IDOCUMENT RESUME

ED 024 270 EM 006 948

By- Spear, JamesCreating Visuals for TV; A Guide for Educators.Spons Agency-Department of Audiovisual Instruction, Washington, D.C.

Pub Date 65Note- 48p.Available from-Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Assn., 1201 16th Street, N.W.,Washington. D.C. 20036 ($1.25).

EDRS Pi ice MF-$0.25 HC Not Available from EDRS.Descriptors-*Audiovisual Aids, Audiovisual Directors, Charts, Display Panels, Educational Television, Films,Filmstrips. Graphs. Illustrations, Kinescope Recordings, Maps, Production Techniques, Realia, *ResourceGuides, Slides. *Teacher Developed Materials, Televised Instruction, Television Lighting, *Television

Teachers, Three Dimensional Aids, Transparencies, Vertical Work Surfaces, Video Tape Recordings

There are countless ways educators can improve the quality of their educationaltelevision offerings. The Guide, planned especially for the television teacher oraudiovisual director, particularly those approaching the television medium for the firsttime, is designed to acquaint the reader with production techniques for effectivevisuals to accompany television lessons and to suggest production ideas andpractices. Though designed primarily for television teaching, these visuals have manyapplications in any educational situation. Materials and techniques covered includeprojection 'materials such as film, filmstrips, slides, transparencies, kinescopes, video

tape recordings, and microprojection materials; nonprojected visuals such as posters,all types of graphics, animated cards, maps, charts, still photographs, relia, models,dioramas, and puppets; studio props like easels, all types of display boards (chalk,flannel, magnetic. peg, etc.), transparency boxes, gobos, crawls and drums, andturntables; and finally1 special effects inherent in the television medium includingelectronic, optical, lighting, and audio effects. Information on production, manipulation,and common problems associated with each visual is included. (MT)

PROCESS WITH MICROFICHE ANDPUBLISHER'S PRICES. MICRO-

r'D FICHE REPRODUCTION ONLY.

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A GUIDE FOR EDUCATOR

PROCESS WITH MICROFICHE ANDPUBLISHER'S PRICES. MICRO-FICHE REPRODUCTION ONLY.

A GUIDE FOR EDUCATORS

by Jams SporProduction SupervisorWashington County Closng Circuit Tlvision ProjactHagerstown, Maryland

Division of Audiovisual instructional Service / National Education Association1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036

Permission to reproduce this copyrighted work has beengranted to the Educational Resources Information Center(ERIC) and to the organization operating under contractwith the Office to Education to reproduce documents in-cluded in the ERIC system by means of microfiche only,but this right is not conferred to any users of the micro-fiche received from the ERIC Document ReproductionService. Further reproduction of any part requires per-mission of the copyright owner.

Copyright 1962

DIVISION OF AUDIOVISUAL INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICE

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 62-16508

Reprinted 1965

Single copy, $1.25. Discounts on quantity orders: 10 percent on2-9 copies and 20 percent on 10 or more copies. All orders whichamount to $2 or less must be accompanied by funds in payment.Postage will be added to bills for orders not accompanied byfunds. Address communications and make checks payable to theNational Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.V.,

Washington, D. C. 20036

2

FOREWORD

Among the factors influencing the effectivenessof the TV medium in education, none stands out inbolder relief than creativity. This is especially truewhen creativity is app-ied to the design and presenta-tion of materials and ,-esources on television. No in-gredient in programming is more essential. Too fre-quently, educators are lured into producing programsin such volume that quality .uffers. This is unfor-tunate, because in educational TV programming it isexcellency, not exped:fqicy, that counts.

There are countless ways educators can improvethe quality and excellence of their educational TVofferings. These range from simple do-it-yourself tech-niques costing comparatively little (except a person'stime and imagination) to more involved and intri-cate effects made by manipulation of cameras andstudio controls. This publication suggests some ofthese techniques.

The creative teacher on television, as in the class-room, uses a wide variety of resources for a widevariety of teaching and learning purposes. The TVmedium serves as a unique vehicle for maximizingand transmitting visual materials and is ideally suitedto enhancing their use for a teaching purpose. Becauseof the inherent nature of television, effective visualcommunication becomes imperative. In view of thesubstantial growth of televised instruction in schoolsthroughout America, it seems necessary to work to-ward the more effective employment of the TV mediumitself when used as an instructional instrument.

This guide is planned especially for the TVteacher or audiovisual director who is concerned withdiscovering new ways of making his TV programmingmore exciting and challenging. It should be of par-ticular.help to those who are approaching the TVmedium for the first time, either on commercial oreducational channels or on closed-circuit installations.

While they are designed primarily for TV teach-ing (instructional television), the visuals described inthis guide should be useful to community organiza-

tions or educational institutions planning public infor-mation programs or programs of an enrichmentnature. They also will be useful to school districtsplanning in-service programs for their personnel, out-of-school programs for children and youth or generaleducation programs for adults.

174e author of this publication, James Spear,serves as production supervisor for the WashingtonCounty Schools, Hagerstown, Maryland, TelevisionProject, which has become a national showcase foreducational television. His own creative ideas havebeen much in evidence in the visuals used in Hagers-town's programming and have prompted visitors toinquire repeatedly as to whether a source book ofthese visuals were available. The staff of the Divisionof Audiovisual Instructional Service, sensing the needfor such a recipe book of successful production ideasand practices, prevailed upon Mr. Spear to compilethis handbook. It is our hope that this handbook willencourage the reader to experiment on his own withthese and other approaches and, in turn, share hisfindings with others.

It should be recognized that the use of a largenumber of visuals in itself does not guarantee effectiveprogramming. The message is obviously of majorconcern. However, one cannot readily divorce themedium from the message. Both are part of the samecontinuum. Form and content are equally significant.One must have something to say and say it well. Apoor message cannot be made good simply by usinggood visuals; likewise, a good message can be ren-dered ineffectual when poorly communicated.

Finally, in using television, the educator shouldattempt to create new patterns and dimensionsfindnew ways of expressing ideas and thoughtsand notjust content himself with doing the same things ontelevision he would do in the classroom.

HAROLD E. WIGREN

Educational T elevision ConsultantNational Education Association

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AcknowledgmentsA debt of gratitude is due many people for their assistance in obtaining

useful material for this publication. I am grateful to A. H. Imhof, area officer,International Cooperation Administration; to Charles Glazier, instructor, Ameri-can University, who suggested that this handbook be published; and to Harold

Wigren, associate director of the Division of Audiovisual Instructional Service,National Education Association, for carrying it through to publication.

I also want to thank William Brish, superintendent of Washington CountySchools, Hagerstown, Maryland; T. Wilson Cahall, assistant superintendent ofWashington County Schools; Robert Lesher, coordinator of the WashingtonCounty Closed Circuit Project; and George Ropp, supervisor of televised in-struction of the Washington County Closed Circuit Project. This publicationwould not have been possible without their advice and consent.

I wish to acknowledge especially the many TV teachers of the HagerstownProject who have contributed to the practices described. I also wish to thankthem for giving generously of their time in cooperating with Mike Cozzoli whotook photographs and for making their equipment available to :Jim Brown andAnn Spear, who made first-draft drawings. Among these teachets r re the follow-ing: Mrs. Anna Harris, elementary science; Downs Hewitt, mathematics 8; Mrs.Louise Hewitt, elementary music; Dorothy Hussey, first- and second-gradearithmetic; Frederick Johnson, U.S. history; Jane Martin, core 8; BennettMurray, seventh- and eighth-grade mathematics; Mrs. Pearl Snively, core 7;Velora Swoger, reading; Robert Wantz, biology; and Joseph Rockwell, third- and

fourth-grade arithmetic.Finally, I wish to acknowledge the encouragement provided by Mrs. Mary

E. Spear, visual information specialist, and the assistance provided by my wife,Ann.

JAMES SPEAR

Production SupervisorWashington County Closed Circuit Television Project

Hagerstown, Maryland

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ContentsIntroduction

Acknowledgments

I. Projected Resources "1Films 7

Filmstrips 8

Slides 82" x 2" Slides 9314" x 4" Slides 104" x 5" Slides 11

Overhead-Projected TransparenciesThe Overlay 13

The Cellophane Roll 13

Slip-Sticks 13

Masks 13

Technamation 14

The Cellomatic Projector 15Microprojected Materials 16Filmographs 16Kinescope Recordings 16Video Tape Recordings 17

II. Nonprojected ResourcesGraphics 18

Ratio 18Size 18Tone 19Glare 19Lettering 19

Animated Cards 20Posters 22Charts and Graphs 22Mgps and Globes 23Still Pictures 24Mounting Pictures 25Real Objects 26

Models 26Dioramas 27Puppets 27

III. Studio Props 29Easels 29Chalkboards 31Flannel Boards 31111%netic Boards 32Pegboards 33Bulletin Boards 33Menu Boards 34

12 Transparency BoxesGobos 35Crawls and DrumsTurntables 37

34

35

IV. Special Effects 39Electronic Camera Effects 40

Cuts 40Dissolves 40Matched DissolvesDefocusing 40Superimpositions 40

18 Matting 41

Special Effects Amplifiers

Optical Camera Effects 42Mirrors 42Prisms 43

Kaleidoscopes 43Teleidoscopes 44The One-Camera Split-Screen Effect 44

Lighting Effects 45Silhouettes 45Cameo Lighting 45Pattern Spots 46

Sets and Backgrounds 46

Opening a TV Lesson 47

40

42

5

PROJECTED RESOURCES

Projected resources are the most frequentlyused of all audiovisual aids in televised instruc-tion. The most useful projected resources forthe TV classroom are films, filmstrips, slides,and transparencies for overhead projectors. Spe-cial projected resources include microprojec-tors, the Cellomatic, and filmographs.

Equipment for using all these resources isnot always available at TV stations. Beforechoosing any projeciefi materials, it is wise tocheck first with the station. If eauipment is notavailable at the studio (only equipment for16mm sound film and 2" x 2'' slides are com-mon), but can be obtained from an outsidesource, the teacher should bring the equipmentto the studio and test the material on a studiocamera before deciding to use it.

Since all projected materials require speciallighting, they are shown more effectively from

e projection room than from the studio itself.If the materials can be shown only from thestudio, they should be tested in advance oncamera to insure the best possible results whilebroadcasting.

A discussion of kinescope recording is in-cluded in this section. A discussion of video taperecording, although it is not a "projected re-source," is also included, since, to a great extent,video tape recording is replacing kinescoperecording.

FilmsSpeciallyfivaluable for TV teaching, motion

pictures supply action difficult to produce in theTV studio because of time, space, talent, budget,or equipment limitations. Motion pictures alsorank high as good visual aids for teachingbecause they record events for future use as theyhappenevents difficult or impossible ever toduplicate. As educational tools, motion picturesattract attention, influence attitudes, motivateinterel, convey information, and increase reten-tion.

Motion picture film, with or without sound,is commonly used in three sizes: (a) 35mm, (b)16mm, and (c) 8mm. Most TV stations havefacilities for projecting 16mm film, and a feware equipped to handle 8mm silent film. Motionpictures of local events taken by the teacherhimself or by his class as a project can be shownon 8mm film.

But not all motion pictures, including thosetaken by the teacher, are of usable quality or ofsuitable content; all films should be previewedat a TV rehearsal program before use on tele-vision. To check for quality, make sure theimages are sharp and of proper contrast to pro-ject well on television. The subject matter of thefilm should be apparent and the approach inter-esting; the material should be handled withintegrity; triteness of content should be avoided.Because commercial advertising is to be avoidedon educational telecasts, all sponsored film ma-terials must be cleared with the TV stationbefore using.

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Motion pictures may be used as a completefilm, from opening to closing titles. However,most adaptable to televised instruction is the filmclip, a portion of a complete film. Film clips maybe shown with sound or shown silently, with theteacher or guests providing "live" narration. Ifthe sound is to be provided live, the text shouldbe rehearsed before the telecast, with the teacheror guest following the film on a studio monitor.

Film clips make effective lesson openersand lesson transitions. As openers, they set thescene, orient the audience, and establish themood of the telecast. As transitions, they bridgegaps between segments of a lesson. For example,a film clip of an airplane flying over the Alpscan serve as a transition from a core teacher onone set in the studio to a guest from Switzerlandin another part of the studio. Film clips also areimportant teaching tools. Through time-lapsephotography, for example, a film clip (or mont-age) can show changes in successive stages ofbiological development, demonstrable in noother way.

A vast stockpile of 16mm educational filmsexists for the TV teacher who wants to make useof motion pictures as an audiovisual teachingaid. Films on every subject imaginable have beenproduced by private associations and industry,government agencies, and independent pro-ducers. Many are designed specifically for useby a teacher. Some are available without charge;others may be rented for only a small charge.Written permission must be obtained from pro-ducers before any film, or segment of a film, isused on television. Policies vary from one filmproducer to another, but most require clearancefor TV usesome two weeks in advance ofbroadcast date. For lists of producers of films,consult your AV specialist.

FilmstripsFilmstrips are a continuous series of still

pictures on 35mm film stock, each containingfrom 10 to 100 pictures or frames, with theaverage filmstrip, 25 to 30 frames.

Each frame of a filmstrip should be horizon-tally composed to fit the 3:4 (3=vertical; 4=

8

horizontal) TV screen proportion, and the sub-ject should be well centered in the frame, withan ample margin around it.

Most filmstrips have captions on almostevery frame. If, as is likely, the type is too smallor too low en the screen to read, the projectionistshould focus the frame so that no portion of thetype is visible to distract the viewers.

Although filmstrips are not easily edited,if the teacher decides to skip one or severalframes, plans should be made with the director tofocus on another shot while the frames to beskipped are run through.

Filmstrips are projected on a filmstrip pro-jector or on a filmstrip adapter on a 31/4" x 4"lantern slide projector. Most filmstrip projectorsshow filmstrips and 2" x 2" slides.

Since equipment foi showing filmstrips isnot always available at a TV station, a teachershould check with the station before planningtheir use or supply his own projector. If theteacher supplies his own, the filmstrip must beshown in the studio where the picture is pickedup live off thc 2rojection screen by the studio TVcamera.

SlidesSlides are commonly used in three sizes:

(a) 2'' x 2'' (35mm slides), (b) 31/4" x 4"(lantern and Polaroid slides), and (c) 4" x 5"(glass slides).

No matter what size slide is planned foruse, the following criteria for their selection andpreparation should serve as guides:

1. Black-and-white slides should be selectedwhenever possible. Some color slides will trans-mit satisfactorily over television without loss ofdefinition, but many will not. Good lightdarkcontrast is necessary for details to stand out.

2. The dimensions of the TV screen shouldinfluence the choice of slides. Pictures should behorizontally composed to conform to the 3:4ratio of the TV screen.

3. The most important item in a pictureshould be centered on a slide, and a 10 percentallowance should be made for marginal lossaround the picture area. (See Fig. 1.)

o

FIG. I. A horizontal y composed, well-centered2" x 2" slide.

4. Printed r latter on a slide usually shouldbe avoided. If r1rinting is used, the height of theletters should be at least one-quarter of theheight of the safe area; the letters should be wellcentered; and the letters should cover no morethan three lines.

If slides are to be shown in a series, to keep"motion" on the screen, the slides should beshown at a rapid rate.

2" x 2" SlidesThe most widely used slide in television

is the 35mm film transparency mounted in a 2"x 2" frame. Most TV stations are equipped borshowing these slides. They have a slide projectorwhich is focused directly on the face of a camerapickup tube or focused through a multiplexer. Amultiplexer allows several film or slide projec-tors to use one TV camera. Thc :'fe area on a2'' x 2'' slide is 5/8" x 7/8". (See Figs. 2 and 3.)

Before mounts for slides are chosen, theTV station should be consulted regarding theirpreference. Some projectors will not take metalmounts; they fit too tightly in the slide holdersand will tear or bend when the projectionisttries to unload the projector. Other projectorscannot use the cardboard mounts; they fit tooloosely in the slide holders and may not stay inplace. Most generally usable are glass-mountedslides with edges bound in tape.

Advantages in using 2" x 2" slides includethe following:

1. The teacher can make his own slideswith a 35mm or Polaroid camera.

FIG. 2. A multiplexer permits several projectors to use one TV camera,

A

FIG. 3. A projector focused directly onthe face of a camera pickup tube.

9

2. The teacher can leave the slide on thescreen for as long as necessary, for examinationand explanation.

3. The teacher can edit a sequence of slidesto add new material or to take out old material.

4. The teachet can arrange the order of asequence i() suit the material or the audience.

The TV teacher can help the TV projection-ist do a better job on a telecast by doing thefollowing:

1. Thumb-dotting the slides by placing asticker in the lower left-hand corner of eachslide to keep the slides from being shown inreverse or upside down.

2. Numbering the slides in proper sequenceon the thumb dots, and, as an added check, stack-ing the slides in order and drawing a diagonalline across the tep edge from the first slideto the last. (If the line is broken, the projectionistknows that a slide is out of sequence.)

33/4" x 4" Slides31/4" x 4" glass slides (standard lantern

slides or handmade glass slides ) have long beenthe standard size slide used for projection inschools, museums, and other institutions of learn-ing. Many institutions have accumulated asizable library of these slides over the yearsfrom which they can draw.

31/4" x 4" slides are popular principallyfor two reasons: the surface area is larger thana 2" x 2" slide, and the 31/4" x 4" slide can bemade easily by hand. However, this slide 'Re-sents a problem for use on television: most TATstations do not have the equipment necessary forits use. The teacher woui:1 do N ell to check withthe studio before planning io use 31/4" x 4"slides. A regular portable movie (.creen or a rear-projection screen picked up on a live camera inthe studio is also needed. Care must be takento light the teacher and the set without at.v lightfalling on the screen. The safe area fot the31/1" x 4" slide is 21/2" x 314".

Handmade 31/4" x 4" slides can be drawnon clear gless, etched glass, carbon paper, andsmoked glass. They also can be made by cuttingsilhouettes and by using Iranslucent materialsand Polaroid transparencies.

10

k.

Drawing on Clear Glass. Before a designis drawn on clear glass, the glass should bewashed, rinsed, and dried thoroughly to removeall traces of grease film. The glass should thenbe kept free of fingermarks.

A design can be traced onto glass with Indiaink, a china marking pencil, a felt-tipped pen, oreven a ball-point pen. Ink will adhere to theglass better if it is coated with shellac, colorlesslacquer, glue water, or a gelatin-water solution.Slides may be purchased already coated.

To preserve the slide, the drawing shouldbe covered with another clear glass slide, andthe edges should be bound with tape.

Drawing on Etched Glass. An etchedslide is a piece of glass that has been frosted onone side. The slide should be placed over a draw-ing to be projected with the frosted surface up.The design can be traced with a medium hardpencil and then inked in; special slide crayonscan be used in place of ink. Tim etched side ofthe slide should be covered with a piece of clearglass and the edges bound with tape.

Special care must be taken with 'Achedglass E. lides to prevent the ink fiorn spreadingover the rough surface of the glass beyood theedges of the design.

Drawing on Carbon Paper. To draw oncarbon paper, a thin sheet af 31/4" x 4" cello-phane is placed between a sheet of carbon paperthat has been folded in half te insure a sharpimage on both sides of the cellophane. Drawingsshould be made with a st) lus or a hard, sharppencil. The finished slide :should be placed be-tween two clear glass slides, ond the edges shouldbe bound with tape.

Typewritten slides may also he made usingthe carbon paper technique, 'Jut because of itssize and style, typewritten print does not show upwelt over television, even when enlarged byprojection.

Drawing on Smoked Glass. Probablythe easiest to make but the least used 31/4" x 4"slides are those made by smoking a piece of

They are made by holding a clear glassslid< over a candle flame until one side of theglass is thoroughly smoked. Designs or writingthen are scotched onto the smoked surface with

a stylus or sharp pencil. To protect these easilysmeared designs, each slide should be coveredwith a clear glass slide and the edges bound indtape.

When projected, the smoked glass slide willgive the effect of white material on a black back-ground.

Silhouettes. Silhouettes can be made byplacing a silhouette (21/2" x 31/4") cut out ofa lightweight sheet of opaque paper in the centerbetween two clear glass slides (31/4" x 4") andprojecting it.

To produce a white silhouette framed in adark background, the paper frame from whichthe pattern has been cut should be mounted andprojected.

The Polaroid Transparency. Polaroidtransparencies can be made in just a few minutes.Steps include the following: loading the camera,snapping the picture, pulling the tab, removingthe transparency from the back of the cameraand placing it into a small container to hardenthe emulsion, removing the transparency, and,finally, mounting it.

Two types of Polaroid transparency film arecurrently available. They both produce a framed

3.;

black-and-white image area of 2-7/16" x 31/4".Polaroid transparency film 146L is a very high-contrast ma.arial specifically designed to makeslides from line copy originals; 46L is wellsuited to making slides from continuous tonereproductions.

By reducing the framed image area to thesize used for a 2" x 2" slide and trimming it tothe proper size for mounting, Polaroid trans-parency film also can be used to make 2" x 2"slides.

4'' x 5 SlidesThe 4" x 5" glass slide is used in television

primarily for rear-screen projection. Transpar-ent slides, usually with photographic backing,are projected through a translucent screen froma projector behind the screen. The projectedimage shines through the screen and is seen bythe TV camera on the opposite side. As a result,the teacher can stand anywhere in front of thebackground, without throwing a shadow on thescene. (See Fig. 4.)

This technique of projecting transparentphotographs makes for more natural and less

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FIG. 4. Rear-screen projection of 4" x 5" slides, with the projector at left to the rearthe TV camera af right.

of the screen, the screen in the center, and

11

expensive backgrounds than backgrounds thathave been built or painted. Sets of glass slideswith a wide variety of backgrounds can be pur-chased or made by hand.

Cardboard adapters can be made for 314"x 4" slides so they will fit into 4" x 5" holdersfor rear-screen projection. To fill an 8' x 10'screen, a distance of 13' from the lens of theprojector to the screen is usually necessary.

A large, commercially made screen is notnecessary for rear-screen projection. A smallscreen is less expensive and may provide asharper, brighter image. A screen can be madeof a large (3' x 4') sheet of tracing paper orwhite koroseal.

If only limited space is available in a TVstudio, front projection for 4" x 5" slides canbe used. Any surface can serve as a screen. Toavoid casting a shadow, care must he taken bythe teacher not to get too close to the screen. Inany case, the farther away the performer is fromthe screen, the greater the illusion of reality.

Many TV stations have facilities for pro-jecting 4" x 5'' glass slides for rear projection.Also, they probably have a file of 4" x 5" slidesto choose from for use as backgrounds.

Overhead-ProjectedTransparencies

The overhead projector permits a teacherto stand facing an audience and project trans-parencies onto a screen large and high enoughto be seen clearly. It can be used in the followingways: (a) front projection, with the projectoron set; (b) front projection, with the projectoroff set; and (c) rear projection.

Front projection, with the projector placedin the same scene or set with the studio teacher,is necessary if the teacher himself wishes tomanipulate the transparencies or the cellophaneroll. The teacher must be shown in adequatelight, with little or no light thrown on the screenon which the image is to be projected.

By this method, one camera shows the ;n-structor next to the overhead projector, facing

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the camera and pointing on the transparency,writing on the roll, or manipulating the cells,with the large image projected on the screen inback of the teacher. Another camera is used forcloseups.

Front projection, with the projector off set,is used to show only the projected image on thescreen. If the teacher wishes to manipulate thecells on the projector himself, he would be shownon one camera, while another camera in anotherarea would pick up the projected image. Thelatter area is darkened to allow a maximumamount of light from the projector to fall on thescreen without washing out the image. Theteacher and the f. ont-projected image, then, canbe telecast separately, and the overhead projectoris never seen by the viewers.

Rear projection is used if the teacher doesnot manipulate the transparencies or the roll andis shown standing or sitting next to the projectedimage. The projected image is then picked up bya TV camera on the opposite side of the screen.Adequate light must fall on the teacher withoutany light falling on the screen. In this way, theteacher can appear anywhere in front of thescreen without casting a shadow.

One camera is generally used in rear pro-jection. The camera can show the teacher nextto the screen, and then move in to frame thescreen. Should two cameras be used, a secondcamera supplies a closeup of the rear-projectedimage. In this case, the floor director manipulatesthe transparencies and the projector.

A screen for showing transparencies canbe made from v. translucent plastic crib coveror shower curtain or from a large sheet of tracingpaper. A 4' x 3' frame for the screen can bemade, and the material stretched across theframe. Of course, commercially made screensare also available.

The transparency is a flexible teaching de-vice for showing on television growth and devel-opment or the cumulative stages in a process.Life and motion can be brought to transparenciesthrough the use of overlays, the cellophane roll,slip-sticks, masks, and Technamation.

The OverlayDrawings, figures, diagrams, or notes made

on transparent cells often make complicatedvisual material easy to understand.

A first overlay, or base transparency, showsthe first part of a story, the initial step in aprocess, or the basic position of an object. Asecond transparency (or cell), placed over thefirst, presents the next step. For example, toshow coal and steel production in the UnitedStates, a social studies teacher uses an outlineof the United States as the base overlay. Anthra-cite coal areas form a hinged overlay; bitumin-ous coal areas, the next; and steel plants thatuse the coal, the last.

Transparencies are easy and inexpensive tomake. They are prepared by drawing on acetatesheets, or cells, with grease pencil, India ink, orspecial acetate 'nk, or by using the cliazo-copyor the photo-reflex processes. The acetate sheetsare usually 81/2" x 10", but they are availablein other sizes. Once prepared, the cells aremounted on a cardboard frame for use in anoverhead projector or hung by tape on a specialtransparency easel. Specially designed hingesshould be attached to each cell to provide a free-hinging action when mounted and to facilitatethe flipping of the overlays. (See Fig. 5.) Finally,

FIG. 5. Transparencies flipped by means of specially designedhinges.

the first cell should include two refcrence markson opposite corners so that each successive cellcan be placed properly.

FIG. 6. A cellophane roll for the overhead projector.

The Cellophane RollA 100-foot cellophane roll is standard

equipment on most overhead projectors. (See

Fig. 6.) It provides space for writing on 100

continuous cells (100 individual projections,approximately 81/2" x 10" each). These cellsmay be prepared before or during a telecast androlled into position with a crank.

Slip-Sticks

Slip-sticks ale transparent acetate strips ofvarying widths that can be slid over a cell al-ready on the stage of an overhead projector andthen manipulated into any position on the cell.

A slip-stick gives additional motion to atransparency. For example, a slip-stick with amusical note drawn on one end of it can bemoved across a musical staff which has beendrawn on the base transparency. As the note isplayed, the note moves on the scale to show howit relates to the sound. (See Fig. 7.) A slip-stickwith a small arrow on one end makes an excel-lent pointer for use on transparencies.

Masks

Masking a transparency permits the TVteacher to disclose sequential information at theproper moment, conceal it if necessary, or leave

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the material on ',11e screen to be compared withnew informationall on a single cell. The fourbasic types of masks are: (a) spot masks, (b)sliding masks, (c) accordian-pleated masks, and(d) circular masks.

Spot masks are used to disclose or concealsmall areas of a visual. If a series of arithmeticproblems is projected on the screen, the answersto each problem can be covered by a spot maskuntil time for each answer to be disclosed. (SeeFig. 8.)

The masking can be made of any lightweightopaque material, such as thin cardboard. Smallareas can be masked with masking tape and thenstripped off as needed.

If spot masking is planned for use on atransparency, it will work best if the transpar-ency is made on a dark base with the informationprinted in white.

Sliding masks are used to disclose or con-ceal in sequence large areas of a transparency.These masks may slide across a visual horizon-tally, vertically, or diagonally.

In order to insure a straight, smooth pullas the information is disclosed, simple tracks orrunners should be placed along the sides of thevisual to guide the sliding mask. Tracks can bemade by mounting 1/4" strips of heavy cardboardto each side of the masked area ; then, 1/2" stripsof cardboard are mounted on top of the 1/4"strips to act as retainers for the mask. (See Fig.9.)

Foldover masks, as far as their effect on theaudience is concerned, are very similar to slidingmasks. The difference between them is that fold-over masks make portions of information appearinstantly, whereas sliding masks give the appear-ance of tne raising or lowering of a curtain.

The folder mask is made of a series ofopaque strips hinged together with tape, witheach strip a little wider than the area to be cov-ered. As information is exposed, the mask foldsup on itself. (See Fig. 10.)

Circular masks rotate to reveal informationwithin a circular area. They may be fastenedto a transparency with a hollow rivet, a snapfastener, or a thumbtack which penetrates the

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FIG. 7. A slip-stick gives motion to a transparency.

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m

fFIG. 8. Spot masks cover answers to arithmetic problems on atransparency.

transparency and the mask and is held in placeby piercing a small rubber eraser. (See Fig. 11.)

Technamation

Technamation, or polarization of a trans-parency, is one of the newest audiovisual re-sources to create motion without actual move-ment in what is ordinarily a still visual. Visualsalso can I c polarized to highlight or subduespecific areas of a transparency or to make dra-matic disclosures at the proper moment.

FIG. 9. A sliding mask reveals information on a transparency.

b c ce e

A rIndrArAndroIralr./.0r411/4111rAlrArIlr, 410rAIAP/Ar/rArAIAKIIPPAI/411I/PrAVA r

1

FIG. 10. A foldover mask makes information appear instantlyon a transparency.

To create the motion effect on a transpar-ency, cellophane or polyethylene is applied tothe visual in the areas where the motion effectis desired. The transparency cell is then placedon the stage of the overhead projector betweenfilters, one filter on the stage under the cell andthe other mounted on the lens. The polarizedplastic on the lens is rotated to create a predeter-mined motion.

Different types of motion can be created onthe same visual with all the motions going at the

FIG. 1 I. A circular mask rotates to reveal information on a

transparency.

same time in their proper ratio. Among the ef-fects that can be created by polarization are thefollowing: an on-aad-off blinking motion, aneffect of turbulence, a swirling effect, a rotatingeffect, a flow effect, and a radiation effect.

The same general principles for makingother visual aids for TV use apply to the prep-aration of transparencies, including, of course,transparencies to be polarized. (See p. 29-38.)Only the size of lettering on transparencies variessomewhat from other audiovisual aids. Whereaslettering on camera cards should not be less than1" in height, on transparencies lettering can beas small as 3/8" if the transparency is to be pro-jected and enlarged. However, if the transpar-ency is to be used on a light easel and framedfrom side to side, lettering should be 1" high.All printed information on transparencies shouldbe brief.

Cellomatic ProjectorsA relatively new addition to the long list

of audiovisual resources available is an overheadprojector called the Cellomatic. This projectordiffers from the conventional overhead projectorin that it has two light sources instead of one. Itis also capable of producing most animation and

15

optical effects previously possible only with high-cost animated film.

The Cellomatic will project either a 31/4" x4" or a 4" x 5" transparency, front or rearscreen, in sizes ranging from 11" x 14" to 9 x12'.

Six basic optical effects can be producedby changing from picture to picture: round iris,horizontal wipe, optical cut, horizontal crawl,vertical crawl, and superimposition. A variablespeed motor drives both the vertical and hori-zontal. crawls.

MicroprojectedMaterials

A microprojector is used to project micro-scopic slides onto a screen. Since it has such alimited function, the microprojector is not foundin the average TV studio. However, it is so use-ful in telecasts of biology lessons that teachersshould gain access to one, if at all possible.

The microprojector works in a fashion sim-ilar to an overhead projector: front projection,with the projector on set; front projection, withthe projector off set; and rear projection. How-ever, a much smaller, but brighter, picture isprojected with a microprojector than with anoverhead projector because the strength of thelight source on the microprojector is muchweaker than on the overhead projector.

The brightest picture can be best obtainedon the microprojector from front projection, offset. The TV camera can get a closeup of a smallimage so that the microscope slide will fill theentire screen of the TV receiver.

FilmographsA filmograph is a motion picture of still

pictures. A 16mm film is taken of black-and-white photographic stills (usually 8" x 10"glossy prints), and the camera is allowel toplay on the stills in various patterns of move-ment. By giving the viewer the feeling of motion

16

in an otherwise still picture, the filmograph tech-nique enables him to study details within a pic-ture in a new and interesting manner.

Camera wovement is preplated in advanceover each still, .f rom full picture to a segmentof the picture, or vice versa. This is done on ananimation or phctographic stand by placing eachglossy print under glass in order to keep it flatand under uniform lighting. The camera canthen move around the picture, as specified in thepreplotting, in a northern, southern, eastern, orwestern direction, depending upon the effectsdesired. It is thus possible to dolly in and outto give orientation or closeup shots, to pan leftor right, or to focus or even defocus.

The usual practice is to shoot the film ofthe stills first and then add the narration whilelooking at the picture, i.e., narrate to the picture.The opposite would also be possible, howeveri.e., to shoot the picture to the sound track.

Many kinescope recordings are available,free or on a rental or purchase basis. Somefoundations kinescope good educational pro-grams as they are broadcast, and then make themavailable to educational TV stations.

Kinescope Recordings

A kinescope recording is an important pro-jected visual resource. It is a continuous soundfilm recording of a TV program made whilethat program is being telecast.

A specially designed 16mm motion picturecamera, compensating for the frame differentialbetween the film (24 frames per second) andthe TV system (30 frames per second), recordsthe transmitted program as it is received in aTV picture tube known as a kinescope tubehence the terms kinescope recording or kine,

for short. (See Photo A.)The kinescope is more economicn 1 awl eas-

ier to make than a direct motion picture. Sincea TV program is edited while it is being broad-cast, a kinescope of a program saves time andmoney by doing away with the need for editing

PHOTO A. Foreign students watch a Core 7 telecast beingvideotaped.

separate sequences of film. Moreover, most stu-dios are not large enough to permit TV andmotion picture camera crews to work simultane-ously, and, even if they were, lighting require-ments for the two types of cameras are notthe same.

The quality of a kinescope recording is notyet as good as a live TV broadcast, a video tape,or a telecast of a conventionally made film. How-ever, kinescoping is an excellent method of pre-serving a TV program for rebroadcast at a laterdate. And, even more important, since a kine-scope is made on 16mm film, the kinescope canbe shown wherever a 16mm projector is avail-able, i.e., in schools, churches, clubs, and homes.

Video Tape RecordingsVideo tape recording is a newly developed

method of recording pictures and sound. Al-though a projector is not used in video tape re-

cording, a discussion is included here because, toa great extent, video tape recordingespeciallyfor TV broadcastsis replacing kinescope re-cording.

The video tape recordet uses a magneticrather than a chemical process to record and re-tain electrical signals which emerge from a TVcamera on a ribbon of magnetic tape 2" wide.When the same tape is run through a recorder forplayback, the information retained on the tapeis reconverted from these electrical signals intothe original TV picture and sound signals.

Video tape provides a picture of superiorquality to a kinescope; it can be replayed im-mediately without the waiting necessary for proc-essing film; and the same reel of tape can beerased magnetically and reused many times.

Video tape recording gives the TV teacherthe opportunity to prerecord a telecast. This en-ables him to do the following:

1. Judge his own teaching and improve hisTV teaching techniques

2. Judge the telecast as a whole, includingthe quality of the visuals and the pace of thelessons, and edit the tape accordingly

3. Judge audience reaction to his teaching

4. Reduce the pressure of a live presenta-tion, without losing any of the qualities of a livetelecast

5. Present guests who cannot be in thestudio at broadcast time

6. Repeat a telecast without the necessity ofdoing a lesson over again

7. Use video tapes of important events orvisitors as part of a later telecast

8. Exchange prerecorded lessons with otherschool systems.

17

NONPROJECTED RESOURCES

Nonprojected resources useful to TV teach-ers can be divided into three categories: graphics,still pictures, and demonstration materials.

Graphics include audiovisual aids that re-quire artwork by a studio artist or by a TVteacher. Lettering, maps, charts, posters, andanimated cards are considered graphics.

Still pictures include pictures from books,magazines, and other sources that can be usedas part of a TV lesson.

Demonstration materials are three-dimen-sional objects used "live" in the TV studio. In-cluded as demonstration materials are real ob-jects, models, dioramas, and puppets.

GraphicsBefore a teacher new to TV teaching can

use graphics as part of a lesson, he must con-sider: (a) the ratio of the TV screen, (b) the sizeof the visual, (c) ihe tone of the visual, (d) theproblem of glare, and (e) the problem of letter-ing.

Ratio

All materials for television must conformto the 3:4 proportion of the TV screen. But18

beyond that, the teacher must be aware of theserious loss of picture on all sides of the TVscreen that is created by poor adjustments onsome TV receivers. The area within whichprinted or other matter must be kept is thesafe area. The total area of the picture is thecamera field. Information not essential to thetotal picturefor example, background mate-rialmay be included in this latter area.

The one-sixth rule of determining the safearea of a TV screen is easy to understand and auseful guide to follow. If on a card the camerafield (usually 11" x 14") is divided verticallyand horizontally into six subdivisions to form 36rectangles, each with a 3:4 ratio, the central 16rectangles formed by this division will be thesafe area. (See Fig. 12.)

Size

Visuals may be small enough to handleeasily on camera or large enough to use as abackground. Fe' example, camera cards thatare to be shown close up generally should notbe smaller than 11" x 14"; charts or easelsseen in a wide shot with the performer shouldnot be smaller than 27" x 36". Whether thevisual is large or small, it should look simpleand uncluttered.

1 1 1

1 1 1

1

I 1 1

1 I 1

11

r..

FIG. 12. The one-sixth rulo determines the safe area

(6)of a TV screen.

Tone

In television, everything, including allcolors, is telecast in shades of gray, varyingfrom ext emely dark (black) to extremely light(white). (Purple transmits as solid black; red,dark blue, and dark green transmit as dark gray;yellow, as medium gray; and light blue and lightgreen, as light gray.) While the range of shadesis considerable, only five or six tones (includingblack and white) actually can be distinguishedon the TV receiver. This range in tonality iscalled the gray scale. (See Fig. 13.)

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

FIG. 13. The gray scale indicates the range of tonality on black-and-white television.

In choosing colors for a graphic, there mustbe contrast, but not too much contrast, betweenthe tonal elements. For example, black letteringshows up well on a yellow card, but black letter-ing on a white card would create shadingproblems.

Glare

Whenever possible, a graphic with a mattefinish should be used on television. A shiny orglossy surface reflects studio lights and creates aglare problem. If material with a matte finish isnot available, tilting the visual on an easel orspraying it with a dulling agent will eliminateglare.

(C)

Lettering

Lettering for use on television can either bedone by hand or printed. Hand lettering takesless time and may be less expensive.

If a teacher or artist plans to hand-letter fortelevision, no line should be less than one-sevenththe height of the camel a field. On each card,there should be no more than five lines of copy,with no more than four words per line. The let-tering sl'ould be bold and clear; simple lettersare more legible than decorative letters, althoughdecorative letters are useful at times for creatingan effect. (See Fig. 14.)

Words should not be hyphenated. If thereis not enough room for a word to be completedat the end of a line, the entire word should bewritten on the next line. A sentence should notbegin on one card and end on another. If thereis not enough room for a sentence to be com-pleted on one card, the sentence should be begunon the next card.

Lettering can be done in several contrastingvalues or tones when a picture from one camerais superimposed on a picture from another cam-era: for example, off-white lettering on black;black on off-white; black on gray; black on yel-low; or white on gray. Also, individual letters orwords can be shadowed or highlighted to makethem stand out or to separate them from theirbackground.

Many aids are available for teachers whoare inexperienced or who lack confidence in theirlettering ability. Among them are the following:(a) mechanical guides with which to draw let-ters; (b) ready-made letters for cutting out,tracing, and sticking on a board; (c) the em-

19

POOR

GOOD

AS YOU WOK AT THtS

CARD YOu WILL GEETHAT THERE IS FARTOO (VCR PRINTEDMAUER TO BE CLEAR-

LY READ ON THE

AS YOU LOOK AT

THIS CARD YOU

WILL NOTE IT IS

BETTER SPACED.

I

FIG. 14. Lettering for television must be legible.

bos.-...ograph, a simplified printing-press device;(d) movable type, which is set up and photo-graphed; (e) three-dimensional letters whichmay be set up on a board to cast a shadow orpinned directly on the board; and (f) type-writers with oversized capital letters.

Animated CardsAnimated cards serve the TV teacher who

wants to show movement.The card in the rear of Photo B shows how

a whole may be divided into fractional parts.First, windows are cut from a sheet of antiqueblack 13" x 10" railroad board and outlinedwith poster paint. (These lines are necessary forthe fractional parts to be seen clearly on tele-vision.) The black card is then mounted withrubber cement on a canary yellow, 14" x 101/4"

20

AVERAGE TELEVISION

SCREEN,

TH I S VERSION

IS MUCH MORE

ADAPTABLE TO

THE TV SCREEN.\

FIG. 15. Information is

added to an animated cardthrough use of flip-ons.

showcard. When mounted, the yellow card showsthrough the cutout windows of the black card.Finally, black pull tabs of railroad board aremade a fraction wider than the width and about2" longer than the length of the cutout windows.These tabs are inserted between the two cardsin the slots created when the cards are fastenedtogether. When the tabs are in position, no por-tion of the yellow card can be seen. As the floordirector pulls a tab (the extra length of the tabis for him to pull without being seen by the TVaudience), a horizontal row will seem to gi ow,

as more and more yellow is exposed.

The card in the lower ieft of Photo B alsodemonstrates how a whole may be divided intofractional parts. By pulling the tabs, a completecircle of flowers is divided into quarters. (Whitepaper has been inserted under the moving sec-tions to help show how the animated card wasmade.)

In addition to showing movement, ani-mated cards conceal material until it is needed.This is demonstrated by the card in the lowerright of Photo B. The card is made from threesheets of antique black, 13" x 10" railroadboard. A circle and its radii are painted on a"top" card with white poster paint, and theneach radius is cut out. On a second sheet ofrailroad board, fractions are painted arvi locatedso that they will show through the wedge-shapedwindows, A slit, corresponding to a fractionmore than a radius of the painted circle, is thencut into this card. On a third sheet of railroadboard, a circle is cut with a diameter slightlylarger than the painted circle. Then, a slit iscut to one half the diameter of this circle, and atab is attached long enough to extend beyondthe edges of the other two cards. This circle isplaced between the other two cards so that, as itis rotated to uncover the fractions, it pivots be-hind the bottom card through the slit that wascut into the card. Finaliy, the top and 'oottomcards are fastened together only at the bottom,because the tab must rotate almost 3600. Thus,the circle in the center may be rotated with thetab to expose all of the wedges, without recover-ing the already exposed material.

RIM

IMMIX

PHOTO B. Animated cards illustree arithmetical principles.

PHOTO C. An animated card shows radio wa-es.

The animated card in Photo C illustratesanother method of achieving motion in an other-wise static card. The card is made by paintingthe name of the TV station and the tower on a13" x 10" sheet of black construction paper withwhite poster paint and cutting out the radiationsin progressively larger curves. This card is thensecurely fastened by its corners to a woodenframe. A strip of thin, black cardboard, withsquares of white paper fastened to the cardboardat measured intervals, is then passed behind thecard. When this strip is pulled across the frame,from le. to right, the radiations are alternatelyblacked out and illuminated, giving the effect ofradio waves radiating from a tower.

The animated cards in Photo D illustrate theuse of magnets to create motion. The cameracards of the bow and arrow and the ruler are

21

©3

II..

PHOTO D. Magnets create motion in otherwise static cards.

,

made of lightweight railroad board. Each arrowis mounted on a small magnet, and another mag-

net on the back of the board holds the arrow inplace. The board with the parts of a circle ismade of metal. Magnets on the back of the seg-

ments of the circle hold the segments to theboard.

FIG. 16. Switching from one card to another ran create limited

animation.

The two separate cards in Fig. 16 providea limited animated effect when each card, onseparate easels, is picked up by two differentcameras. By switching back and forth rapidlyfrom one camera to another, the effect is createdof the bird flapping its wings.

Fig. 17 almtre.tes another method of add-ing motion to a static card: A paper fastenerattached to the dog is moved back and forth inback of the drawing.

22

FIG. 17. A pziper fastener a;ds animation.

PostersPosters are large pictures which tell a quick

story. They should be designed to attract atten-tion, to carry only one message, and to be under-

stood at a glance.For use in TV teaching, posters serve well

as openings, tialsitions, Lnd backgrounds. Pan-ning a series of posters, or one poster, hanging

on a wall, is a good program opener or transi-tion. Any appropriate poster or posters areusable for set backgrounds.

Posters are one of the few TV visuals thatneed not conform to a 3:4 ratio. However, other

rules, especially those pertaining to color con-

trasts, should be observed.Best sources of posters for use on tele-

vision are travel bureaus, foreign embassies, and

airlines, bus, or train ticket agencies.

Charts and GraphsCharts are combinations of pictures, dia-

grams, and numerical and other data designedfor the orderly and logical visualization offactual relationships. Graphs are limited to thepresentation of numerical data in easy-to-read

form.

Charts and graphs made originally for pur-poses other than television usaally contain toomuch detail and must be simplified. To be usedfor the most comprehension on television, theymust have ample margins and a minimum ofwords, all in large, bold letters. Like other TVvisuals, the material in the charts and graphsshould be well balanced. Subjects should be con-sidered in terms of pictures instead of in termsof facts and figures; symbols or representationsof the objects they stand for i:: place of the usualbars and curves provide additional interest.

Inexpensive symbols, covering every sub-ject imaginable, are available to the TV teacherfor use in preparing charts and graphs. For goodTV reproduction, these symbols may be pur-chased with a matte finish; they have a pres' 'Ire-sensitive adhesive backing which makes themquick and easy to use.

These graphic symbols are either opaqueand printed on white ledger paper for use di-rectly on camera or they are transparent andprinted on a matte-finished transparent plasticfor projection. Both types take typing or writingwith ink, pencil, or crayon.

Especially designed for making charts andgraphs are new matte-surface nonreflective tapes.For those inexperienced in drafting, these tapesare easier to use and more accurate than inkingin lines or bars. Even the experienced chart-maker will find them to be timesavers. They aresuitable not only for charts and graphs but alsofor map outlines, borders, plant and office lay-outs, and even for decoration. (See Photo E.)

Tapes are printed in solid colors or pat-terns in widths ranging from 1/64" to 2". Pat-terned tapes are available in transparent tape foruse on slides or overhead projectors and inopaque tape for use directly on camera. (SeePhoto F.)

Tape is applied to a chart or graph by un-rolling a piece of the desired color and pattern.The tape should be layed about an inch aheadof the starting point and unrolled about an inchbeyond the point where the line is to end. Thetwo ends of the tape arc then trimmed with aplastic or razor cutter.

PHOTO E. Tapes are easier and more accurate for makingcharts than inking in columns or curves.

FATS AND OILS IN SPECIFIED PRODUCTS 1950-52 Average

LARD, as such ISO

BUTTER 1517

SHORTENING 1575

MARGARINE MR

SALAD and1321

COOKING OLS

PHOTO F. Patterned tapes have been bordered by a narrowsolid-color tape in this bar chart.

If movement on charts or graphs will addto understanding, cutouts or tab pulls or a "strip-tease," in which portions of a chart or graph areuncovered only at the appropriate point in adiscussion, can be used.

For TV use, charts and graphs should bemounted on rigid, durable cardboard and shouldhave a semimatte finish. They may be used onan easel off the set or on set, manipulated by theteacher or the floor director.

Maps and GlobesMapsflat representations of the earth's

surfaceand globesspherical models of theearth's surfaceprovide information on: (a)surface features; (b) geographical iocations aiAd

23

their distances from each other; (c) scientificdata; (d) social or cultural data; (e) puiiticaldata; and (f) economic data.

Commercially made maps are not alwaysthe best for use on television. Many maps usecolors to distinguish between different areas andfeatures. However, when these colors are reducedto shades of gray on television, they serve no realpurpose. In addition, printing on these maps is

usually too small to be used on camera. If oneof these maps is used and type must be read, itis best to place a label on the map to enable stu-dents to read it easily. If folded maps or mapsfrom books or magazines are used, they shouldbe mounted on rigid backing for easy handling.Good maps to use on television are-

1. Wall maps. They allow for motion, i.e.,a camera can get a closeup of an area or pan ortilt to another area. One camera can give a fullshot of a large area, while another shows acloseup of a specific area on which the teacherwants the students to focus attention. When plan-ning a lesson involving maps, a definite patternof movement On the map should be chosen so thatthe cameraman will have no difficulty in fol-lowing the discussion with his camera.

2. Blackboard maps. The teacher can standbeside a blackboard map and write in names,place on tabs, and shade in areas to add motionand interest to a presentation.

3. Simple outline maps. These maps aredrawn on 9" x 11" cards and show only essen-tial information. Outline maps can be used withtransparent overlays to build up informationabout the area under discussion.

4. Three-dimensional relief maps. Thesemaps show relationships in the contour of theland. To take advantage of shadows that indi-cate the difference between mountains and val-leys, care must be taken with lighting.

Globes offer the same advantages as three-dimensional relief maps. They come in a varietyof sizes and have a variety of surfaces. sinceshining-surface globes and transparent globesreflect studio lights, slate-surface and plasticglobes are better for use on television. In addi-tion, slate-surface globes can be written upon.

24

The larger the globe, of course, the easierfor a TV camera to get closeups. The more colorcontrast between different areas, the better theglobe for use on camera.

Still PicturesStill picturesphotographs and illustra-

tionsare used frequently as an integral part ofa televised lesson. They are easy to collect andinvaluable for showing students what the un-familiar looks like. Calendars, post cards, maga-zines, newspapers, travel posters, and textbooksare easily obtainable sources for still pictures.

Most important in a still picture for a TVlesson is appropriateness of material, simplicityof composition, and clarity and sharpness of de-tail. A picture teaches best when it tells one storyor points out only one specific detail. If neces-sary, time should be taken to show several pic-tures rather than to point out many details inone picture.

Like other TV visual aids, still picturesshould eonform to the 3:4 TV ratio. Each picturemust be centered on the card-back on which it ismounted. A 10 percent allowance for marginalloss of width and height and a 25 percent allow-ance for loss around the actual subject contentshould be made.

Size of still pictures should be governed byease of handling and viewing. An 8" x 10" pic-ture mounted on an 11" x 14" card has beenfound to be best for straight eas ,i-card work. Apicture the size of a postage stamp can fill thescreen, but the teacher could not point out de-tails in it without obscuring other portions ofthe picture from view. If a series of pictures areto be shown, all should be approximately thesame size.

A dull, or semimatte, finish is best forphotographs used on television. Glossy photo-graphs may be used, but only with special light-ing or after having been treated with a dullingspray. Dull or glossy, all pictures should bechecked to see if they reflect studio lights, andall photographs should be mounted on a rigid

backing to prevent warping undei strong TVlighting.

If a color picture is chosen for a TV lesson,the colors must be sharply contrasting so that the

main subject stands out from the background.Dark colors against a light background will tele-vise best. Color pictures should be checked oncamera before use.

Action can be simulated in a still pictureby panning or by tilting within the borders ofthe picture, a technique which also points outdetails. To enlarge a picture and to add to theillusion of reality it creates, the picture shouldbe framed through the camera inside its whiteborders. (For a more complete treatment of thissubject, see "Filmographs" on p. 16.)

Mounting PicturesOnce a picture has been selected for use on

television, the next step is to choose material formounting it. A stock which does not warp orbuckle and also is durable enough to withstandheavy handling should be selected. Kraft board,showcard board, and other types of medium-weight cardboard are satisfactory. When mount-ing, a large border should be allowed around the

picture so that the TV camera will have ampleframing room and so that the picture itself willbe less likely to become dog-eared and coveredwith fingerprints.

Pictures can be mounted permanently ortemporarily. Dry mounting and floating are tech-niques for permanent mounting. Rubber cement,paste, or glue; staples, pins, tacks, or clips; slitsand photographic corners, and gummed tapescan be used for temporary mounting.

The dry-mount method is the most satis-factory for obtaining a professional-looking job.By this method, a special dry-mount tissueaheat-seal adhesiveis sandwiched between thepicture and the surface of the mount, and thetwo surfaces are then literally ironed together.

When a picture is ready to be dry-mounted,a tissue (which can be obtained in rolls or sheetsin photography stores) is cut to the exact sizeof the picture and the mounting board. The pic-

ture is then covered with a clean sheet of paper,and, after an iron is heated to about 250°F., theiron is pressed over the surface for about 20 sec-onds. The heat causes the tissue to affix thepicture to the mounting board. A hot press,available commercially, allows for a more evenapplication of heat and pressure than an iron.

Dry-mounted pictures should not be placedunder a hot spotlight or in an extremely warmstudio. Heat will soften the heat-seal adhesive,and the picture may peel from the surface of the

mounting board.In the floating technique, the entire back

surface of a picture is evenly coated with glueand then smoothed onto a mounting board. Sothat it will dry flat, without curling or ripping,books or other weights should be stacked on thepicture while it is drying.

One of the most simple and satisfactorymethods for temporary mounting is to placesmall dabs of rubber cement, paste, or glue ineach corner of a picture and then press it ontothe mounting material. If the picture is mountedwith rubber cement while the cement is wet, atemporary bond will be made. If rubber cementis applied to both the back of the picture and themounting material, and allowed to dry beforemounting, a more solid bond will result.

Staples should be used only in emergencies.They look crude, they make bulges and wrinklesin a picture, and they reflect studio lights. Ifstaples must be used, they should be placeddiagonally across each corner of a picture, andnot through the picture, so as not to cause punc-tures or other permanent damage.

Pins and thumbtacks also should be onlylast-minute measures. The following proceduresare best for mounting pictures with pins andthumbtacks without doing permanent damage tothem:

1. A thumbtack is inserted in the mountingsurface alongside of a picture instead of throughit, so that the head of the tack overlaps the pic-ture arid holds it firmly in place.

2. A thumbtack is inserted through a but-terfly clip, through the eyelet of a small paperclamp, or through a paper clip which is attachedto a picture.

25

3. The corners of a picture are straddledwith straight pins to support it on the board.

Diagonal slits and photographic corners aregood for mounting photographs or small illus-trations to showcard board. Diagonal slits canbe cut in the board just inside the point wherethe corners of a picture fall. Then, the cornerscan be inserted in the slits without any deface-ment of, or marking on, the picture itself. Photo-graphic corners serve the same function.

Single-faced or double-faced masking tapeof any width can be used for mounting pictures.Any variety of tape is suitable except cellophane,which may reflect studio lights.

If single-faced masking tape is used, asmall strip is placed diagonally across thecorners of a picture, holding it to the mountingboard, or the entire picture can be bordered,with half the width of the tape overlapping thepicture and pressed onto the mounting board.

If double-faced masking tape is used, itis applied to the reverse side of a picture, andan invisible mounting is created. An invisiblemounting can be made with single-faced tape ifa loop is made from a strip of tape with theadhesive side mit. It can then be applied in thesame manner as double-faced tape.

. as.e

PHOTO G. By means of a closeLp shot, students in a classroomsee a Rye rattlesnake milked.

26

Real OblectsBetter than the picture, model, or repre-

sentation of an objectanimate or inanimateis the object itself. Its presence adds immediacyand intimacy to a TV lesson. But even more im-portant is that students learn more about thesize, the weight, the sound, the movement, andthe texture of objects by seeing them live thanby seeing representations of them.

If inanimate objects are to be shown, theyshould be placed on a contrasting background,with enough space between them so that one ob-ject can be shown at a time. Objects should berotated or angled from a fixed position towardthe camera; they should not be picked up.

If live objects are to be shown, determine inadvance of the telecast the best angle and back-ground to use. Check the size of the set area tobe certain the area is sufficiently large permitadequate display of the object.

Photo G shows a closeup of the fangs of arattlesnake while it is being milked as the pictureappeared on the monitors in a classroom. Televi-sion is the perfect medium for such a demonstra-tion; it would be too dangerous for students tohave such a closeup view of a rattlesnake in aregular classroom situation.

ModelsWhen the real object is not available, or

when the real object is too large or otherwiseDonportable or even too small to be shown in aTV lesson, a model should be used. A model isa three-dimensional representation ot a realobject.

Models are effective for teaching because:(a) they are three-dimensional; (b) they permiteasy handling and convenient observation; (c)they provide interior views of objects; (d) theycan be stripped of nonessential details so thatbasic fundamentals can be easily observed; and(e) they can be taken apart and put together inorder to demonstrate interrelationships of parts.

Among the types of models a TV teachercan use effectively in a lesson are: (a) a cut-

away model which shows sections of an object;(b) a reduced or enlarged modei which is madein exact scale and proportion to the real object;(c) an exact model in both size and detail; (d) abuild-up model in which several parts are fittedtogether to form a complete model of the realobject; (e) a solid model which shows only theexternal features of the real object; and (f) aworking model in which the working parts of anobject can be moved.

If a model is manipulated on camera, itshould be supported firmly on a table, orcounter, and then tilted or rotated slowly in onearea, to give the viewer ample time to see andcomprehend. If several models are to be dis-played, the camera should show only one item ata time. A model held in the air may be easilymoved 9ut of_ the camera frame. Any fast orabrupt movement will make it difficult for thecameraman to keep a model in focus if a closeuplens is being used.

When pointing out details on a model, theobject should not be blocked by hands or thepart under discussion turned away from thecamera. A pointer is good to use for showingspecific details. When pointing, deliberate mo-tions should be used so as not to catch thecameraman by surprise. Rehearsing with themodel befoi s. the telecast perfects manipulation,timing, and synchronization of words and action.

Since models will be in color, the back-ground against which they are shown is im-

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PHOTO H. By attaching a gray thread to this tank destroyeron the left in this diorama of a World War II scene, the tankdestroyer can be made to move down the road.

portant. Light objects are set c I against a darkbackground, and vice versa. Whatever the color,the background shculd be plain; a model canbe lost in a confusion of patterns.

DioramasDioramas are three-dimensional scenes of

proportionately scaled miniature objects and'oackgrounds.

A shoe box, a large corrugated cardboardbox, a wooden box, or even two pieces of card-board fastened together at right angles to eachother can make a satisfactory frame for a dio-rama.

To give the illusion of depth in a diorama,objects should be grouped as follows: large ob-jects in the foreground, smaller objects in thecenter of the diorama, and the smallest objectsin the backgroundall proportionately scaled.Color in background material should not obscurethe main subject. (See Photo H.)

The illusion of depth in a diorama isheightened also by angling objects from onecorner of the diorama toward the center and byexaggerating the size differences of the objectsby cutting the cardboard in forced perspective.

The TV camera can show a diorama in itsentirety. However, closeups of an area withinthe diorama ane panning within the scene addinterest and moiion to the diorama.

PuppetsPuppet shows are valuable because they

can be adapted to suit almost any school-ageaudience and any learning situation. If the typeof puppets and the type of skit fit the age andbackground of the students and the subject mat-ter to be presented, puppet shows provide anexcellent medium for learning.

Puppets can be either made or purchasedcommercially. Types of puppets include: shadowpuppets, rod puppets, finger puppets, hand pup-pets, and string puppets or marionettes.

27

For use or television, hand puppets can beheld over the t. e of a table or shown througha gobo, and marionettes can be worked on thefloor in front of a drape. However, a puppetstage probably would be helpful. One can be ccn-structed easily of heavy corrugated cardboardfastened around a wooden framework. Manybooks are available which give full details onthe construction of puppet stages. (See Photo I.)

Aside from the usual concerns a TV teachermust have when using audiovisual materials on

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TV (legibility of printed matter, contrast ofcolor, suitability of background, etc.), most im-portant in a puppet play is the audio portion.Many teachers have found it best to audiotapethe play and then play back the tape on the air.In this way, participants have to concentrateonly on the motion of their puppets, and therewill be no microphone problems. If the partici-pants are speaking "live," adequate mikes mustbe provided.

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PHOTO I. Hand puppets are used in an elementary arithmetic lesson.

28

STUDIO PROPS

In any TV programeven a talk requiringlittle in the way of extra aids or audiovisualequipmentsome props are usually necessary.Props include easels for simple displays, boardsmade of assorted materials for more complexdisplays, and devices with moving parts forwriting on television.

Before choosing a prep for use on televi-sion, the teacher should check with the TV stationto be sure the prop is available.

EaselsThe easel is one of the most elementary

display devices used by TV stations. Easels propTV camera cards at an angle and height fromwhich the 4: amera can shoot them. Commonlyused on television are art and table easels.

The art easel is self-supporting and may beadjusted to hold a card at several differentheights; the table easel must be set on some kindof stand. (See Photos J and K.) To eliminatedistortion, the visual center of the card shouldbe on the same level as the camera lens. How-ever, if an art easel is used, with the teacherpointing to the cards, the er.qel must also beadjusted to the height of the teacher.

Cards may be changed on an easel by thefollowing methods:

I. While a camera is focused elsewhere,i.e., on the teacher

PHOTO J. Art easels generally are used on set by the tea:her.In this photo, the teacher points to material predominately lightin tone with the dark half of her two-color pointer.

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PHOTO K. Table easels generally are used off set. Cards arehandled by the floor director, not by the teacher.

29

2. In a continuous series by alternatingTV cards on two easels

3. In a continuous series by pulling themwhile on the air. (In this method, the audiencewould see the cards move across the screen, eventhough they may not be aware of it. To facilitatethe changing of cards, tabs should be placed oneach card, and each card should be pulled offthe easel by the tab; see Fig. 18.)

If more than one card is u:ed, the size andratio of the material on each card should be thesame so that the camera is framed properly forall cards.

If a table easel is used, the easel should belarger than the card to be televised, to allow fora framing area around the card.

FIG. 18. Cards with tabs on a table easel.

30

FIG. 19. A flip-cardloose-leaf notebook.

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Another variety of easel used on televisionis the flip-card easel, on which titles or othercards are mounted in a loose-leaf device. Allcards should be of standard size for flipping bythe TV teacher, or floor director, and the letteringor pictures on each card should be accuratelycentered and of uniform size and shape so thatthe TV camera need not reframe with each flip.(See Fig. 19.)

When the cards are flipped, the effect re-sembles successive pages of a calendar fallingneatly into place. This device is most useful whena series of words or numbers is superimposedover the teacher. Then, the superimposition canbe left in throughout the entire series of flips,and words and numbers seem to fall into place.

ChalkboardsEven though the chalkboard is probably the

most elementary and most conveniently availableteaching tool, it is also useful as a visual devicefor television. Pastel-green surfaced chalkboardson which soft yellow chalk is used show up wellon camera.

Chalkboard drawings should be large andbold and simple in design, and the materialshould be spaced out so that single or groupshots can be taken easily.

Templates, the opaque projector, and thepounce-pattern technique are tracing aids for theteacher to use on chalkboard in place of, or to sup-plement, teacher-made drawings.

Templates are prepared forms of cardboard,plywood, or other stiff materials around whichthe teacher can trace outlines.

Original drawings or illustrations frombooks or magazines can be enlarged through anopaque projector and projected on a chalkboardfor tracing. A 2" x 2" slide can also be used in thesame way.

In the pounce-pattern technique, a pattern istransferred to a sheet of tough paper, and holesare punched around the pattern with a leatherhole spacer, pin, or other sharp instrument. Thepattern is then held up against the chalkboardand patted with a heavily chalk-dusted eraser to

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transfer the dotted line pattern to the chalkboard.The dotted line then can be filled in.

The chalkboard can also be used as a dis-play device. (See Photos L ) In these photos, theparts of the microscope are made of thin card-board and are attached to the chalkboard with aloop of masking tape. Since the chalkboard ismetallic, small magnets attached to the card-board can also be used. Note that the lettering onthe cards, as well as the model itself, is largeenough to be seen in a wide camera sho whichwould include both the teacher and the model.

Flannel BoardsA flannel board is a board covered with cot-

ton flannel, felt, or some similar fabric. Objectsmade of flannel or backed with flannel adhere tothe high-nap surface of the flannel board withoutneed of glue or tacks.

Flannel boards are particularly good foruse in the primary grades. Simple objects can bearranged, rearranged, replaced, or removedquickly by the teacher and can be reused timeafter time. Teachers can easily supplement com-mercial forms with objects they themselves cutout from scraps of felt. Cutouts should be at least6" in diameter ; letters should be at least 2"high.

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PHOTOS L. A biology teacher constructs a model mkroscope step-by-step on a chalkboard to aid students in learning the parts andfunctions of the instrument.

31

FIG. 20. A boy walks across a painted scene on a magneticboard.

The greatest risk in using flannel boaid ontelevision is that objects may drop off while theboard is being used on the air. To avoid this,each piece should be tested on the board beforethe telecast. Since felt objects depend on surfacecontact for adhesion to the board, cutouts shouldbe stiff enough to prevent warping under the heatof the TV lights. If they warp, they will fall.

As with other audiovisual aids and allboards used for display, materials for the flannelboard should be arranged in proper order ofpresentation in advance of the TV lesson. The

32

presentation should be simple so that the boardis not cluttered with unnecessary pieces of felt.To avoid problems with color, a check shouldbe made to see that all parts of a flannel boarddemonstration show up well and do not blendinto each other. If cutouts are of painted card-board or some other shiny surface, they should

be checked for light reflection. Tilting the flannel

board slightly will reduce picture glare. The 3:4ratio required by television should be kept inmind. If the material is to be panned by onecamera, the display on the board should be setup so that the camera will not have to retrace itssteps or pan over blank areas.

Magnetic BoardsThe magnetic board is similar in principle

and use to the flannel board. Instead of frictionto hold cutouts, the magnetic board uses mag-netic attraction. The board is usually made ofsheet iron to attract small magnets attached tothe back of cutouts. Attraction of these magnetsto the surface of the board holds the cutouts inplace. Paint does not interfere with magneticattraction, so the board may be painted to con-trast with the parts of a display.

Another type of magnetic board is not madeof metal, but of stiff cardboard. The cutout isbacked, as before, with a magnet, and anothermagnet is placed opposite it on the reverse sideof the board. When the rear magnet is moved,the front cutout follows along. Such cutouts as

ships on oceans and leaves falling from trees canbe used on this type of board. Base designsshould accompany cutouts. (See Fig. 20.)

A recently developed magnetic board ismade of porcelain and steel. Objects adhere to itssteel surface without tacking, taping, or marking.

PegboardsA pegboard is a display board made of

sheets of hard-pressed wood (tempered mason-ite) with 3/16" holes drilled across its surfaceat 1" intervals. Lightweight materialsinclud-ing three-dimensional objectscan be tacked orstapled to the hard surfsce of the pegboard bya variety of wire fixtures. These fixtures includeshelf supports; book, magazine, record, tool, anddish holders; and spring clips for cards, in ad-dition to "T"-shaped holders for hammers orbrooms and test-tube holders.

If a pegboard display is used on televisiononly as a background, the display should be un-

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cluttered. If the items on a pegboard are to beshown individually, the material should be ar-ranged so that the camera can pan smoothly fromone item to another.

On the pegboard in Photo M, a junior high-school TV mathematics instructor is illustratingthe property of tangency. Metal rings are used torepresent circles of various sizes, and thestraight line is a length of wooden dowel. Pointsare located with golf tees and are labeled withmetal identifying disks which have a small hooksoldered on one side and a letter printed on theother. Rubber bands are used to form the tri-angle; they can be changed quickly to formanother geometric shape.

Bulletin BoardsA bulletin board is one of the least expen-

sive props that a TV teacher can use for display.Monk's cloth or burlap, for example, can bestretched over a frame, and pins can be used to

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PHOTO M. A pegboard display simply and efficiently illustrates geometrk concepts for a junio7 high-school audience.

33

tack materials to the surface. Fiber or wall boardcan also be used.

Menu BoardsMenu boards, also known as spaghetti

boards, are excellent when last-minute changesin the lettering of title or other cards are needed.They are framed, grooved boards covered withMa' cloth. Plastic letters fit into the horizontalgrooves and are easy to move around. Menuboard.; range in size from 3"x 10", for use on adesk, to 18" x 24". (See Photo N.)

Transparency BoxesIf transparencies are mounted on an opaque

caul for flipping and then lighted from thefront, serious shadows will show on the copy.This would be especially confusing in arithmeticteaching, where lines and numbers must be

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PHOTO N. A le..st-minute change on a Science 7 telecast isbeing set up on a menu board to be used as a supelimposedtitle for the program.

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PHOTO 0. A filmstrip of Alaska is shown by means of a transparency box, with the teacher on camera.

34

clearly projected. However, if transparencies arehung in a light box where they are lightei frombehind, and placed in a darkened area in thestudio, no shadows will show on the copy.

If the teacher wants to be on camera whileshowing a filmstrip or a series of slides, and norear-projection screen is available, a transpar-ency box can be used. The light bulbs are re-moved from the transparency box, and the boxis placed on the teacher's desk. The projector islined up the proper distance behind the box forthe filmstrips or slides to fill the screen. Then,the floor director can change the filmstrips orslides, and the teacher can point to details. Onecamera can show wide-angled shots of the teacherand screen, while another camera points to de-tails. (See Photo 0.)

GobosGobo is a TV term for "go-between," i.e.,

anything that is placed between the camera andthe person on camera or between the camera andthe basic set. The gobo usually has a cutoutarea through which the TV camera can shooteither the person on camera or the basic set.

A camera can dolly in toward the gobountil the cutout area fills the screen and thegobo has completely disappeared. For example,a gobo of a Christmas tree ball can be shotthrough to show a teacher in a set beyond; thenthe c ?,ra can dolly through the opening to showmore and more of the set area and, finally, a fullshot of the teacher in a toy store.

A double gobo can be used similarly. For

FIG. 21. A transparency box is constructed of (a) a wooden frame and two light bulbs, (b) a sheet of translucent glass, and (c) plasticoverlays.

The transparency box can do double dutyby acting also as a desk easel on the sa le lesson.An extra light would be needed to light the easel,but would be switched off when the filmstrip orslides were shown.

A transparency box can be constructed eas-ily at moderate cost. The box consists of awooden frame ( in the pr oper 3:4 TV propor-tion) on which a sheet o f translucent glass ismounted; behind the glass are two 60-watt bulbs.The plastic overlays then can be mounted bytape on the face of the gi ass. The TV camerafocuses directly on the base cell, and the othercells are dropped into place as needed. (SeeFig. 21. )

example, a top card with no opening and paintedto represent a Christmas card is the first gobo.The card is opened to the next gobo, a cutoutfor the camera to dolly through to the teacher.(See Photos P.)

Crawls and DrumsCrawls and drums are writing surfaces for

use on television.Crawls supply a clear, smooth writing sur-

face. They are made of a frame, with a roller attop and bottom to hold a paper supply. Eachroller has a handle for cranking, and the paper

35

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PHOTOS P. An example of a gobo.

can be rolled up or down at any rate of speed.Later-model crawls are motorized so that, with aflip of a switch, the paper rolls automatically.Either the teacher or the floor director can oper-ate this equipment.

Paper rolls are used by TV teachers asclassroom teachers use blackboards. For TVpurposes, they are better than blackboards be-cause: (a) there are no reflection problems; (b)there is no chalk squeak; and (c) there is noerasing necessarythe teacher rolls to the nextclear area.

TV teachers can write on crawls with amagic marker or a similar felt pen. A blackmarker with yellow paper is the best color com-bination for use on camera. If the teacher wishes,guidelines for lettering, outlines of diagrams, oranswers to problems can be written ahead oftime on the crawl in red pencil. These lines,when lightly drawn, can be seen easily by theteacher, but will be invisible on the TV screen.(See Photo Q.)

Drums are used primarily for titles orcredits, but TV teachers can also use them forlisting subjects, words, or outlines. (See Fig.22.)

Copy can be printed or hand-lettered on along roll of paper in a co!iimnar format andmounted or the cylindrical face of a verticallyrevolving drum. As the drum is slowly turned,the copy is exposed a section at a time, givinganimation to static material.

36

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PHOTO Q. A seventh-grade mathematics teacher uses a paperroll to explain a problem to his students. One camera can framethe teacher whius, another camera frames the information on thepaper roll.

Drums are round, square, hexagonal, oroctagonal, and they may be used horizontally orvertically. A mat or gobo can be placed in frontof the drum to mask or frame the lettering.

Variations of the drum include: (a) thewindmill, which holds four cards and rotatescopy much like the square drum; (b) the flipper,which holds only two cards; (c) the venetianblind, in which copy is put into slats and the copyis changed by reversing the blind; (d) the spiral

FIG. 22. A drum can be manually revolved at any desired speed.

disk, in which copy or a picture is spun for acontinuous spiral effect or spun and then sloweduntil it stops; and (e) the endless roll-up, whichis a motor-driven crawl for holding cards. Someroll-ups hold as many as 35 11" x 14" cards.(See Fig. 23.)

TurntablesTurntables permit the TV teacher to dis-

play materials on camera without handling them.The simplest form of the turntable for TV

use is the sculptor's modeling turntable. It canbe used for displaying a three-dimensional ob-ject from all three sides.

FIG. 23. Variations of the drum include (clockwise, from left to right) the windmil!, the venetian bhnd, and the spiral disk.

37

By placing a drum in the center of a turn-table, a background can be provided tG displayobjects. The studio teacher or the floor directorcan rotate the turntable while watching the moni-tor to synchronize the teacher's remarks with themovement of the turntable. A background on adrum can also scrve as a moving panorama ; ateacher or object, for example, can be super-imposed against a panorama of moving clouds.(See Fig. 24.)

A turntable can also be used as a cadiz-ziator, a small revolving stage with six triangular

38

eages. The stages are built with prosceniumarches and grooves for holding 11" x 14" photo-graphs, pictures, or cards by means of whichbackground scenery can be made interchange-able.

Rotating dioramas, shown one at a time, canbe used as a variation of the cadizziator.

Turntables are available commercially.Some motorized turntables allow changes inspeed, pauses in rotation, or a back-andforthmovement.

FIG. 24. A turntabl3 servos as a stage for three-dimensional obiects and backgrounds.

SPECIAL EFFECTS

The medium of television offers to theteacher the use of a number of special effectswhich influence the presentation of a visualteaching resource or set the tone or mood foran entire broadcast.

Special effects available for use by the TVteacher include: (a) electronic camera effects;(b) optical camera effects; (c) lighting effects;(d) audio effects; (e) set and background ef-fects; and (f) opening and closing effects.

For the most part, a TV teacher will notactually take part in the technical aspects ofproducing special TV effects. However, an un-derstanding of these effects and of how they arecreated will enable the teacher to choose thoseeffects which will make his teaching moredynamic.

A look at a TV control room will be ofvalue to the TV teacher. Photo R shows a typi-cal control-room arrangement for a two-camerastudio:

1. At the far left is the turntable whichwill play 331/3, 45, and 78 RPM recordings.

2. Adjacent to the turntable is an audiopanel which contains the audio controls for theturntable, the film chains, the audio tape re-corder, and the studio microphones.

3. Next is the first monitor which carriesthe picture from studio camera 1.

4. Following is the second monitor whichcarries the picture from studio camera 2.

5. At the far right is the large monitorwhich carries the picture that is on the air.

The controls on the audio board and underthe first two monitors are usually run by anengineer. The audio controls regulate soundsand adjust the volume to the proper level. Thecamera controls adjust the proper contrast,

PHOTO R. A TV control room with turntable, audio and othercontrols, and three monitors.

39

brightness, and linearity of the pictures from allthe studio cameras.

The buttons and lever under the large moni-tor comprise the switcher and are used by thedirector or technical director te accomplish elec-tronic camera effects.

Each button of the two rows of buttonson the panel in front of the large monitor con-trols a camera. When a button is punched, thepicture from that camera will be put on the air.The director can change instantly from one cam-era to another by punching a button, but thebutton must be in the same row as the presenton-the-air camera.

If the director wants to create a dissolve,he punches a button on the other row of buttons.The lever, which is in position toward the bankin which the director has been operating, is

pushed to the opposite bank. The speed withwhich the lever is switched determines the speedat which the dissolve is accomplished.

Electronic CanviraEffects

Cuts

The TV cut is the abrupt cutting out of onepicture and the substitution of another. It is mostuseful for changing the mood or tempo of a les-son and for getting a shot on the air quickly. Acut is achieved when a director or an engineerat the control board punches a "take" button.

The responsibility of a TV director is toput himself in the viewer's place and attempt toshow the viewer what he wants to see when hewants to see it. Cutting, then, should be doneresponsibly. :t should also be done judiciously.Too much cutting will make a telecast hard towatch and will be irritating to the audience.

Dissolves

The dissolve is a blended transition fromone picture to another; that is, one scene fadesout and vanishes at the same time as a secondpicture overlaps it and fades in strong on thescreen.

40

A dissolve may be made at any speed, de-pending on the required effect. The length ofthe dissolve will depend upon the mood of thetelecast, the length of action behind it, and thepace the teacher is trying to maintain.

The dissolve should be used when fluidityand smoothness are necessary to the continuityof the lesson, i.e., as a transition from one areaof time or space to another. It also may be usedfor less abrupt transitions. For example, in amusic lesson, a slow dissolve from the teacherplaying a violin to a closeup of the strings ofthe violinall in tempo with the musicwouldbe much better than an abrupt cut between.thetwo shots.

Matched Dissolves

The matched dissolve is an exact matchingof the positioning of two similar objects, oneon each camera, so that when a dissolve is made,a metamorphosis appears to take place. For ex-ample, a doll can be brought to life on the TVscreen by match-dissolving from the doll to areal person similarly dressed and positioned.(See Fig. 25.)

Defocusing

The defocus is a transitional device thatis similar to the dissolve. The established pic-ture becomes blurred and then clears up to re-veal a new and different picture.

Defocusing is accomplished by the on-the-air camera going out of focus while still on theair and then dissolving through to a second cam-era, which is also out of focus and on a differentpicture. This second camera is now focused upon the a;ir to reveal the new shot.

Because the defocus creates a misty effect,it is particularly useful for introducing a dreamsequence or creating a transitional effect throughtime or space.

Superimpositions

The superimposition (or "super") is a TVterm for the superimposition of an image from

HG. 25. The director match-dissolves from Camera I, a doll,to Camera 2, the guest,

one camera over the image from another camera.Usually, when one picture has been established,the other picture is supered in, held for thenecessary length of time, and then taken outagain.

If a super is to be used, sufficient contrastbetween the two images is necessary. Normally,a light picture is supered over a darker picture.Lettering, for example, when supered over ateacher, a card, a sJide, or any other object,F hould be white over a darker picture.

If an object is to be supered in beside ateacher, both the supered object and the teachershould be in front of a dark background so thatthe super will be sharp and clear, without dim-ming the established picture. (See Photos Sand T.)

Matting

Matting is accomplished in the same way asa regular superimposition, except that, in mat-ting, one camera has its lens turret offset so thatthe lens is no longer directly in front of thepickup tube. As a result, part of the scene willbe cut off by the body of the lens turret and willappear black on the screen. The cameraman

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PHOTO S. A fourth-grade music teacher shows her class thesymbol that means "hold the tone.''

PHOTO T. The symbol is picked up on Camera I; the teacher ison Camera 2. The director then superimposes Camera I overCamera 2 so that the studenk see the symbol and the teacher atthe same ,ime.

41

must then center the object to be superimposedwithin this "cracked" area. This object is thensuperimposed over the shot from the othercamera. (See Fig. 26.)

An example of this process is the following:A full and established shot is of a music teacherat a piano. Framed and superimposed to oneside of the established picture is a matted shotshowing a closeup of a pair of hands clappingin time to the music.

FIG. 26. Camera 2 is superimposed over on-the-air Camera I

to show closeups of both the teacher and the object shediscusses.

Special Effects AmplifiersWith special electronic equipment, tbe TV

director is able to create a great many effectson live television previously possible only onfilm.

The matting amplifier, for example, takesthe picture that is telecast by one camera andplaces it into the picture that is telecast byanother camera through the wipe, split-screen, orkey-insertion effect. It is the only TV equipmentthat can create a clean-cut insertion of a person

42

or article from one scene into another com-pletely separate scene.

The electronic wipe is used as a transitionfrom one picture to another and can be madehorizontally, vertically, or angularly. The op-erator of the matting amplifier selects the pat-tern to be used.

The split screen is used mainly to hold con-versations between people in two separate loca-tions. The picture from one camera is F.' wn on

one half of the screen, and the picture fromanother camera is shown on the other half ofthe screen. The s,.;reen can be split vertically,horizontally, or angularly.

The key-insertion effect Frmits the inser-tion of any scene on one camera into anotherscene on another camera. A teacher, for exam-ple, can be keyed into a still photograph or amotion picture so that be appears to be part ofthe scene.

Another electronic matting amplifier, theZoom Keyer, allows a silhouette of any shapeto expand or contract to any of 70 differentsizes. The silhouette can be used as a key insertand fed from the Zoom Keyer into a regularmatting amplifier. It is then possible to use thepicture from one camera inside the silhouettewhile the picture from the other camera remainsoutside the silhouette.

Optical Camera EffectsMirrors

The mirror is probably the most simpleand useful device in the field of special effects.The TV teacher or a scene can be shown fromangles impossible without the use of a mirror.Mirrors permit high-angled shots, tilted shots,and reflections.

In an art lesson, for example, the teacherneeds closeup shots of his hands from aboveand behind for students t,, ,oe from the teacher'spoint of vantage. It would be very awkward, ifnot impossible, to place a camera at a highangle behind the teacher; a mirror solves theproblem easily. (See Fig. 27.)

PrismsPrisms can also be used to aid the camera

in obtaining shots from different angles. Byplacing a prism on a lens, for example in an artlesson, a camera can be kept level and stillobtain a shot directly on top of the artist'shands. The construction of a prism is such thatthe picture telecast will be from the viewpointof the artist himself. (See Fig. 28.)

Multiple-image prisms can be purchasedwhich produce a series of images. When theprism is rotated, the images will revolve in acircular pattern.

Kaleidoscopes

Kaleidoscopes present a continuous flow ofabstract patterns. They can be used for transi-tions and gre especially adaptable to musicalprograms.

A children's kaleidoscope can be purchasedcommercially. It is mounted directly on a lensof the TV camera, then pointed at a light source,and rotated to produce changing designs.

FIG. 27. A mirror pro-vides closeups of tllework of the artist frdmhis viewpoint.

FIG. 28. A prism also providescloseups of the work of the art-ist from his viewpoint.

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Teleidoscopes

A teleidoscope is a new version of thekaleidoscope. Whereas the objects making thepatterns in the kaleidoscope are self-contained,the teleidoscope creates for the viewer a pat-terned effect of the object on which it is focused.When the teleidoscope is mounted directly onthe lens of the TV camera, and held stationaryon any well-lighted object, an eight-sided designof the object is seen. A slight movement of eitherthe subject or the camera will present newdesigns.

The teleidoscope is an effective openingdevice for a TV program. For example, by fram-ing an empty card easel with the camera-mountedteleidoscope and sliding the title card completelyacross the easel from one side to the other, thewords or pictures on the card will appear toemerge from the center of the televised image,expand into a light-sided pattern, and disappearat the outer edges of the frame.

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FIG. 29. The one-camera split-screen effect.

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The One-Camera Split-Screen Effect

A split-screen effect can be achieved withthe use of one TV camera, a mirror, and a pole.

A camera is lined in position so that themain subject falls on the right half of the viewedarea. Then, a 12" x 16" unframed mirror ismounted to an upright pole, with the center ofthe mirror at lens level, about 6" from the lensat a 60-degree angle to the line established bythe camera lens and the main subject. The mirrorshould now be in such a position as to blockout the left half of the ,-*nved picture area. Theimage to be reflected snould be at a 60-degreeangle to the mirror. (See Fig. 29.)

If the reflected subject is to be the same sizeas the main subject, the distance from the lensto the main subject should be equal to the dis-tance from the lens to the mirror plus thedistance from the mirror to the subject to bereflected.

A pan to the right loses the mirror and

2 1

FIG. 30. A TV camera frames a person in full silhouette.

centers on the main subject. A pan back to theleft picks up the main subject and its reflectedimage at the same time.

Lighting EffectsSilhouettes

A silhouette is an unilluminated object seenagainst a lighted background. It is usually madeby lighting the rear .vall of a set area, with theperformer in front, out of the light. If a personis to be framed in silhouette from head to toe,it is easier to place him on a slight elevationto avoid tilting the camera too much toward thefloor. (See Fig. 30.)

Entire plays or skits can be presented insilhouette. Since only the shape of the objectmatters, less elaborate costuming and sceneryare needed, and color and texture are of noimportance.

Silhouettes can be adapted for other usesas well. For example, in a social studies lesson,a teacher interviewed a seventeenth-centurysailor in silhouette, in front of a painted back-ground of an English harbor.

Cameo Lighting

Cameo lighting derives its name from theNBC series of productions, "Cameo Theatre."This series developed a style of TV productionin which the camera concentrates on the actors.With the exception of key propssuch as tableand chairsand special effectssuch as rain orsnowto set the scene, scenery is left to theimagination of the viewers. (See Fig. 31.)

FIG. 3 I. In cameo lighting, all light should be on the centralcharacters and none on the background.

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Elimination of elaborate sets and lengthyrehearsals makes cameo lightig especiallyadaptable to educational television. Using thislighting, the teacher is illuminated with spots,with a minimum of fill light, keeping the back-ground in darkness. This lighting can also beused on a teacher who is standing or si; Lingalongside of a front- or rear-projection scAven.

Pattern SpotsThe pattern spot projects a sharply out-

lined spotlight and is eq- ipped to project cutoutpatterns. This spotligiA has a slot built into itso that metal cutouts or patterns in color or blackand white may be inserted in the slot at the topof the projection lamp. Most units also areequipped with shutters so that the pattern canbe shaped and all spill light kilted.

Any kind of pattern made of metal oraluminum may be cut out and placed in the spot-light for projection. Their use eliminates the needfor painted backgrounds. (See Fig. 32.) Forexample, in a history lesson on U.S. politicalparties, a pattern of a donkey and an elephantcan be projected behint. .re teacher.

FIG. 32. A!dackground.

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checkered cutou' pattern produces a checkered

Even if a set is not necessary as a back-ground, the addition of a pattern, slightly de-focused, will add interest to the picture. (SeePhoto U.)

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,IL

PHOTO U. The projected image from a pattern spot main aneffective background as a group of visiting foreign studentsshows its talents on a Sth grade social studies telecast.

Sets and BackgroundsWhere television is used for direct teach-

ing, less emphasis is placed on sets or back-grounds than in other types of educational andcommercial television programming. Since themost important elements in an instructional tele-cast are the teacher and the subject being taught,to maintain eye contact and emphasis moretime is spent on closeups of the teacher and oncards or other viruals than in most commercialprograms.

This does not mean, however, that back-grounds should be complfitely forgotten in edu-cational television. Use of interesting sceneryand props tliaes add to the effectiveness of TVlessons. (See Photo V.)

In planning scenery, proper cciar and pattern contrasts should be provided and fine de-tails avoided. A plain background can absorb

h.-

L.

PHOTO V. A set suggesting a flurist shop for a third-gradearithmetic telecast.

2 _ )

patterned costumes, while a patterned hack-ground needs plain costumes.. Large, bold pat-terns are better than finely detailed designs.Large areas of unbroken, uniform color aremonotonous and should be avoided.

The walls of the studio, curtains, or fiatscan be converted into interesting backgroundswith the addition of a few simple props or dec-orations or a pattern from a pattern spot. (SeePhotos W.)

Seamless paper also can make effectiveLackgrounds. The paper comes in 8-foot rollsand may be cut to any length. A Fcene can bepainted on the paper with ordinary poster naints.The main drawback of seamless paper back-grounds is that they tear with protracted use.(See Photo X.)

If backgrounds are put up and taken downmany times, it is best that they be painted onunbleached muslin instead of on seamless paper.Muslin will take the paint well, and there is noreal storage problem since the backgrounds canbe folded and put away.

Opening a TV LessonIn television, educational or commercial,

if the attention of the viewers is not captureddurirg the opening minutes of a program,(thances are that their attention will not be cap-tured at all.

Therefore, the opening of a TV program isvery important. It should be interesting, fast,

PHOTOS W. A functional background in a TV se '. aids in theteaching of ninth-grade biology: (a) A biology teacher draws amuscle on his arm; (b) he places the name and function of eachmuscle on the background; and (c) a second camera rakos acloseup shot of the diagram.

moving, o. od informative, and both video andaudio should be closely synchronized. The open-ing should annt,unee the title and subject of aprogram as well set the mood or theme of thelesson; it should give direction to a program;

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it should set up a definite progression of actionand information.

An outline of some suggested opening de-vices for use in educational TV programsfollows:

1. Title Cardsa. Flip or pull cardsb. Lettering superimposed over a pic-

ture or photographc. Animated cards

2. Transparenciesa. Build-up lettering with overlays

3. Slidesa. A sequence of slides to give motion

4. Crawl or Druma. Rotatif.ln of artwork or letteringb. Masked crawl or drum

5. Film Clipsa. Super slides or title cards

6. Live Actiona. Superimposed slides or title cards or

a superimposition from a drum orcrawl

b. A model or experimentc. A "live" performance

7. Rear Screena. Establish a shot; then dolly outb. Frame picture on screen and super-

impose titles

8. Goboa. Any model that can be shot throughb. Titles superimposed over a gobo be-

fore the dolly is started

9. Puppeta. Audio introductionb. Visual introduction with cards or

other artwork

10. Venetian Blindsa. Title on one side; information on ihe

other siae

11. Booka. Pages can be hand-turned or me-

chanically turned

12. Kaleidoscope or Teleidoscopea. Focus in and out of revolving pictureb. Titles superimposed over pattern

13. Charts or Postersa. Closeup of either; then dolly out to

show teacher

14. Diorama or Panoramaa. A scene or picture with appropriate

sound effects

15. Audio Effectsa. Theme musicb. Background musicc. Sound effects

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PHOTO X. An outdoor bill-board poster is used as a

background, with pieces fromduplicate poster covering

advertising.