Mono cropping,

intercropping or multi storey cropping

• Tree plantation • Bee culture • Mushroom / fungi

culture

Tree exudates/ exudants (resins, oil, latex)


• Mono cropping, intercropping or multi storey cropping


culture

Other products (fibers, flowers, leaves, etc.)




culture





Farm Area


Tree plantation (wood is the main product) greater than 45°

Firewood / fuel wood production

• Use of seeds, seedlings or vegetatively propagated planting stock


• Use of fast growing fuel wood species

• Use of fruit bearing and multi purpose fuel wood species

• Pollarding

Post, poles, piles and pulpwood production

• Use of seeds, seedlings as planting stock

• Use of fast growing tree species

• Monoculture or intercropping

High valued timber production

• Use of seedlings as planting stocks

• Use of high valued timber species

• Use of silvicultural practices, thinning, release cutting, pruning, etc.

Protection Area Other areas outside the farm lot

Natural drainage (rivers, creek, streams)

• Water impounding structure • Aquatic culture • Irrigation / domestic water

Other vacant areas (not drained and occupied)

• Watershed rehabilitation • Community woodlot • Community pasture


Objective # c:

I. FEATURES OF AGROFORESTRY

1. Agrisilvicultural Systems:

a.) Alley Cropping:

Alley cropping is one of the simplest and most widespread agroforestry practices in sloping lands in the country. It involves planting of hedgerows along the contours and growing agricultural crops in the alleys formed between hedgerows. The hedgerows are composed of one or more rows of woody perennials and are regularly pruned to prevent shading. The basic idea behind planting hedgerows is to minimize soil erosion by trapping sediments at the base of the hedgerows and reducing surface runoff velocity. After a few years, terraces are formed. In addition, if pruning are used as green manure, soil nutrients are replenished thereby promoting a more efficient nutrient cycle.

Alley cropping is more applicable in stabilizing and promoting the sustainability of the uplands (hilly lands) farm devoted to annual crops such as corn, rice and vegetables. Without hedgerows, these farms are most ecologically vulnerable with erosion rates up to 200t/ha as against the maximum acceptable level of 12t/ha.

b.) Multistorey System:

These systems are characterized by a random mix of various species that creates at least two (2) layers of canopy. It mimics the structure of a tropical rainforest with its attendant advantages. The upper canopy is composed of light demanding species while the understorey is made up of shade tolerant species.

Multistorey systems can be developed where there are existing monoculture (only one species) plantations, such as coconuts and forest trees plantations, layer of shade tolerant crops and can usually be planted in the understorey provided enough light is available or may be available.

c.) Boundary Planting:

Planting of Multi Purpose Trees Species (MPTS) around the farm is very common practice, providing protection, privacy and vulnerable products of the farmers.

d.) Windbreaks:

Windbreaks are strips of vegetation composed of trees, shrubs, and vines to protect croplands from strong winds. They can provide protection to crops over a distance equivalent to 15-20 times the height of the trees in the windbreak. In arid and semi arid regions where they are more common, they can also help minimize wind erosion and reduce moisture loss.


e.) Improved Fallow System:

In many tropical countries, there are attempts to improved traditional shifting cultivation. This is done usually by supplementing the fallow vegetation to hasten the rejuvenation of the soil during fallow period. Instead of waiting for nature to revegetate an abandoned field, leguminous nitrogen-fixing MPTS can be planted.

One of the most unique indigenous systems of improved fallow is found in Naalad, Naga on the island of Cebu. There are two (2) improvements over the traditional fallow system.

First, instead of waiting for natural succession to processes to revegetate the fallow, the farmer planted ipil-ipil to shorten the fallow period from 10 or more years to only 5-6 years.

Second, at the end of the fallow period, farmers cut the ipil-ipil but instead of burning the biomass as they do in shifting cultivation, they file them along the contours to form a fascine-like structure locally known as “balabag” or “babag” which help conserve the soil. The “balabag” are space from 1 to 2 meters and the alleys formed in between are to corn and tobacco.

f.) Taungya System:

The Taungya system involves the planting of cash or food crops between newly planted forest seedlings in a reforestation project. Farmers are allowed to raise crops in exchange for planting and maintaining forest seedlings. After 2-3 years, depending on the tree spacing and the tree species, the canopy closes and the light-demanding annual crops can no longer be planted. A pure tree plantation results. Farmers may then transfer to other open areas to repeat the process. This can be applied using different reforestation species.

2. Silvipastural System

a. Livestock-Under-Tree System:

Animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) are allowed to graze freely underneath the relatively mature tree plantations. These plantations are for wood or fruit production.

A good example is the silvipasture scheme of the Nasipit Lumber Company in Agusan. The cattle are allowed to graze under the lumbang (Aleurites moluccanna) trees where improved forage grasses were grown. The scheme proved to be mpractical and economical because the plantation, while producing nuts for linseed oil, is simultaneously producing meat from grazing cattle. Furthermore, cattle keeps the grasses trimmed down, saving labor cost in cleaning the plantation, and making it easy to collect the fallen lumbang nuts. Furthermore, the dung of the animals scattered over the plantation area serve as excellent organic fertilizer.


b. Protein Bank (Fodder Bank) System:

Leguminous fodder trees or shrubs (e.g. ipil-ipil, kakawate, Renzonii, desmodium, etc.) maybe established as small stands on certain portion of the farm or pasture areas. These serve as a supplementary source of protein-rich fodder for livestock. They are grown intensively for maximum fodder production. They are also fenced-off and regularly pruned. The top and branch prunings are then fed to animals. c. Live Fence System:

Rows of trees or shrubs whose foliage are palatable to livestock are grown around certain grassland area enclosing the grazing animals inside. Aside from the trees’ role as live fence, they can be manage (e.g. regular top pruning to encourage more lateral branching) such that the enclosed animals can browse on the low-lying branches for fodder supplement. d. Improved Alley cropping with Improved Pasture Grasses and or Fodder Trees

or Shrubs:

Hedgerows or fodder trees or shrubs ( e.g. Desmodium resonii, ipil-ipil, kakawate, Flamingia congesta, Sesbania sp. and etc.) are planted along contour at certain intervals. The strips between the hedgerows are grown with improved pasture grasses and/or other fodder shrubs. Pruning from hedgerows, grasses and fodder trees and shrubs are fed to the confine animals. An example is the Simple Agro-Livestock Technology (SALT 2) develop by the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center at Bansalan, Davao del Sur.

3. Agrisilvipastural System a. Agrisilvicultural System Transformed to Silvipastural System

In this system, the original cropping combinations are tree seedlings and annual agricultural crops as in the Taungya system. As the tree grows and close its canopies later, it will no longer be possible to grow annual agricultural crops. Instead, shade-tolerant grasses and vines will take over the forest floor where animals are allowed to graze freely as in “Livestock-under-trees” system. b. Multistorey System + Animals

This is similar to multistorey system developed under agrisilvicultural system except that in this case, grazing animals are an added component. A good example is the coconut-lanzones mixture, with horses or cattle grazing under them as observed in some upland areas in South Cotabato c. Alley cropping with pasture Grasses and Agricultural Crops

This is similar to alley cropping with pasture grasses described earlier except that some of the strips (alley) are planted with agricultural crops.


II. Agroforestry Component Technologies

1. Soil and Water Conservation Measures

Among the priority areas to consider in the practice of agroforestry is the harmonious balance between food production and environmental protection. Soil and water conservation is an important strategy for sustainable crop production and environmental conservation.

The following technologies for soil and water conservation are recommended for any agroforestry system. a. Vegetative Measures:

Hedgerows. This is a collective name for strips of vegetative planted alone the contour or across a hill or mountain-side in order to slow down the flow of surface runoff and movement of detached soil particles. Construction and lay out of the hedgerows is discussed under the alley cropping system of previous section. Fascines. These are simply bundles of long and dense brushwood. For soil/slope stabilization, the fascines can range in diameter from 25 to 30 cm with 1 to 1.5 m in length. In this case, the fascine can be up to 14 kgs in weight and it is quite handy to transport. Wattling. This consists of stems/rods of sprouting species, like wild sunflower, bamboo, and buyo-buyo (Imelda), interwoven together.

b. Mechanical/ Structural Measures:

In cases where vegetation cannot be immediately established, mechanical/ structural measures are recommended to control soil movement or erosion. These are different types of such measures, but the following are recommended in agroforestry farms: bench terracing, contour levees, and contour canals/trenches. These are on-farm soil and water conservation measures. Bench terracing. This consists of level or nearly level strips built along contours at appropriate intervals. This terracing technology is suitable for steep slopes up to 55% to reduce surface flow and soil erosion, as well as to increase the soil infiltration rate. Contour Levee. This is an embankment made either of grasses, stones or hard soil mass or combinations of these materials. Contour canal/ditch. The canal/ditch is dug along the contour line and connected to a natural waterway to carry away excess water.


2. Soil Fertility Maintenance/ Improvement a. General considerations

The ultimate objective of soil and water conservation is to maintain the soil’s ability to support plant growth and, for crop production purposes, to enable it to sustain high yields. Thus, the effectivity of and soil and water conservation practices should be measured in terms of its ability to maintain soil fertility and productivity. b. Determining nutrient Deficiency in Plants

The most reliable methods to determine the fertilizer or nutrient needs of crops is by

field fertilizer trials. This however, requires a very long time and a lot of expenses. c. Fertilizer Application

Fertilizers can either be in organic or inorganic form. Both have been used quite extensively and intensively in agriculture to the point that fertilizer in any form has become almost fixed production inputs. Recent experiences have shown, especially in developing countries like the Philippines, that chemical fertilizers are prohibitively expensive. It has also been reported to have some negative effects on the chemical characterization of the soil. Thus, the use of organic materials appears to be the only logical alternative. Although much of the cost and benefits from organic fertilizers maybe difficult to value, it has nevertheless been long established that organic farming brings long term productivity to the land.

3. Crop Management a. Perennials (Fruit and Plantation Crops)

Plant propagation. Plants can be propagated either by seeds (sexual) or by cuttings (asexual). Seed propagation is generally simple and cheap. One can have several seeds as planting materials especially during harvesting season. When the recommended variety of the crop is a hybrid, seeds are used as planting materials. Examples are hybrids of coconut and cacao. In some crops, commercial propagation can only be done using seeds as in papaya. However, reproduction from seeds results in plants that are not true-to-type; especially those coming from cross-pollinated crops like robusta coffee and coconut, among others.


Types of Agroforestry System (Advantages, Limitations, and Factors of Adoption)

Alley cropping

– Involves growing nitrogen fixing crops such as legumes, renzonii, flamengia and grasses to protect the soil/ground surface from the impacts of raindrops, which cause soil detachment and dispersion and an increase permeability and water infiltration rate through biological loosening effect of the root system.

Contour Tillage/ Planting

Contour tillage or planting is practiced on slopping lands to reduce soil erosion and surface runoff. A contour is an imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation on the ground surface, perpendicular to the direction of slope. Structure and plants are established along the contour lines following the configuration of the ground. Contour planting may involve construction of soil traps, bench terraces or bunds, or the establishment of hedgerows. Contour tillage is being promoted in the Southeast Asian region for sustainable upland farming. Different patterns. The SALT system practiced in the Philippines is a good example of contour farming.


AAdvantagesdvantages LimitationsLimitations

• Reduces runoff and soil erosion. • Reduces nutrient loss. • Cultivation is faster if using draft animals or

machinery since the equipment moves along the same elevation.

• Improperly laid-out contour lines can increase the risk of soil erosion.

• Labor-intensive maintenance. • Needs a special skill to determine contour

lines.

Factors affecting adoption

BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • Increased productivity and soil condition

are attractive. • Trapping water in the furrows increases

infiltration and production.

• In some marginal lands, laws do not allow the construction of engineering structures; so contour planting is an appropriate alternative.

• In some areas, people find it easier to cultivate the soil up an down the slope using hand tools.

Strip cropping – Refers to the growing of row crops (erosion permitting) and soil conserving crops in alternate strips aligned on the contour. This is desirable in rolling areas (with a slope of up to 35%) where construction of terraces is not practical because of the possibility of exposing the subsoil or even the bedrocks.


Relay Cropping

– Practice of planting two or more annual crops with the second crop planted after the first crop has

flowered or nearing harvest. Objective is to allow the second crop to make use of the residual moisture and to continuously protect the soil from erosive rains all through the years.

Multiple cropping This practice aims to increase productivity with

providing protection of the soil from erosion. The technique involves either sequential cropping in growing of two or more crops a year in sequence,

intercropping, the growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land at the same time


Hedgerows

Hedgerows are one of the simplest erosion control practices on sloping land (see Ridge terraces and

Contour tillage). Nitrogen-fixing trees/shrubs,

grasses, fruit trees or other crops, such as pineapples or banana, are planted

in rows along the contour. Various tree and crop species are established in the hedgerows to enhance farm income and diversity. Hedgerows help slow down the passage of rainwater and trap soil to gradually form natural terraces. They also improve soil fertility and crop production. Contour hedgerow cultivation is an indigenous practice in Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand and is now adopted in many other countries.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Reduces soil erosion. • Improve soil fertility and soil moisture. • Provides biomass for green leaf manure. • Provides shading for young plants. • Serves as a source of fodder, fuel wood

and light construction materials. • Provides a source of mulch.

• Loss of land for cultivation due to establishment of contour hedgerow (at least 20% of cultivated land is used).

• Hedgerows compete with food crops planted between the rows for light, soil nutrients and moisture (in dry season). Root pruning and trimming can limit this competition.

• Hedgerow plants may be hosts to pests. • Effective retention of excess water may

result in soil slippage on steep slopes.


Biophysical Socioeconomic • Low or high temperature may cause

sterility of some hedgerow species. • It is difficult to establish contour hedgerows

on very steep lands (>50 degrees). • Most nitrogen-fixing species are not

adapted to acid soils.

• Lack of selected seeds/tree stock. • Lack of money to purchase seeds/tree

stock. • Lack of time /labor to establish contour

hedgerows. • Lack of land ownership/tenure. • Farmers fear the hedgerows produce no

food with their food crops and harbors pests.

• Farmers who use traditional cultivation tools and methods (e.g., hoes, or planting down the slope) do not like hedgerows


because they are inconvenient.

Crop rotation Refers to the systematic planting of different crops in succession on the same piece of land. This practice promotes the build up of organic matter, improves soil structure and promotes rapid infiltration of water in a long run.

Considering its widespread adoption, crop rotation is arguably the most important crop management practice in Southeast Asia. Various crop species are grown in sequence, one after another, in the same part of the farm or field. These cropping patterns can vary from year to year; but they are designed to achieve a common result: better soil physical and nutrient composition.

Each crop places a different demand on the soil in which it is grown. Likewise, each crop leaves some amount of beneficial residue or performs some action on the physical structure of the soil. A good crop rotation takes into account each crop’s characteristic-what it takes and gives back to the soil –so that the net effect is improved soil.

In agroforestry systems, the perennial crop component can be changed after a number of years. This would be considered one rotation. The agricultural crop component can follow a shorter rotation period, usually less than one year. Agroforestry requires a longer-term approach to rotations, involving a wider variety of crops, each with a unique production cycle. A typical crop rotation is rice-mungbean-corn-peanuts. Since legume crops increase soil nitrogen, mungbean ( Vigna sinensis) is planted after rice ( Oryza sativa), to replenish some of the nitrogen and other nutrients taken by the rice. Likewise, peanuts (Vigna radiata), with its nitrogen-fixing ability and positive effects on soil, can be grown after corn (Zea mays), which places relatively high demands on the soil.


AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations

• Very effective in improving soil fertility. • Reduces nutrient drain. • Helps sustain crop production. • Diversifies crop production. • Helps controls pests and diseases.

• May be difficult where input supplies are poor.

• Less applicable for long term-crops.

• May require a farmer to plant a crop, which is not the highest priority.

• Demands more skills of the farmers.


BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • While nutrient supplements are still required, crop

rotation lends itself to sustained crop production. • Crop rotation can be designed to work well in poor soil

condition.

• Can produce increased income in the long run, but may yield lower income in the short run.

• Can supply a varied diet. • Short-term tenure discourages

conservation objectives. • Can have a high labor demand-

a problem especially in areas with seasonal migrations.

• Precludes intensive crop production in the off-season.

Contour Rock wall Contour rock walls – they are more permanent structures, which are built in areas with abundant rocks. A one-meter wide area is leveled to provide a good base for the wall.


Check dams/ Soil traps

Simple

structure that can stop gully erosion by slowing down water flow in the drainage

system. Soil traps are structures constructed to harvest soil eroded from the upper slopes of the catchment. The most common types of soil traps are check dams and trenches, built in diversion ditches or waterways.

A check dam slows down the water flow and allows heavier soil particles to settle. The size of the check dam depends on the size of the drainage or gully to be protected. Check dams can be built of Gliricidia stakes, bamboo, loose rocks, logs other locally

available materials. Trenches are built to trap soil along the waterways and complement the function of check dams. A trench is dug about 1-2 meters above the check dam, at least 0.8 m deep, 1.0 m long and 0.5 m wide. A variation is to construct the trench at the lower portion of the field just above a bund. The purpose is to trap and to store water temporarily to increase infiltration. The accumulated soil in the trenches and dams is returned to the field.

Advantages Limitations

• Prevents widening and deepening of gullies.

• Promotes the depositions of nutrients-rich, highly fertile sediments.

• Reduces the velocity of runoff in gullies. • The area where soil accumulates can be

used for growing crops.

• Requires continuous desilting to prevent overtopping during heavy rains.

• Check dams require regular repair and maintenance.



Biophysical Socioeconomic • Materials for making check dams may be

unavailable.

• Damage to check dams must be repaired and trenches desilted frequently.

• Soil traps constructed without the necessary support structures may be ineffective.

Bench Terraces

Bench terraces are soil and water conservation measure used on sloping land with relatively deep soils to retain water and control erosion. They are normally constructed by cutting and filling to produce a series of level steps or benches. This allows water to infiltrate slowly into soil. Retaining banks of soil

or stone on the forward edges reinforces bench terraces. This practice is typical for rice-based cropping systems

In China, a modification of bench terraces includes an interval slope planted with perennials and grasses between individual terraces. This system is suitable where soil erosion is critical, rainfall is low and labor and farm manure is not typically available. Shrubs or herbs can also be grown on the edges of the terraces.

Advantages Limitations • Effectively controls soil and water runoff

and erosion. • Traps sediment in the drainage ditches

built along the terrace. • Reduces slope length. Every 2-3 meters of

slope length is leveled to terraces. The velocity of water running down the slope is greatly reduced.

• Improves soil fertility over the long run

• Initially disturbs the soil, reducing productivity in the first 2-3 years.

• Needs intensive labor and investment for construction and maintenance.

• Need skills for proper constructions. • Terraced fields with an interval slope

consume much land.



Biophysical Socioeconomic

• Not suitable for shallow and slipping upland soils.

• Not suitable for potato growing since the terrace tends to become waterlogged.

• Terraces with interval slopes can be used in regions with little rainfall.

• Labor shortages and low incomes make bench terraces difficult for farmers to adopt in some areas.

• Lack of secure land tenure serves as a disincentive to long-term construction measures, such as terraces.

• In areas with poor soils, the terraces have a low return on investment.

Water Catchments

Water availability for upland agriculture can be improved by small-scale impoundment to capture and store rainwater for irrigation. Small –scale water harvesting is most successful when operated as system with three

components: the watershed or catchments are that generates the runoff, the reservoir which holds or collects the runoff; and the service area where the harvest water is used for production. A catchments area of sufficient size is needed to drain water into the reservoir.

The amount of runoff generated depends on the catchments characteristic and rainfall pattern (amount, duration and intensity); hence, the variability of catchments sizes. In parts of the Philippines with an animal rainfall of 1200-1500 mm,

catchments are of 0.2 to 0.5 ha of terrace rice land yields 1000-m cube of water for storage in the reservoir. For grassland and residential areas, a catchments area of about 0.6 to 1.0 ha is enough to fill the same volume. Water harvesting is also possible in areas with low rainfall (300-500 mm per year), but larger catchments areas are necessary.


Small-farm reservoir sites are suitable in elevated or depressed areas (valleys) where irrigation is possible by natural flow. Sites that are communally owned should be properly managed to ensure sharing among the intended beneficiaries. Places with spring or flowing streams to ensure a year-round water supply are good sites for reservoirs. Topography that is undulating or rolling with slopes of 2 to 18% is desirable.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Improves food production (crops, fish, fruit

trees, etc.) • Promotes conservation and ecological

balance. • Involves low investments cost per hectare. • Easy to construct. • Provides alternative (often high-return)

uses to offset sacrificed land area. • Protects against drought. • Allows irrigation by gravity ( no additional

power cost). • Mostly individually owned; hence, minimal

social problems.

• Requires large amount of labor. • High seepage and evaporation losses

possible (depending on soil type). • Floating vegetation may infest reservoir. • Uncontrolled runoff in high intensity rainfall

areas can overtop and damage the embankment.

• Poor design and management can lead to erosion and flooding.


BiopBiophysicalhysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic

• Soils that have high seepage and percolation rates may require lining.

• Farmers may be unwilling to sacrifice a portion of their land for a reservoir.

• Land tenure status can influence the investment decision.

• Labor may be insufficient. • Funds or credit services may be

unavailable. • Engineering knowledge (both for

constructing the impoundment and managing the irrigation system) is required

Riprap

Riprap – rocks fitted/filled on top of each other to form retaining walls. Installed primarily on important and problem areas including road banks, bridges approached stream banks, and other high-hazard erosion areas


Soil Barriers

Balabag/ babag – primarily aims to arrest the downward

movement of soil especially after heavy rains, thus extending the productivity of the marginal slopes. In addition, the practice also improved

and maintains soil fertility (considering the fertilizer trapping of the babag) particularly the organic matter contribution of the decayed wood to the soil. Soil barriers slow down runoff and retain the soil lost by sheet erosion. They may be made of wood or rocks; over time, they may develop into fences of trees and shrubs. In Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, barriers are constructed with logs and branches across the slope. These are placed against wooden stakes driven into the ground. The upper side of the barrier is filled with grass and other materials to act as a sediment trap. The width of the cropland between barriers depends on the slope gradient, but is usually 4m to 8m. Crops such as maize, sweet potato and tobacco are planted in the alley.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Slows down surface runoff. • Retains sediment behind the fences. • If properly maintained, natural terraces

develop over time. • Allows cultivation even on steep slopes

that may not otherwise be feasible to crop.

• Wooden barriers do not usually last for more than 2-5 years.

• Barrier construction requires significant labor.


BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • More likely to be adopted if land with more

moderate slopes is not available to grow crops.

• Labor to build barriers may not be available.

• Allows a farmer to grown relatively high-value crops on slopes otherwise impossible to cultivate (e.g., tobacco in the Philippines).


Grass strips Planting grasses along contour lines creates barriers to minimize soil erosion and runoff. It induces a process of natural terracing on slopes as soil collects behind the grass barrier, even in the first year. Grass can be planted along the bottom and sides of ditches to stabilize them and to prevent erosion of the upper slope. Grasses can also be planted on the risers of the bench terraces to prevent erosion and maintain the stability of the benches. Grasses are trimmed regularly (every 2-4 months) to prevent them from flowering, shading and spreading to the cropped area between the strips. Thus, grass strips can be very appropriate for farmers who cut and carry fodder for their animals. Grasses can also be used as much for crops.

On hillsides, grass seeds

or tillers are planted in double rows (50 cm part) along the contour with varying distances between the double rows. In ditches, tillers are planted in a triangular pattern at a spacing of 30 cm x 20 cm. Examples of grass species commonly used are : setaria (Setaria anceps), ruzi grass (Bachiaria ruziiensis), napier or elephant grass (Pannsetum purpureum), guinea grass (Panicum maximum), NB21 ( Napier crossed with pearl millet), lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) and vetiver ( Vetiveria zizanoides).

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Controls soil erosion and runoff. • Provides fodder. • Grass can be used as much.

• Labor is required for management of grass strips.

• Ruzi grass can root itself from cuttings. • Mulching of grass cutting may contribute to

the weed problem. • Uses land, which may otherwise be used

for food production.



BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • Not applicable on steep slopes or areas

with long-duration rainfall. • In dry area, grasses cannot withstand

drought.

• Farmers may not have time to manage intensively, resulting in weed problems.

• In traditional farming systems where livestock graze freely, farmers may not wish to use cut-and-carry practices.

• Farmers feel that grasses serve as a refuge for rodents, which threaten food crops.

• Planting materials are not available in many upland locations.

• If farmers do not own livestock, they have little incentive to plant grasses.

Cover crops Cover crops are grown to protect the soil from erosion and to improve it through green manuring (the plowing-under of a green crop other fresh organic material). These are usually short-tern (less than two years), planted in fields or under trees during fallow periods. Cover crops are also interplanted or relay-planted with grain crops such as maize, or planted once in a cropping cycle. Cover cropping is practiced in the Philippines and other Asian countries to suppress weeds under rubber and coconut plantations and to provide forage for animals. Cover crops can also be used in fallow systems to improved soil fertility quickly and shorten the fallow period. Most of the plants used as cover and green manure belong to the legume family. Examples are: Desmanthus virgtus Phaseolus atropurpureus Centrocema pubescens Clitoria ternatea ( butterfly pea) Sesbania rostrata Vigna radiata (mungbean) Pueraria phaseloides (kudzu) Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) Desmodium heterophylla Tephrosia candida


AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Improves soil fertility and physical and

chemical properties. • Reduces soil erosion and water loss. • Suppresses weeds. • Reduces needs for fertilizer and

herbicides. • Provides human food and animal forage. • Increases soil organic matter. • Helps retain moisture in the soil and

prevent soil from drying . • Some cover crops can provide good cash

income through sale of products (e.g., pods, seeds)

• May compete for soil moisture and nutrients with the perennial crops.

• Involves additional farm labor and input. • May result in weed problems. • Some cover crop species may contain

chemicals, which inhibit subsequent crop growth.

• Rats or snakes may hide in dense cover crop foliage.


BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • Not applicable on steep slopes. • Contributes to improved soil fertility. • Some cover crops are prolific seeders and

difficult to control; while other species do not seed well under some climatic conditions.

• Reduces the need for herbicides and labor required for weed control.

• May not appeal to farmers with short-term tenure.

• Cover crop generates lower short-term income.

• Cover crops often do not yield a product that has tangible benefits (i.e., food, seed, etc.)

• Many cover crop species are palatable to livestock. They can produce good fodder but be difficult to established if livestock are allowed to graze.

Diversion Ditches

Diversion ditches are constructed along the contour lines and across slopes for the purpose to intercept surface runoff and divert it to suitable outlets. These ditches are the main soil conservation structures to manage runoff in upland areas. Diversion ditches are dug at varying intervals, depending on the steepness of the slope; the

steeper the slope, the closer the interval. Ditches follow the contour; they are 1 meter wide


at the top, 0.5 meter wide at the bottom and 0.5 deep. Another variation is a waterway or drainage canal. A drainage canal is similar to a diversion ditch except that it is larger and deeper. It is normally dug along the boundary of an upland parcel of land, redirecting the runoff around the parcel. In Papua Guinea, down slope drains also function as sediment traps. Waterways dispose of the excess flow in diversion drains and surface runoff and channel it to natural drainage channels.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Protects cultivated land form hillside runoff. • Controls gully erosion. • Slows down the erosive power of runoff

• If not properly designed, the ditches can overflow on to the farms during heavy rain.

• Needs support structures such as check dams and drops to effectively control erosion.

• Needs continuous repair and desilting. Factors affecting adoption

BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • To be effective, ditches must be

constructed along graded lines. Farmers need to know how to use the A-frame or water-tube level for determining grades.

• Part of the cultivable area is lost for constructing a ditch.

• Discharging water into a neighboring farmer’s waterway can cause social conflicts.

Drop Structures

Drop structures are constructed to slow the flow of water in channels. In a steeply sloping channel, erosion can be controlled by allowing the water to flow over a series of steps, or drop structures. Though effective, these structures are quite expensive for ordinary farmers to construct. Drop structures are more effective when combined with check cams.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimiLimitationstations • Controls the upstream water velocities to

reduce erosion. • Drops the water flow to a lower level. • Dissipates the excess energy of water flow. • Controls downstream erosion.

• Requires some skill to construct



BiophysBiophysicalical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • Drop structures built of wood may rot over

time; it may be necessary to use preservatives

• Expensive to construct when materials other than logs or stones are use.

• Complex designs using concrete require skill to construct.

• Unless the causes of the excessive upstream runoff are also addressed, the drop structure will not be effective over the long run.

Composting

Compost is a type of organic

fertilizer derived

from the decomposition of plant and

animal wastes. It is an excellent source of plant nutrients. Composting is common in home gardens. There are many ways to prepare compost (in a pit, above ground, in a field, near a livestock pen, etc.), depending on various socioeconomic and biophysical factors. The use of composed is a traditional soil fertility management practice throughout Southeast Asia. Composting involves the decompositions of plant and animal wastes. The decomposition process involves bacteria, beetles and earthworms. Moisture content, an adequate supply of air and temperature control is important parameters for quality

compost production. A variation of these systems

is practiced in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea with volcanic ash soils between 1600 and 2800 m. In this practice, large mounds of soil are built up and sweet potato vines, weeds and grasses are collected and

placed in the center of the mound. These are left up to 10 weeks for the decomposition process to start. Then, the mounds and biomass are covered with soil, and sweet potato vines are randomly planted on the mound. Often, a second crop like Pyrethrum is planted at the edges of the mounds. Sweet potato takes up to 11 months to mature at 2800 m. Sequential harvesting is practiced so that only large tubers are taken, leaving the rest in the ground for future harvest. Composed mounds are common on slopes up to 10 degree. They can sustain production for up to 40 years.


AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Decaying compost generates nutrients for

crops. • Decaying compost generates heat, which

maintains temperature at optimum levels for tuberization, despite very low night temperature at high altitudes (Papua Guinea).

• Mounds are good for tuberization since the volume of rooting zone is increased.

• Compost mounds require a large quantity of plant material (up to 40 tons/ha).

• Cannot be used in the lowlands where severe weed infestation is a problem.

• Cannot be practice on steep slopes. • High labor requirement


BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • May not be needed on soils high in organic

matter. • Must have adequate supply of biomass. • Biomass requirements may be difficult to

meet in drier climates.

• Labor is needed to harvest, haul and distribution the organic matter.

• In some societies, it is not acceptable to handle animal drug.

Minimum tillage/zero tillage

In this system, simple farm implements such as hoes and digging sticks are used to prepare land and

plant food crops. Minimum tillage is common and effective in controlling soil erosion, particularly on highly erodible and sandy soils. Examples of minimum

tillage operation are rice cropping systems in Vietnam and Thailand and taro cultivation in the Papua New Guinea lowlands.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations

• Lessens the direct impact of raindrops on bare soil, thus minimizing soil erosion.

• Minimizes degradation of soil structure. • Slows down the rate of mineralization,

leading to more sustained use of nutrients in the organic matter.

• Requires less labor than full tillage. • Can be practice on marginal soils that

might not otherwise be feasible to cultivate.

• Inadequate seedbed preparation may lead to poor establishment and low yield of crops such as maize and sweet potato.

• Rooting volume may be restricted in soils with massive structures



BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic

• Under no-burn swidden conditions, the soil is covered with tree litter and brush, making it difficult to plow

• Provides an alternative to cultivation using draft animal power.

• Farmers is swidden systems traditionally use and are familiar with minimum tillage practices

Mulching

Mulching is a soil and water conservation practice in which a covering of cut grass, crop residues or other organic materials is spread over the ground, between rows of crops or around the trunks of treed. This practice helps to retain soil moisture, prevents weed growth and enhances soil structure. It is commonly used in areas subject to drought and weed infestation. The choice of the mulch depends on

locally available materials. The optimal density of soil cover ranges between 30% and 70%. In alley-cropping systems, hedgerow biomass is often as mulch. In orchards, cover crops may also be used as live mulches, especially around young trees that are well established. Another strategy is to leave crop residues on the

ground after harvesting )e.g., pineapple tops, corn stover, rice straw, etc.). This ensures that some nutrients are taken up by the plant and returned to the soil.

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Intercepts the direct impact of raindrops on

bare soil and reduces runoff and soil loss. • Suppresses weeds and reduces labor

costs of weeding. • Increases soil organic matter. • Improves soil chemical and physical

properties. • Increases the moisture-holding capacity of

the soil • Helps to regulate soil temperature

• Possible habitat for pest and diseases. • Not applicable in wet conditions. • Difficult to spread evenly on steep land. • Lack of available materials suitable for

mulching. • Some grass species used as mulch can root

and become a weed problem



BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomiSocioeconomicc • Suited to areas with limited or irregular

rainfall. • Insufficient availability of mulch may be a

constraint in upland areas.

• Farmers are used to burning crop residues instead of returning them to the soil.

• Labor for collecting mulch and applying it is a problem.

• Mulch is more important in home gardens or valuable horticulture crops than in less intensive farming systems.

Ridge Terraces A ridge terrace consists of a furrow and ridge, constructed along the contour on sloping land (usually less than 15%). Its purpose is to control soil loss and trap water. Grasses and legume trees are usually used to stabilize the ridge, but fruit trees, banana and cassava are also commonly used. During the wet season, the furrow fills with sediment and farmers put this back on the their land. Variations on ridge terraces include alley cropping, contour tillage and slopping agricultural land technology (SALT).

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Effectively controls runoff and erosion on

moderate slopes. • The furrow behind the ridge traps sediment

and nutrients. • Relatively low labor inputs are required

compared to bench terracing. • There is minimum disturbance of soil-

particularly on shallow upland soils.

• Less effective in controlling erosion than bench terraces.

• Takes time and labor to establish a stable ridge.

• Needs proper maintenance, since the ridge can break, channel runoff and result in rills.


BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • If livestock are present, grasses or tree

legumes can be grown on ridges to provide fodder.

• Intense rain can wash away ridges, especially in the first two years when they are not firmly established.

• Ridges on sandy or unstable soils do not stand up well.

• Bench terrace construction on state-owned land is prohibited in some countries, so ridge terraces are the next best alternate. This also relate to the tenure problem (Indonesia).

• Farmers with limited labor appreciate the relative ease of constructing ridge terraces compared to bench terraces.

• Grass and other fodder species grown on the ridges are sometimes seen as competing with food crops and are removed, thus weakening the ridge.


Shifting Cultivation

This form of low-input agriculture and fallow management is common in Southeast Asia, particularly in rice, taro and cassava-based systems. It is commonly referred to as swidden cultivation. If managed properly, it can be considered a sustainable practice,

particularly in sparsely populated areas. In this system, the underbrush is cut, then, most of the

trees are felled. Certain tree species are left to stand and branches are pruned. In most places, underbrush is burned; but in parts of Papua New Guinea, no burn practices are used. The branches and leaves are slashed and may be laid along the contour. Food crops are then planted using minimum tillage practices, such as dibble or digging sticks

AdvantagesAdvantages LimitationsLimitations • Slowly releases nutrients from the forest

biomass to the soil (no-burn practice in Papua New Guinea).

• Helps control weeds in the first three months, enabling crops to grow quickly (burn and no burn).

• Retains soil moisture. • Easy method of clearing rainforest for

permanent agriculture. • Minimizes direct impact of raindrops on soil

surface (no burn). • Suitable for root crops and banana-based

cropping systems.

• Increases soil and nutrient loss. • Burning loses soil nitrogen. • Only simple land preparation (i.e.,

minimum or zero tillage) is possible.



BiophysicalBiophysical SocioeconomicSocioeconomic • Optimal planting density cannot

be obtained on slopping land due to difficulty of planting.

• High labor input for clearing, especially under tropical forest condition.

• Not suitable for allow under 10 years due to existence of undesirable weedy species. ( Papua New Guinea)

• Suitable only in areas with low population density. • Many farmers believe that burning improves soil

fertility (Thailand)

Steps in the

DIAGNOSIS and DESIGN of Agroforestry Steps Source documents

Gather secondary data about the area: o History of vegetation and previous

development activities; o Sitio profile

o Biophysical data: soil, topography, rainfall o Community Watershed Plan

o Land Classification and tenure status o Sitio profile

1

o Predominant ethnic grouping o Sitio profile Transect

o Conduct transect of project area to identify primary crops and livestock;

o Base map o Community

watershed plan 2

o Identify marketing arrangements o Farming system Major Crops

o Define the dominant cultural practices of the major crops grown in the area

o Sitio profile o Crop to crop

analysis o Identify ways to optimized yield through

change in cultural practices o Sitio profile

3

o Define what is needed to effect the change: Knowledge, skills, materials, etc.

o Sitio profile

4

Gather Household Data o Number of members in the household, ages,

gender and occupation o Household own assets; o Source of income: farm and off farm income

on a monthly basis for one calendar year; o Household expenditure pattern

o Individual farm Plan

5

Farm Resource Inventory o Size of farm o Land and tenure status o Soil Status: nutrients, Organic matter

content, texture, porosity, etc; o Crops planted: number, age of long term



crops, status (bearing, diseased/ stunted)

o Schedule of planting and harvesting (gender disaggregate key responsibilities)

o Crop yields; o Percentage of produce consumed or sold; o Farm implements and work animals owned; o Livestock

(Draw farm sketch. Show the N/S/E/W orientation as well as slopes and water flow)

o

6

Diagnose productivity constraints: o Knowledge and Skills (technology) o Good source of planting materials; o Availability of labor; o Capital o Post harvest facilities o Access to market


7

Review Agroforestry Goals in relation to Sustainable Agriculture

o Ecologically Sound o Economically Viable o Based on Wholistic Science o Socially Just o Culturally Sensitive o Appropriate Technology o Development of Human Potentials

o Agroforestry Development Framework / Goals

8

Define strategies and activities to implement in consistent with the community watershed and land- use plan

o Soil and Water Conservation (Protection component)

o Optimization – this diagnose ways whereby productivity of current crops can be improved through better cultural practices i.e. good quality seeds, species, fertilization, pest management, post harvest handling, time of planting etc.

o Maximization – this refers to maximizing current area under cultivation by intercropping either for long-term crops or through rotation.

o Expansion – Increase area under cultivation

o Individual farm Plan o Crop Matching

based on AEZ o Policy guidelines on

Resource Management project

o SAD development options (financial analysis)

o

9

Resource Sourcing / Requirements o Identify resources (knowledge and skill,

labor, seeds and seedlings, and capital) need in step # 8

o Individual farm Plan o SAD - Financial

analysis

10 Prioritize and Schedule

o After considering all the above steps, decide on timetable for implementation



Slope; surface Run, and Vertical Interval2

(See figure #1)

SLOPE Degrees (°) Percent (%)

Gradient Surface run (meters)a

1. 1.7 1 in 57.3 57.3 2. 3.5 1 in 28.6 28.7 3. 5.3 1 in 19.1 19.1 4. 7.0 1 in 14.3 14.3 5. 8.8 1 in 11.4 11.5 6. 10.5 1 in 9.5 9.6 7. 12.3 1 in 8.1 8.2 8. 14.0 1 in 7.1 7.2 9. 16.0 1 in 6.3 6.4 10. 17.6 1 in 5.7 5.8 11. 19.4 1 in 5.1 5.2 12. 21.3 1 in 4.7 4.8 13. 23.1 1 in 4.3 4.5 14. 25.0 1 in 4.0 4.1 15. 27.0 1 in 3.7 4.0 16. 28.7 1 in 3.5 3.6 17. 30.6 1 in 3.3 3.4 18. 32.5 1 in 3.1 3.2 19. 34.4 1 in 3.0 3.1 20. 36.4 1 in 2.8 3.0 21. 38.4 1 in 2.6 2.8 22. 40.4 1 in 2.5 2.7 23. 42.5 1 in 2.4 2.6 24. 44.5 1 in 2.3 2.5 25. 46.6 1 in 2.1 2.4 26. 48.8 1 in 2.0 2.3 27. 51.0 1 in 2.0 2.2 28. 53.2 1 in 1.9 2.1 29. 55.4 1 in 1.8 2.1 30. 57.7 1 in 1.7 2.0 31. 60.1 1 in 1.7 2.0 32. 62.5 1 in 1.6 1.9 33. 65.0 1 in 1.5 1.8 34. 67.5 1 in 1.5 1.8 35. 70.0 1 in 1.4 1.7 36. 72.7 1 in 1.4 1.7 37. 75.4 1 in 1.3 1.7 38. 78.1 1 in 1.3 1.6 39. 80.1 1 in 1.2 1.6 40. 84.0 1 in 1.2 1.6 41. 87.0 1 in 1.2 1.5 42. 90.0 1 in 1.1 1.5 43. 93.3 1 in 1.1 1.5 44. 96.6 1 in 1.0 1.4

2 Source: Vertiver grass-The hedge against Erosion, Third Edition a The figures for the surface run are based on the vertical interval (VI) of 1 meter. To use this table, multiply the surface run by the VI; for example, with a VI of 2 meters on a 70% slope, the surface distance between vegetative barriers = 2x1.7=3.4 meters.


45. 100 1 in 1.0 1.4

Identify Problem

Do local Practices Exist

Are local Practices effective and sustainable?

Can Local Practices be improved?

Improve Local Technologies or blend

with introduced technology

NO

YES

Test appropriate outside technologies

NO

Promote Local Technologies

YES

Test outside appropriate

technologies

NO

DDDDEEEECCCCIIIIDDDDIIIINNNNGGGG OOOONNNN AAAAPPPPPPPPRRRROOOOPPPPRRRRIIIIAAAATTTTEEEE IIIINNNNTTTTEEEERRRRVVVVEEEENNNNTTTTIIIIOOOONNNNSSSS ffffoooorrrr

AAAAGGGGRRRROOOOFFFFOOOORRRREEEESSSSTTTTRRRRYYYY

YES


What is the S.O.M.E. strategy in Agroforestry development

The “ S ” is for the Soil Productivity management in the rehabilitation of the soil intended for crop production under the strategies of OME; The “ O ” is for the Optimization of existing crops such as coconuts, coffee, cacao, fruit trees, vegetables, cereal crops, etc. which are below its optimum yields per cropping. This will be done by improving some of the existing cultural practices, and improving in the control of pest and diseases occurrence. The “ M ” is for the Maximization of crops at the same unit of presently cultivated area by introducing inter-cropping, multiple cropping and or re-planting of missing hills of the same crops. The “ E ” is for Expansion to new area. Expansion for crops will only be done if the problems of soil fertility and availability of household labor has already been addressed by the farmer-participants.

Figure # 1

As shown above, the surface run between contour line on a 57% (30°) slope with a VI of 2 meters is about 4 meters. For a more comprehensive look at the relationship among slope, surface run, and vertical intervals see table below. In practice, a VI of 2 meters has generally been found to be adequate

The Vertical Interval

V

VI=2 meters

Slope=57%

Surface run=4 meter.


External Environment * Climatic Factors * Socio economics, cultural, political

Biophysical Subsystem >Land / water/ Flora & Fauna

Social Subsystem

> Socio economic > Cultural > Political

Technological Subsystem > Agroforestry > Other land use technologies

UUPPLLAANNDD RREESSOOUURRCCEE SSYYSSTTEEMM

Ecological Benefits (Protection / amelioration role) > Minimization of soil erosion, surface run off, nutrient loss, landslide, pest & diseases occurrences, etc. > Reduction of soil air and air temperature and soil moisture > Improvement of soil nutrient status, organic matter content, pH, structure

Socio - Economic Benefits >Increase Productivity > Self Sufficiency in basic necessity > Sustained productivity > Over all improvement in socioeconomic condition / quality of life in the rural area

Conceptual Framework for the Productive Conceptual Framework for the Productive and Protective Roles of Agroforestryand Protective Roles of Agroforestry


Ø Ø Ø

Ø Sustainable Agriculture Technologies, Strategies and Approaches for the Uplands – Sustainable Agriculture for the Uplands Training Manual, SEAMEO Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA)

Ø Agroforestry Project Planning and

Management (APPM), A Training Manual produced by UPLB-UAP and Kapwa Upliftment Foundation, Inc.

Ø Vertiver Grass, The Hedge against Erosion,

1990

References:

for the municipal project teams - saveuplands.org agro-forestry training manual.pdf · for the...

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