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Counseling-Learning Theory Applied to
Foreign Language Learning
教科・領域,教育専攻
言語系コ~ス
学籍番号
氏 名M 83202牛田 敏雄
一
Counseling-Learning Theory Applied to
Foreign Language Learning
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of the Graduate Course at
Hyogo University of 工eache:r Education
In Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Education
by
Toshto Ushida
(M83202)
December 1984
PREFACE
English Learning Theory of Behaviorism has many defects
when we think of affective factors of the’ 垂窒盾モ?唐刀@in learn-
ing English.
First, learnipg is seen as merely a cognitive process
without consideration for the affects and conflicts of the
learner ( Curran, 1968,295 ).
Secondly, serious defeets in the pattern practice hy-
pothesis have been shown in both the language laboratory and
in the classroom.
Third, according to BradfOrd, there are important goals
in language learning that have been relegated to secondary
positton in behavioristic methodology.
We cannot teach a foreign language without affective,
psycholo9 i: cal facto:rs. Teachers unde:rstand the:L:r student二s
well, and student二s know one anothe:r among them。
These groups factl±tate their learning smoothly. So we
should place greater stress upon humanistic psycholdgy
( Allport, Maslow and Rogers ) than upon Structuralism
( Wundt, Titchener ) and Behaviourism ( Watson, Skinner ).
Counseling ±s the most effective way to know students and to
know their roles of the group. Counseling is a series of
direct contacts with individual which aims to offer him
assistance in changing his attitudes and behavior. There has
been a tendency to use the term counseling for more casual
and superficial interviews, and to reserve the te’.rrn psyebotherapy
for more intensive and long-continued contacts directed
toward deeper reorganization of the personality.
C. R. Rogers published 1’CounseZing and Psychother,apy”
in l942。 工n this book he advocated a new theo:ry, non-
directive counseling. BefQu,e Rogers, ”Clinical Counseling”
was published by E. G. Williamson and J. G. Darley in 1937.
Rogexs said that their counseling was counselor-centered,
di:rective, non-democ:ratic, autho:rit二ative and diagnosis is
not necessary for good therapy.
工 begin with Ca:rl R. Roge:rs冒 theo:ry. Nex.t:1 1=reat:of
Charles A. Curran, who was inspired by his ’ モ盾浮獅唐?撃奄獅〟@theo-
ry, and Paul G. ]La Forge, who :recognized affective fact二〇:rs
in lea:rning a fo:reign language. I want to make it二clea:r how
they applied Rogers theory to the Foreign Language Learning.
To eomplete this dissertation 1 am most greatly indebted
to Professor Shoroku Aoki for hts useful advice and personal
encouragement. Also, to Dr. Paul G. La Forge of his kind
demonstra・tion of CLL, Prof. Masamichi Tanaka, Prof. Toshihiko
Yamaoka, and other P:rofesso:rs by whom 工 have been di:rectly
or indirectly inspired, 1 would like to express my hearty
thanks.
Toshio Ushida
Decembe:r, ユ984。
CONTENTS
PREIFACE
CHAPTER 工 Fundamen七al 七hough七s of Carl R・ ROgers 。 ・ … 1
CHAPTER ユ:工 :Fundamen七al 七hough七s of Charles A. Gurran . 。 /1
2 .1 H i s t h6” u g h t s . . . . . . . . . ・ . ・ ・ ・ ・ . 1 /
2.2 The Comparison between the theory of
C. R. Rogers and that of C. A. Curran . . . . 26
CHAPTER 丁丁工 Fundarnen七a⊥ 七hough’bs Of P. G. LaForge ・ … 33
3・1 His 七hOugh七s ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ ・ … 。 ・ ・ 。 ・ ・ 33
3.2 The eomparison of the view of the three
advocators ・ . . . . ・ . . . ・ . e . . . e ・ 36
CHAPTER 工V Some cOnsiderations irl carrying ou七 G工、 . . 39
GHAPTER v cQnc二Lusion .......。....... . 46
B]:BL工OGRAPHY
CHAPTER I
Fundamental thoughts of Carl R. Rogers
Rogers described four hypotheses of his new approach as
follows;
(A) 工t relies much mo:re heavily on the indi’vidual drive towa:rd
,/growth,.health.and・adjustment. Therapy ・is a matter of
freeing (the client) for norrTial growth and development.
(B) Thi.s therapy places greater stress upon...the feeling
aspects of the situation than upon the intellectual s
...一”
D aspects.
(C) This newer therapy places greater stress upon the irnme-
diat:e. situation 仁han upon the individual past二.
(D) This approach lays stress upor} the therapeutic relation-
ship it二self as a growth experience.
Acco:rding to these hypot二heses, he developed hti.s counseling
theory,
(A) This newer approach differs from the older one in that
it has a genuinely different goal. It aims direetly toward
the greater independenee and integration of the ind’ividual
rather than hoping that such results will accrue if the
counselor assistis in solving the problem. The indi,vidual and
not the problem is the focus. The aim is not to solve one
pa:rticular problean, but t二〇 assist二the ind工▽idual tQ g:row, so
t二ha t-he can cope with.. the p:じesent problem and with late:t’
problem in a better一一integrated fashion. If he ean gain
2
enough in七egra七ion 七〇 handle on problem in more independen七,
mOre responsible, less confused, be七七er-organized ways, 七hen
he will also handle new problems in ’しha七 manner.
工f 七his seems a li’t七le vague, i七 may be made more
speeific by enumerating several of the ways in which this newer
apprOach differs from 七he old. 工n 七he firs七 place, 七herapy
is no七 a ma七七er of doing something -bo 七he individual, or of
inducing him 七〇 dO some七hing abOu七 himself. 工七 is ins七ead
a ma七’しer of freeing him fOr normal grow七h and developmen’し,
of remOving Obstacles so 七hat he can again mOve forward.
(B) 工七 is finally making effec’bive 七he lOng-s七anding knowledge
七ha一し mos七 maladjus七men七s are no’b :failures in knOwing bu七 七ha七
knOw]一edge is ineffec七ive because i七 is blocked by 七he emo七iOnal
satisfactions which the individuai achieves through his present
maladj us’しmen七s. The boy who s’しeals knows 七ha七 i七 is wrong
and inadvisab:Le. The paren七 who nags and cOndemns and :rejects
knows tha七 such behavior is unfor’buna’しe in other paren七s.
The s七uden’し who cu七s class is intel]一ec七ually aware of 七he
reasOns against doing so。 The s七udent who ge七s low grades
in spi七e of good abili七y :erequen七ly fails because of 七he
emo七ional sa七isfac七ions of one sor’し and ano七her which 七ha七
failure brings to him. This newer therapy endeavors to work
as direc七ly as possible irl 七he realrn of feeling and emo七ion
ra七her ..『しhan a七’しemp七ing 七〇 achieve emo七ional reorganiza七ion
’しhrough an intellec七ual apprOach.
(C) The significan七 emotiOnal pa七七erns of the individual,
3
those wh:Lch serve a purpose in his psychological economy, ご..しこ云
those whtch he needs to consider seriously, show up just as
well in his pesent adjustment, and even tn the counseling
hour, as they do in his past history. For purposes of
research , for understanding of the genetics of human
behavior, past history is very important. For therapy to
take place, it is not necessarily important. Consequentl.y,
there is much less stress on history for history’s sake than
formerly. Curiously enough, when there is no probing for
the facts of the history, a better picture of the dynamic
development of the individual often emerges through the
therapeutic contacts.
(D) In all the ot二he:r app:roaches ment:Loned, the individua1 :Ls
expected to grow and change and make be’tter decisions after
he leaves the interview hour. ln the newer practice, the
therapeutic contaet is itself a growth experience. Here the
individual learns to understand himself, to make significant
independent choices, to relate himself successfully to
another.person in a rnore adult fashion. In some respects
this rnay be the most important aspect of the approach we
shall describe. The discussion here is somewhat parallel to
the discussidn in education as to whether school work is
a preparation for ユi:fe or iもis li:ffe in i七self.、 Certainly this
type of therapy is not a preparation for change, it is change.
Rogers said that counseling was counselor-centered,
directive, non-democratic, authoritative and diagnosis is not
・4
1
necessary for good 七herapy.
So no one liked 七heir counseling called direc七ive。 He
said his counseling was non-direetive.
To clarify 七he charac七eris七ics of 七his, 工 would like 七〇
consider wha七 counseling is。 Counseling is a process be七ween
七he 七wo persons, dynam:lc in七erac一しion. 工n ’しhis process 七he
One ( counselor ) gives 七he o七her ( clien七 ) 七he professiOnal
advice by main工y using language and facili七a七es the clien七ts
personality.
He mentions some tentative Prineiples and Hypotheses of
a student-centered teaehing as follows. (Client-centered
Therapy, 1951)
(1) We eannot teach another person directly; we can only
facilita七e his learning.
This is a hypo七hesis with which any 七hough七fuユ teache:r
will agree。 工七 is indeed orl:Ly a forma:L resta七emen七 〇f 七he
old adage 七ha七 nYou can lead a hOrse 七〇 wa七er bu七 you can!七
make him drink.t「 Opera七ionally, however, most 七eachers u七七erly
ignore this basic hypothesis. Wateh a faeulty group concerned
wi七h 七he :forma七ion of a curriculum. How much shall we
cover in this course? How can we avoid ”ovgrlap between
七hese cOurses? 工srl「七 七ha七 七〇pic bes七 七augh七 in ’bhe
七hird year? Wha七 percen七age Of Our firs七一year
/ 旦≦幽 and Sp:ELXgkg]2agza]2zh t h , Hough七〇n M i:f f l i n C o m p a ny,
1942 pp. 28-31.
Counselling and Psychotherapy Houghton Mifflin Company
course shall be given to this topic? These are samples of
questions discussed‘and they are all of them based on the
hypothesis, which every faculty member knows is false, that
what is taught is what is learned.
(2) A person learns significantly only those things which
he perceives as being involved in the maintenance of , or
enhancement of, the structure of self.
Here is a. hypothesis which is basic to personality
theogy as we have come to understand it. Many would differ
with it, and point out the degree of learning that takes
place in subjects which surely have no relevance to the self.
Perhaps the meaning of the hypothesis can be illustrated by
referring t二〇 two types of student in, let us say, a cou:rse
in mathematics o/ statistics. The firs,t student perceives
t二his mathematical mate:rial as being di:rectly :relevant to his
professional purpose, and thus directly involved in his long-
range enhancement of self. The second s,tudent is taking the
course because it is required. For the maintenance and
enhancement of self he regards it as necessary that he stay in
亡he university。 Therefore it is necessary that he pass 亡hむ
eourse.
(3) Experience which, if assimilated, would involve a change
in the organization of self tends to be resisted through
denial or distortion of symbolization.
The structure and organization of self appears to
become more rigid under threat; to relax its boundaries when
5
6
completely free from threat. Experience which is perceived
as inconsistent with the self can only be assimilated if the
current organization of self is relaxed and expanded to in-
clude it.
These hypotheses have to do with the fact that learning,
particularly if it is significant, is often a threatening
thing. There are times when the new material of education
is immediately perceived as making for the enhancement of
self, but in a great many other instances the new material
threatens the self or, more exactly, some value with which
the self has become identified. This is very obviously true
in the social sciences. To learn the objective facts about
p:rrejudice may th:reat二en p:rejudices which are valued. To learn
about the distribution of intelligence, in the population may
disturb beliefs with which the individual is identified.
(4) The educational situation which most effectively promotes
s:tgnificant learning is one in which (ユ) th:reat to t=he self
of t二he lea:rner is :reduced to a minimum, and (2) diffe:rentiated
perception of the field of experience is facilitated.
The two parts of this hypothesis are almost synonyinous,
since differentiated perception is most likely when the self
is not under threat. lf we take this hypothesis as a descri-
ption of what education should provide, it・will be seen that
such education would be far diZfferent from present-day
programs.
It:may be objected t二hat learning goes on in spite of,
7
even because of, 七hrea七・ Wi七rless ’しhe pla七〇〇rl which is likely
七〇 be :eired upon as i七 gOes in七〇 enemy 七erri七〇ry, and because
of 七his 七hrea’し it learns rapidly and e:f:eec七ively abou七 七he
七errain. 工七 is 七rue 七ha七 when reali七y provides 七he 七hrea七,
七he learning of behaviOrs which will main七ain 七he self goes
on apace. 工f 七he desired training has no o七her goal 七han 七〇
main’しain 七he self as i’し is, therl 七hrea七 七〇 self may no七 impede
七h・pr・gres.・f l・arning・Bu七in・du・a七i・n七his is alpl・・七
never ’しrue・ Wha七 is desired is grow七h, and 七his involves
change in ’しhe self. Whenever such a brOader goal is envisaged,
then 七hrea七 to 七he self appears 七〇 be a barrier to significan七
1earning. 工n order 七〇 build up 七he rela七iOnship be七ween 七he
cOunselor and clierl七, Rogers also says abOu七 τ7The necessary
and sufficien七 conditions Of th erapeu ti e persona]一i’しy change
(/957)!1 as fOllOws:
び ミ ノ ロ ロ コ の
(1) contac’し 〔psycho⊥ogica⊥J (2) in congruence, vulnerable and anxious-clien七 (3) rela’tionship一一cOngruen七 and in七ergra七ed一一 counseユor
(4) uncOndi七iOnal posi七ive regard (5)internal frame・f reference一一empa七hic under- s’しanding
(6) 4 & 5 perceive at leas七一一communica七ion
(1)d。nt。。七
Meaningfu:L, posi七ive persona]一i七y change will occur be’しween
rela七ionship. Rela七iOnship with psychQ:Logical con七ac七 mus七
be necessary・
(2) Clien七
丁O give a commonplace example, each of us senses 七his
8
qUtl’lity in people in a variety of ways. One of the things
which offends us about raqio and TV commercials is that it
is often perfectly evident from the tone of voice that the
announcer is ”putting on,” playing a role, saying something
he doesn’t ・feel. This is an example of incongruence. On
the other hand each of us knows individua’戟@s whom we somehow
trust because we sense that they are’ b?奄獅〟@what they are,
t二hat we are dealing with the pe:rson himself, not with a
polite or professional front. It is this quality of congruence
which we sense which research has found to be associated with
successful therapy. The more probability there is that
change in personality in the client will occur .
(3) Relati.onship
Counselor must be congruent, genuine and integrated
person in the relation. ln this relationship it means that-
he is free and himself and his present experience is explain-
ed by his real self-concept. Whether it is conscious or
unconscious, it is the opPosit二e of the su:rface explanation.
It is not necessary for the counselor to be a model person
in his real life aspects ( and it would be impossibユe ).
In t二his :relation, this time, it is sufficient for him to be
a real-self.
(4) Unconditional Positive Regard
As t二he counselo:r has an expe:rience to accept all the
clients’ aspect warmly, he experiences unconditional positive
regard. There is no condition about acceptance. That is
I’
盾獅撃凵@when you a:re・・., 1 10ve you,tl not a feeling, 工t means
9
prizing a person as well as J. Dewey uses 七his word. 工七 is
choosing, evaluative a七七i七ude一一You are righ七 a七 七his poin’も,
bu七 you are wrong a七 七his poin七一一the opposi七e.
It aeeepts clienV s good, positive nature, social ex-
plana七ion as well as his bad, awful, defensive, abnormal
feelings. 工t alsO accep’bs clien七 congruence as well as.his
irlcOngruence. :[七 means 七〇 七ake care of clien’もs, bu七 isn7七
a D. os$essive care, or 七he sa七isfac七iOrl of counselOr himself・
It is separated, and to have his own feeling.
(5) Empa’しhic Unders七anding
The counselor experiences aecuirate empathic understand-
ing of the experienee of the elient-self. He perceives the
elienV s private word as if it were his own word and does not
lose his own一一七his is empa七hy. 工七 is very impOr七an七 for 七he
七herapy・
F.e perceives elient!s anger, awfulness, and confusion
as if ’しhey were yOur own experience, and i七 is impor七an七 rlo七
to be involved in your own anger, awfulness and coniiusion.
The counselor knows the clien七 world and walks around in i七
and 七ells wha七 he knows bu七 also can ’もell wha七 七he clien一し is
no七 aware of i七.
(6) Communication
The clien’し perceives minimally 七ha七 七he cOunselor per-
ceives accep七ance and empa七hy 七〇 him. As for 七he clien七 i七
is ’しO accomplish the communica七iOn wi七h 七hese a七七i七udes. If
so, 七here is an a七七i七ude in ’しhe rela七ionship・ According ’もo
10
the hypothesis, the process of therapy can start.
Attitude cannot be perceived directly. So it is right
to say that the client perceives the acceptance and under一’
standing through the counselor’s language and behavior.
Rogers says that th;este six condttions are useful whether the
scene of the psycho-therapy or not. 一 The first eondition is dichotomous, but the rest is
continuum. In these six conditions he lays special stress
on (3) congruence, (4) unconditional positive regard and (5)
empathic understanding. No other conditions are necessary
if these six/condition exist, and continue for a while, apd the
constructive process of personality change will occur.
Finally he mentions the speciality of eounseling as
follows:1
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1234 5678 9
person to person relationshipaimed and intentional relationshiptemporaryinterview centered and use the language asimmedtate languagedynamic, reciprocal interactionhelping relationshipperson-centeredpermi.ssive, accepting and understandingat.titudewarm relationship from empathy, but nOt warmfrom sympathy
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CHAPTER U
Fundarnental thoughts of Charles A. Curran
2. .1 His thoughts
Curran applied eounseling to foreign language learning
and teaching.
Learning that takes place is often mainly motivated by
the threat of personal humiltation and embarrassment. Black-
board exercises, for example, can produce this kind of self-
defense rnotivation. Oral quizzes, too, when they have
humUiating tones, can be experieneed in a similar way.
These may indeed move students to learn out of personal
anxiety and the feat of a low grade of some similar personal
humiliation and embarrassment.
Cuyran proposed, hbwever, that this type of learning,
with its defensively negative foundation, was often not
really constructive. But the ernotional tone of such learning
may, ’in fact, even cause the person later to suppress and
reject it一一so seriously painful were its psychological
memories. He has cherefore called this type of negative
experience ”defensive learning.”1 lt frequently happened
that people who received good grades in their previous
ユ
≦塾一工幽ユ£ Second Lan ua es,Charles A. Curran, ユ976, pp.ユユー16
Apple River Press
窪2
1anguage classes were reluc七an七 and everl resis七an七 七〇
inves’しing irl 七ha七 par七icular language again・ SQ, wi七hin his
Vr’
communication system, they mad’ e rapid progress in the
:Languages 七hat 七hey were approaching for ’the firs七 ’しime.
BuL by con七ras七, 七hey seemed almos七 impaired in 七he language
Of ’しheir high school or college classes. Similarly, :Ln 七wo
separa七e ins七ances of men who were once successfully trained
mili ta rv 七raRsla七〇r$. 七hei1’memories of 七his t「七〇七al {ノ ’
immersion七rainingit were so painful七ha七they cQuld no七
initially function as language experts in his research
group. Having left the pressured military situation, they
were psycho10gicaユ]一y resis七an七 七〇 using 七ha七 1anguage again.
These rlegative evidences of some 七ypes for fOrmal =Language
classes and language 七rainirlg are unfor七una七ely comrnon.
The C:LL teacher fosters dedication 七〇 learning through
a sys+v・em of cornmi+v-men+v・ mechan“isms ea]ILed rfS-A-RD“T wh.ich st,an”d
for Securi’しy, A七’しen七ion-Aggresion Re七erl七ion-Reflec’しion and
Discrimina七ion.
Securi七y
As 1「whole person,Tt we seem 七〇 learn bes七 in an s七mo_
sphere of persorlal securi一しy・ Feeling secure, we are 七hen freed
to app:roach 七he leaning si七ua’tion wi’もh an a七七ipude of willing
openness. Both the learnerts and the knowerts level of
securi七y de七ermines 七he psychological 七〇ne of 七he en七ire learniζ19
experienceg i七 is ’しhe founda七ion on which 七he o七her elemen七s
of SARD are built.
Attention-Aggression
In dealtng wtth attention, we also raise the issues of
boredom and guilt. From childhood on, we have been com-
manded to pay attention一一a phrase which often leaves us
guUt-ridden when we do not or cannot comply. We would
propose, however, that rather than seeing in attention
negatively, we accept it as a natural phenomenon.
As a further dimension of attention, we have found that
real learning takes place sornewhere on a continuum between
newness and boredom: something too new is also too strange
for us to hb.!d{’ in memory, whereas, something too familiar
can deteriorate into boredorn before we can learn it ade-
quately. What we are seeking, then, is a learning area
balanced between newness and boredom.
Within the scope of Attention, we would also include
L.’earner-Aggression. Once they have learned something, they
quickly take over and teach it back-either to the adult who
taught; t:hem or to t=heir own peers・ So they wiユ1 commonly
play ”teacher” after school, or make excited statements like,
”1 bet you can’t do that, but 1 can.” By having this se!f-
assertion approved and encouraged by the adults around thern,
children then grow in the sense of their own self-worth and
esteem. They need this genuine eonv一.alidationl of their
early ego-asse:rtions, o:r exp:ressions of !iwUI t二〇 powe:r’T to
lconsensual validation
13
use Alfred Adler’s term. Having re.ee}Ved{} this, a child is
encouraged to asse:rt himseユf o:r he:rself th:rough what they
have learned. But a balanced personality has also learned
the necessity and value of the opposite force: ”the will
to community.” One example of this is the srnall child who
xeceives a bat and a ball as gifts. Out on the play
ground, he soon realizes that he must give up part of his
ego-assertion and possession-either the ball or the bat一一
if he wishes to play someone else, an older boy, say.’
Retention and Reflection
In addition to psychological security and aggressive
at亡ention, Ret=ent:ion is also basic. Retention is t二he final
process of absorbing what is studied into oneself and being
able t二〇 retr:Leve and use it :Late:r wit:h ease.
Retention is furthex supported and aided by a second
”R”一一Reflavction. Reflect±on allow.s tThe ”learning space” V L
that a student needs to make the learning material his own.
A five or ten minute ”silent-time,” for example, can be
in亡roduced to further this :reflect=ion process as well as
other aids which help’this. OCher methods can also further
this reflective, self-investing process.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the final SARD element. ln order to
master a language, the student must accurately identify the
sounds he is hearing, their meanings as words, and their
grammatical usage. Without conscious concentration on such
14
/5
discrimina七ion, persons may assulne 七hey know some七hing when,
in fac七, 七hey stilユ do no’b. This is 七he common reason for
learning self-decep七ion. We have fourld tha七 七hese six SARD
concep七s offer a psychological Timeasuring-sticktl for any
learnirlg si七ua七ion. They can help us de七ermine the quali七y
and effeetiveness of a particular learning experience, in the
sense of the !Twhole personit in Counseling-Learning.
CuT一 ran f s b. ook , Counseling-Learning : A IArhole-Person
Model fOr Educa七ion (1972) presen’t)ed ’しhe findings from over
twelve years of researeh in a model of Counseling-Learning:
crea七ive affiiia七ion be’しween 七eacher and learners.
The following five statements while not exhaustive, are basie
to an understanding of the Counseling-Learning Model.
Each one is 七horOugh:Ly discussed by Curran elsewhere.
These resumes therefoire serve onlLy as an introduction.
.(1) All f,:nal hum-an lear.n-ing i:s. value learning.
(2) Resis七ance is inheren七 in any adu].七 si七ua七ion.
(3) Human learning is whole-person learning.
(4) Human learning is persons.
(5) Human learning moves 七hrough a five-s七age process of
irL七ernaliza七ion.
(1) A basic cOncepも underlying 七he Counseling-Learning model
is 七hat all whole-persOn, humarl learning is, in fact, value
learning. This eoneept is treated by Curran in his book,
Counseling and Psychotherapy: The Pursuit of Values (1968一
16
1g76).1 By r1values“! curran means eonseious or uneonscious
self-inves『もmen七s, that is, such self-inves七men七$ are ei七her
de七ermined by oneself o:r pre-dete:rmined by 七he cu1七ural,
family, religiou’刀C neighborhood, value in which one is born
in七〇.
What the Counseling Learning model offers is a means of
understanding these personal learning confliets in such a way
七ha’t) learners as well as ’しeachers may deal corls’しruc七ive:Ly wi七h
negative as well as positive feelings. As a result, both
can make genuine investments in the learRing relationship
and so experience ユーess discOuragement wi七h one ano’bher and
七he ma七erial to be in七ernalized or learned. PersOnal
learning conflic七s and confron七a’しions 七hen, in 七his sense,
can always have a posi七ive 七〇ne because ’しhe s’しudentsts anger,
an.xie七y and similar psychological dis’もurbance一一unders七〇〇d and
respOnded 七〇 by 七he 七eacherTs counseling sensi七ivi一しy一一
are indicators of deep personal investment. Even indiffer-
enee, seen this way, proves often to be a form of defense
agaユnst anxiety and fear of faユ1ure ra七her 七han resis七ance
to learning.
(2) Another basie concept of the Counseling-Learning model
is 七ha’し in mos七 adolescen’し or adul七 learning ’しhere is an inherent
lC. A. Cu。。an,1,七Edi七i。n, N。w Y。。k Sheed&W。。d,1968;
2nd Edi七ion, Apple River, 工工工; Apple River Press, 1976,
pp. 146-147・
ユ7
resistance to the new knowledge being presented. This
results from the developmental proeess that produces self-
awareness or self-consciousness after tWelve or so. The
learner’s need for personal self-assertion often begins to
show itself agatnst the knower一一seemingly impeding the
acceptance of and submission,/.to, the learning process.
This is an additional cause of clash in any lea:rning sit二uat:Lon。
This resistance is generally not conscious or at least not
always made evident to the teacher-particularly as we move
into adult learning-but rather is often disguised in the
form of questions ox similar tactics. If the learner is to
make the foreign language his own and so make it operatfuonal
一一一b?@able to speak English一一一there must be an acceptance of an
initial state of ignorance and in this sense, humil±ation.
This is difficult for adult to do. This does not mean total
helplessness but rather a kind of dependence on another with
which adolescents and adults are generally not comfortable.
工his is why, in t=he.Counseユing-Learning modalit:y, native
experts were trained in counseling sensitivities. This then
provided the necessary security at the beginning of the learn-
ing process whieh enabled adolescent or adult learners to
regress to a chUdl・ike-not childish一一一trust in the language-
couriselor-expert. As a result, they could, with less anxiety
and resistance, aceept and submit to strange language
sounds and struetures and to the process of learning. This
produced too, a growing closeness to and deep sen6e of support一一
ive cornmunity from the other learners-the opposite of our
18
usual classroom competitive individualism.
(3) Once this trust has been established in the Community
Language Learning setting, it becomes clear how human learning
is whole person learning. As adults, we are extremely skilled
at masking our feelings. But once we are free to feel about
the language leaxning experience and are understood in our
feelings, t二hen we a:re f:ree to know-feel the language. ]:t is
in propo:rt:ion as teache:ts a:re sk:口led in an ability both to
understand these feelings and to recognize them一一that is,
adequately cognize them in their responses一一 that leaecners in
the Counseling-Learning modality are able to assimilate or
internalize the second language in an authentic total-person
way. ln other words, they can invest in it and so make it a
personal value goal. Such investment is basic to the growth
of a new language self.
Cu:r:rent lite:rature is conce:tned with this when it二tal ks
about having xeal communication in the classroom. Real learn一一
ing, in Counseling-Learning terms, meatts learning that is
brought about by an interaction between the knowers and the
learner in which both experience a sense of their own wholeness.
In the first stages of the learning process, for example, this
can rnean that the material to be internalized. is generated by
the learners in a childlike but real conversation, limited only
in the extent of woxds used. Such conversation, however, demands
the aid and support of the language expert. Both Zearner and
knower are therefore deeply engaged: the learner willingly
accepts his need for help; the knower gives this la’e.lp in
such a way that it can be easUy utilized. Such a mutual
process gradually frees the learner from his dependency on
the knower. The teacher, in this sense, willingly strives
for and accepts the final goal of being no longer needed by
the learner.
工n.th:Ls kind of :real communication, knowe:t and learne:rs
are struggling together in a common learning task. They are
not against one another in an adversary relationship but
supporting one another to achieve mutual goals. It is this
engagement that makes possible a whole-person entry into the
language. This tota1-self commitment二enables.ユearne:rs then
to take maximum advantage of prepared texts, dialogues, games,
etc. These become further constructive tools to be utilized
foT the discriminatien and internalization of language
facility.
(4) We come then to t二he notion of lea:rning as an intensely
personal experience. This resulted in Curran’s expression,
”lea:rning is pe:rsons.11 As st二udents in such :rresea:rch g:roups
eame tog’ether, for exampl・e・. their central purpose was to
share and comrnunicate as persons, much as they would in an
ordinary conversation. The difference, however, was that
they did so in a fouceign language, through t’heir other-
selfユ which at fi:rst was the language一一counselor-expert;.
1 C. A. Curran, ”Counseling skills Adapted to theLearning of Foreign Languages,” Bulletin of the MenningerClinic, 1961, 25, p. 91.
19
Each student’s natural urge for independence soon produced
a slow emergence of a new inner language self as words and
phrases were picked up and so interna1ized. Suc,h an
arrangement also created a strong sense of support, respon-
sibility,. and belonging f:rom alユ members of the group.
This secure and deeply personal engagement and commitment
together, came to be ealled ”Community Language Learning.”
(5) Learning in this modality moves through a five-stage
process from dependency to a basic independence. This five-
stage process ean be seen-from.一varying point of view such as
the gradual growth from dependency on the expert to the
learne:ピs in dependent linguistic competence; the personal
learning group process as it rnoves toward a deep sense of
community; the changing funct:ion.a1 :relat二ionships bet:ween
knower and learner; and 6thesc aspects of the five’/stages.
To go into detail about each is beyo/)..d the scope of this
dissertation. So 1 quote some passages from the original
sources.
STAGE 工
The cユient.、:Ls c6mple.tely d6pendent on.the1,anguage counseior.1. First, he expresses only to the eouselor andin English, what he wishes to say’to the group.Each gr’oup member overhears this English ex-change, but is not involved in it.2. The counselor then reflects these ideas backt二〇 the client in’the fo:reign language in a warm,accept二ing tone, in simple language using cognatespreferably, in phrases of five or six words.3. the client turns to the group and presentshis ideas in the foreign language. He has thecounselo:ピs aid if he mispronounces o:r hesit;ates
20
2Z
on a word or phrase. This is the elient’s maxlrnum seeurity stage.
STAGE II
1. Same as above.2. The client tuxns and begins to sPeak theforeign language directly to the group.3. 工he counselo:r aids only as the client hesitat二esor turns for help. The client’s small independentsteps are signs of positive confidence and hope.
STAGE 工II
1. The client speaks directly to the group inthe foreign language. This p”L’esumes that the groi一,phas now acquired the ability to understand hissimple phrases.2. Same as (3) above. This p:resumes the client冒s g:ごeate:r con:Eidence,
independence and proportionate insight into therelationship of phrases, grammar and ideas.Translation given only when a group memberdesires it.
STAGE IV
1. The client is now speaking freely and com-plexly in the foreign language. Presumes group’sunderstanding.2. The counselor directly intervenes in gram-matic al err ox , mispr o’ n-anc iat ±: on ox wh .er’e a-id ’1 in/ .
co皿Plex expresstor’且s needed・ The client is sufficiently secure to take cor-xect二■on.
STAGE V
1;一 Same as IV;
2. Counselor intervenes not only to offer cor-rection but to add idioms and more eleganteonstructlons.1δ轟lh飛躍§1ワe工呈1’譜監become counselo「・
1 Charles A. Cur:ran, Counse!ing-Lea:rning, PP.145一ユ57.
22
Stage in Language Counselox-Client Relationshipfrom Dependency to lndependence
I
Total dependence on l anguagecounselor. 工dea s aid in
Engl ish, then s aid to group
in foreign l anguage, as
counselor slowly and sens i-tively gives eaeh word to theclient.
II
Beginning eourage to rnake someattempts to speak in the foaceignlanguage as words and phrases arepicked up and retained.
工工工
G:rowing:independence with mis一 ゐ
仁akes that are immediatelycorrected by counselor.
IVNeeding counselor now only foridiorns and moace sub tle expres s ions
and grarrmar.
vIndependent and free ccrmiunication in the foxeignlanguage. Counselor’s s!tl,eg!Elent presence reinforces
correctness of grarnmar an-п@pronunciation.
23
The CLL elass takes on three basic configurations: first,
the entire class group or larger uni.ts eomposed of ten or
twelve students, second, srnall groups composed of five or six
students, third pair or triad proups. There are diffieulties
with each of these configurations whtch point to a basic problem
with sho:rt-te:セ皿 counseling.1 工n sho:rt-te:rm counseling, the teache:r
explains the pu:rpose of the activity arld sets a t二ime limit.
[Ehe teacher awaits the ]reaction of ‘L“hie students before pxocoveding
further. As /applied to a speaking experi.ence with the large
g:roup configurat=or, the t=eacher is faced wit二h a diユemma. So
much anxiety is generated by the presence of the teaeher that
the students never really function adequate1y in the foreign ’/,
language. On the other hand, the presenee of the teacher
is necessary fox learning to occur. The small gtcoup configuration
provides a more relaxed learning environment when the teacher
does not pa:rticipate. Howeve:t, the students a::e apt二 t() :relax
to such an ext二ent that they use thei:r nat=ive language in place
of the foreign language. Pair and triad groups give the
individual a chance to broaden relationships inside the class.
Howeve:ら the intensive expe:rr ience of speaking the fo:reign language
can also become physically fatiguing. In order to face all
these problems squarely, the CLL teacher must use all three
eonfigurations in a flexible but not permissive .way. Second
l
C.A. Cu:rran, 一エ幽:△Whole Pe:rson Modelit. r 11sdLIL!szg32,gnuoation,一APp1/e Rivet…”PJiierm, 1972, i5.5
24
C:L:L is supPortive learning・ 工n cont:rast; t;o teacher-centered ,1. , , ll, 1, 一.,, ,, 1一 ,,
forms of language learning based on textbooks and lengthy
grammatical explanation by the teacher, CLL is student-centered.
This means that /the teacher rnaintains silence in the group and
allows the learning to be shared by the students themselves.
Students, however, find very great difficulties in functioning
without some k.ind of well-defined social structure and purpose.
The lack of structure implied by the terms student・M一1centered
and short-term counseling may be excuses for lack of action by
the teacher in presenting’ @supportive structure for the students.
Third CLL is group reflection. A reflection period follows each
CLL group experi.ence. The CLL reflection period, if properly
employed, ean become an effective force for learning. ln
accom.xpodated CLL, it consists of two parts: a period of silent
evaluation by each paecticipant, and a period of sharing or
reporting. During the silent period, a short report is prepared
in writing. The reports are then shared with the wbole group.
The problem here is boredom. Sorne variety must be introduced
into this format; othe:rwise students will become bo:red wit二h
reflection as with any other repetitive experience.
CLL is a learning contract, a contract, as described by
Becklis a mutual agreement to participate in a proeess with
a particular set of people. The initial task of a CLL .’grQPP
IA. P. B e c k, 一11!hlaEa s els-Li n..t.h e D e velopm.一e nt-o f S t r u c tuptt i n
一!Tlnelgl}yL一一Qug一!1±usigyJ!uEglL-y!:g-2E一?h nd Encounter Grou s New York: Wiley, 1974. p.6s.
25
is to become more than a collection of individuals, to become,
indeed, a cornmunity. Community as opposed to group is formed
by an agree皿ent to work together with others toward a goal.
Evaluation of the goals through reflection is part of the
interpersonal process. The problem here is a lack of focus
on the skills necessary for communicating in the foreign
language. The CLL group may become so focused on process
that the content goals become dim.
Content, as used here, refers to grammatical skil!s
necessa:ry :Eo:r speaking in t二he fo:re:Lgn langgage. The
do.n,traQt’s./.’have’・’..to cGrtta.inil.aL/.defintt-i on clear
enough that the content goals can be readily grasped by the
students.
cLL is language learning. According to curranl, the
learner grows into the new language like a li.ving person.
There is birth and childhood (Stage 1 & II) adoleseence
(Stag企.・工1工 &;IV) and finally adulthood (Stage V).
The problem facing the teacher arises from individual
differences among the student二s. Some studerlts may show
evidence of ability at Stage 工 o:r I工, whereas othe:rs may be
more advanced at Stage IV or V. These cases appear frequently.
1 lc. A. curran, op. eit. 1972, pp・130-35・
26
2.2 The compa:rison bet:ween t二he theo:ry of C. R. Rogers
and that of C. A. Curran
The early conceptions of counseling included a beli.ei“f in
the intellectualized prescription. lt was thought that if
one diagnosed the .difficulties and told the person what was
wrong, then he should simply be able to change this.
The non-directive counseling began with C. R. Rogers.
Hi.s conception of openness and non-directiveness meant not’
so mueh the absence of limits, as was sometimes supposed,
but rather that one should not predetermine goals and solu-
tions, intellectually arrived at, for the client.
Rather, one should grope with the client through his
confusions and conflicts to solutions which are perhaps
never clear and distinct in the problem-solving, but are
nevertheless more adequate for the client.
Rogers (1951:29) ILrimself states that in cli.ent-centered
ther.apy the counselor must assume the internal frame of re-
ference of the client, to perceive the world as the client
sees it, to perceive the elient hirnself as he is seen by him-
self, to lay aside all perceptions from the external frame
of reference while doing so, and to communicate something of
this einpathetic understanding to the client. Espgcially this
empathetic understanding is a crucially important character-
istic which every teacher ought to possess.
Curran has applied this kind of counseling in the field
27
of foreign language learning. As he describes this relation一一
shtp, the teacher-knower, as counselor, brings to the student
a deep understanding of the student’s anxieties, insecurities,
and feelings of inadequacy. He listens without evaluation
and without’@going off on tangents of his own. At all time$,
he appears to the student to be more interested in the Students
and what the student is saying, than in the rnechanics of
language.
工n th工s way, t:he teache:r・一counselo:r helps the students
to become increasingly aware of their worth as ’persons. As
a result, ”the learners, like clients related to a counselor,
grow confident and secure in their abili.ty to trust the know-
er and to abandon themselves to the knowledge which he
represents.” ( Curran, 1972:5 )
Curran also begins:
Fox’ various reasons, many attempts to arrive atdifferent learning motivation and methods have beendescribed as permissive. This term was thought tomean that there.was no necessity for self一一disciplineand the rigor demanded by established learningP:recepts・ Acco:rding to this misint=erp:retatゴon,permissive methods were considered soft and, in away, debilitating. Real character was developedonly by making learning ”tough.” Given this premise,even the spontaneous enj oyrnent of learning wassomehow suspec亡.
But he went on to change the focus
to an internal one:
from an external discipline
In its :Lat:in context, disciplina was not only what二was leaecned, but the whole personal learningexperience itself. It implied an intexnalizing of
28
wha七 was learned and 七he self-con七rol necessary 七〇bring abou七 frui七ion in 七he person himself. Thisis quite different from an external eonformity tothe teacherrs ideas, or an ability to reproduceknOw『ledge when demanded by cOmpe’しi七ion and 七es七ing.
In a, review of his
2men七:
/book ’ Arnold makes the following com一
This ( research in eounseling and learning ) is agian七 s『もep beyond 七he Origirlal prac七ice of nonrdirec七ive courlseling 七ha七 七urned every learningsi七ua七ion in七〇 a counseling si七ua七ion and 七husaroused a grea七 deal of resen七ment among s七uden七swho came ’to seek infrOma’biOn abou七 a par七icularareas and ins’しead were forced 七〇 par七icipa七e in agroup catharsis. Humanistic education was a con-fusion abOu七 the necessary and mu’bually suppor’biveand cons七ruc七ive rela七ionship be七ween ユimits and七he change process。
CurranIs 七hOugh七 reflec七s no七 〇rlly the pninciples Of
Carl Rogerts view of education, but also basie principZes of
the dynamies of counseling, in which the teaeher-eounselor,
through careful atten七ion 七〇 七he client T s needs, aids 七he
c二Lien七 in moving from dependence and helplessness 七〇 indepen一
denee and self-assurance.
He also pu’t Carl Rogers署 philosophy in七〇 ac七ion and 七〇
overcome solne of the threa七ening affec七ive factors in second
language learning.. The 七hrea七 〇f 七he all-knowing 七eacher, Of
1
Charles A. Gurran, 麟 Ps cho七hera = 辿≦≧製 g∫ 「1乙遡, Apple River Press, 197 .
2 Magda B. Arnold, ”Review Of Counseling and Psyeotherapy:
Religious Education 64TT (5), Sep七一〇c七, 1969, P. 415.
29
rnaking blunders in the foreign language in front of classmates,
of compe’しing agains七 peers一一all 七hrea七s which can 工ead 七〇 a
Seeユing・f・li・na七ion and inad・qua・y一一ar・p…umabユy・・m・v・d・
The 七eacher-counselOr a].10ws 七he lea:rner 七〇 de’もermine 七he type
of conversa七ion and analyze 七he foreign language induc七ively.
1七 is interes七ing ’to nO七e 七ha’し ’しhe 七eacher can also become
a clien七 a七 七imes: irl si七ua-bユons in which explana七ion or ’しrans-
lat.iOn s. eem.$ 七月置be imbOssible, i七 is of七er1 七he clien七一learner - i
who steps in and becomes a counselor to ai’d 一the teaeher. The
s’しuden’b-cen七ered na七ure can provide ex七rinsic mo七iva七ion and
eapitalize on intrinsic motivationi
Ex七rinsic mo七iva七iOn includes nation, hierarchy, hOme,
七eacher and ins七i’しu七ion。 These cond:L七iOns are no七 always 七he
same・ The mo七iva七ion in learning ac七ivi七y influence in七rinsi-
cally. Foreign Language Learning is a kind of our behaviors
and .fi.s dis$clved b.v drive or motive. By achieving the goal,
Our needs go in七〇 sa七isfac’bion・ 工O be mOre vigorous in 七he
learning ac’しivi’by, i七 is very important 七〇 s七imula七e and 七〇
enfo:rce 七heir drive. Tha七 is Motivation and we can no七 ’bhink
abou七 七he foreign =Language learn:Lng wi’しhOu-b i七。 工七 is a key
to learning. Six desires or needs of human organs are common-
ly iden七ified by Ausubel.
He explained as follows = (1) 七he need for explora’しion,
for seeing 「t’しhe o『しher side of 七he moun’しain,t「 for prObing 七he
unknOwn; (2) 七he need for manipula七ion, for opera七ing On 七he
environment and causing change; (3) the need for activi七y,
30
for movement and exercise, both physical and mental; (4) the
need for stimulation, the need to be stimulated by the envi-
ronment, by other people, or by ideas, thoughts and feelings;
(5) the need for knowledge, the need to pro.c. ess and internalize
the results of exploration, manipulation, activity and stimu一 /
lation, to :resolve cont:radict:Lons, to quest二fo:r solut:Lons
to problems and for self-consistent systems of knowledge;
(6) finding the need for ego er-ihaneement, for the self to be
known and to be accepted and approved of by others.
There are other possible factors that could be listed in
aceounting ior motivation. Maslowl listed hierarchical
human needs, from fundamental physical necessities ( air,
water and food ) to higher needs of security, identity, and
self-esteem, the fulfillment of which leads to self-actuali-
zation. Othe:r psychologists aut二〇nomy, af:Eiliation, o:rde:r,
change, endurance, aggression, and other needs. The six
needs listed above appear to capture the essence of most
general eategories of needs, and are especially relevant
to second language acquisition.
The ideas of self-concept and self-actualization in
personality dynamics, attributed to Rogers and Maslow respec-
tively, have added much to our Comprehenston of the person.
One can see, of course, that to make any investment in the
N.. ygSk’,HfihllS.SIOg・.g:ZOb.lil{}¥lye!lgg-enE12giEggslLi,s>L・ 2nd ed.
other, one must first, in some form, have invested in one’s
own self-concept and self-ideal. It is ,also evident that
for this investment to have any real significance, it must
first be actualized in the self and in some measure at least,
fulfilled.
Nonetheless, the actual self investment of going out to
the other in a genuine comrnitment and the concepts of engage-
ment and involvement that this implies, are more sharply and
cleanly suggested by the Word Values. In this sense, then,
we can say that man is his Values and so, by his Values, one
can know in a measure what he is. And a relationship will
contain as mueh or as little as each o,ne chooses to invest in
it’
工 discove:r w:Lthin the pe:rson, unde:r ce:rtain conditions,
a capacity fo:r the rest二:ructU:ring ahd reo:rganization of self
and consequently the reorganizatton of behavior, which has
profound social implications.
Curran held that the language-learning process was not
merely a cognitive process, but involved the whole human
person. The emotional reactions of those struggling with
foreign-language acquisition were similar to the ernotional
conflicts of a client in a counseling process. Consequently,
the educative process of the eounseling relationship was
seen to possess rnany useful insights for the educaUve
process of the language learner in a classroom group.
The threat of being called on’ to s’p’eak a’ lt.forb・ig’p.’一.tangUe’
31
32
is not only psychological; the whole psychosomatic system is
direct二ly :involved. This is particularly true if one must
speak that language in the presence of others who know it
we 11.
Just as language learners come to recognize upon
reflection, the reasonable substructure embedded in the spon-
taneous flow of their conversations, so teachers attempting
to internalize any particular approach to teaching seem to
arrive at operational connections between abstract theoretical
statements and concrete experience. Curran refers to this
process for language learners. What emerged was the realiz-
ation that, while life, in terms of a foreign language com-
munication, is spontaneous, free, personal and intense and so
is emotional and somatic as well as intellectual and voluntary ’
it is not without some internal form or order. Upon abstra-
ction and reflection, one grows to see this internal form and
o:rde:r as being basically necessa:ry fo:r adequate communica亡ion
and understanding. In this sense, rules of grammar and
vocabulary, while dead structures that need to be brought
alive when they have been memorized or learned, were, in these
expe:riences, fi:rst contained in the:t:r spont二aneous exp:ress:Lons.
Somewhat as people may be surprised in the study of anatomy
to discover 亡ha仁 仁he skelet;a’1 st=ructures are contained
in the l iving people that they know and love, so our students
were surprised and excited to see that gramma± and vocabularY
were really alive and basic to the rich, warrn communications
they were having with one another in the.foreign’ 撃≠獅№浮≠№?D
CHAPTER I工1
Fundamental thoughts of Paul G. La Forge
3.1 His thought
La Forge worked in Japan from 1958 to 1965 as a mission-
mary and teacher of English at Nanzan. He attended Curran’s
semina:r in ユ968 and was inspi:red by Community :Language
Learning. After stUdying his rnethod in the United States,
he came to Japan in 1971 again. He has been teaching English
at Nanzan high school and junior college since then.
During that time he practiced and researched teaching
English with ComTnunity Language Learning. He found that
shyness caused underachievement in oral English. Students
have a lot二〇f cogn:Lt=:Lve knowledge, that is, reading abillt二y
and vocabuxary. English language teaching qnd learning in
Japan was textbook-centered, teacher-centered and grammar-
centered.
The students don’t have interests in speaking English
and cooperation whth’each other. There is no real education in
school. By real education, he means education, that is free
from constraints of textbooks, teachers and grammar.
Counseling-Learning themes will be exemplified in three
ways.
First, the skill to be employed is English Conversation,
as opposed to writing and grammatical skills. The Japanese
34
皿ad合
general
have been notorious for their inability to speak English or
ot二he:r fo:reign languages・
Second, t二he g:roup life 工s called CLI・。 Stevick has
a useful distinction between classical CLL and CLL in
as follows:
工n my opin1.on,
English education
school.
CCLL can also b・.e used with foreign languages other than
English at all educational levels. A counseling approach
with CCLL is a maturational growth process. The first
principle of the foreign language grows like a seed which
develops into the root二s, stem, and finally into a mature
plant. But for senior high school, college, university and
adult level English education, a long tradition of teaching
English through mernorizing, reading, and translation has
been established in Japan.
I have found it ve:ry useful to d:Lstinguish betweenC:L:L in gene:ral, and what I call the ’冒ClassicalC:L:L (CC:L]コ )method璽I in pa:rticula:r. CC:L:L was the
fi:rst C:LL method, which was developed by Curran andコ リ の コ リ ロ コ マ
h■S aSSOC■at=eS ⊥n tne:Lr reSeaaCCn Sem■narS 工nChicago. ...CC:LL was the only existing fo:rm of C:L:L,
we did not dis{=inguish the one from the other.1Im not二even su:re how clearly Currarl and his asso-ciates saw th:Ls distinct=ion in those days. And thediffe:rence between. C:L and C:L:L was very fuzzy fo:r meat :Ei:rst. So we tended to confuse the rarlge ofapp].icability of CCI」L ( a method o:r a technique )w:Lth the range of valid工ty of CL ( a way of lookingat how people behave). Those of us who were imp:res-sed by C:L terlded to claim that CC:LL was 皿o::e widely
usable than it was. (Teachi :Lan ua es:∠鯉ways, 1980, pp.l14-115 )
~’『1assica1「CLL(CrPp’s,. “pP’,lcab’r勢J斧paワ.to
at the elementary level in junio:r h:Lgh
35
エn my。pini。n,・h。・v・rhea。l ass。ci。t。d wi・h CCLL i。 n。
longer necessary. Still a counseling approach can be highly
benefieial in cultivating and developing English speaking
skills. A counseling approach with accommodated CLL is an
integrative growth process. Japanese student of English learn
to employ the analytic structures they have memorized to sat-
isfy their effective needs in the immediate social situation.
Once they have acquired the skill of handling the demands of
the social situation, the grammatical structres of English
are recalled rather rapidly and are used correctly. Accommo-
dated CLL is highly effective because interpersonal learning
mechanisms characteristic of Japanese society fit readily
into CLL group life.
Third, CL/CLL themes introduced will be extended to
include a sociolinguistic viewpoint.. If the interpersonal
learning mechanisms characteristic of a society, commonly
called culture learning mechanisms can be introduced into the
educational structure of the classroom together with a per-
tinent pedagogy, the learning effective.ness will be greatly
enhaneed.
La Forge divided groups into three g small, large and
pair・ 工t is ve:ry useful fo:r the group to be divided into
1 A thore detailed explanation can be found in Curran,1972, p.130.
2dfl p. 23. curran also devided groups into three. But
La Forge describe’s this eonfiguration thore detailed.
36
small groups. But iti is difficultfor the students,’ to, 1//e/a,scn new
expression from students. On the other. hand, in large groups
the silence of the teacher makes the students anxi.ous, Pa・ir
group is also useful. ln ordina’ 窒凵@classroom, especially if
the number of students is lar,ge, the teacher loses contact
with the whole group in dealing wi.th individuals. So he
often uses this pair group.
In fact he got a hint from Judo Practice. In Judo,
members are paired off in two long lines for feinting practice
(UchikomD or a brief wrestling session.(Randori).
The point of each encounter is to become stronger i.n
single tactics or to grapple with a strong opponent for a
sho:rt time. 工n this way, the st:rong become stronger and the
weak members are not overwhelmed.
3.2 The comparison of the view of the three advocators
エnrh・pter ll(PP・26-32)・lm・de a c・mp・・i・・nb・tween
the theory of C. R. Rogers and that of C. A. Curran. ln thi.s
section, adding the theory of P. G. La Forge to the former
two, 1 make a comparison of the three advocators.
37
卜
C・R・Rogers C. A『. Curran Paul G・ 1」a Forge
aportion of the .、1anguage-1earni㎎pro E▽en though theclient-centeτed CeSS waS nOt me:rely 1earneτs have㎜ch ● F ,
Oτ■entat■on on ● o≠モ盾№氏。t:Lve process, cognitive㎞㎝1edge,
education l les irl its but involved the they are poo:r at
implicit belief that 曲01e human person speaking foreign1 th6 best of leami㎎ 1angUages・ Because
is facilitated・面en the teacher didn冒t仁he切hole man leams, .垂≠凵@any attent:Lon to
1
in a way that invo1一 むhe emotional andves his feelings and personality factors. …
his viscera as wellas、his intellect
He places greater stress upon... the
feeling aspects ofIIIthe situation than upon ,the intellec-
tual aspects.
The ab il ity to both
recognize andrespond to feelings■s an ユmportantfactor in ini.ti.ating
the counseling
process.
臨監灘「to each student.
.工II None
CLJ. take s pl ace in
groups. The method is s tudent一一centered
in that it is the
students who specify the syl l abus through
their evolving
臨謄a朧認t, take place in a rel一,
axed and secure atmosphere in which the teacher acts as helper rather than as ins tructor and
evaluator.
He d ivides the group
into three kinds;small, lar,ge and pair
groups. Because itis a manifest fact,
too easily overlooked by educators,/that m,tan is born i nto andI lives in social.interdependence.
エ3Cognit崖ve aspects II: . affective aspects 工II:methodological aspects
1. According to tbese comparisons, three advocators make
much of’cognitive and affective aspects. But they all think
affective aspects are more important than cognitive ones.
Then we make sure what they think of affective aspects.
38
II. Now we see a clear sirnilarity among the three. As
I mentioned at the buaginning of chapter,.1, Rogers emphasizes
that human bei.ngs are essentially emotional and affective.
Curran and La Forge also assert that th’e. student shoqld
aequire affective language in order to facilitate the
person’s development.
II工. We see some differences among the th:ree. Rogers says
nothi.ng about the methodology of language teaching, Curran
describes that CLL takes place in groups. La Forge divides
this large group into three kinds,; small, large, and pair
groups beeause human beings are born into and lives in
social interdependence.
3S
CHAPTER IV
Some considerations in CarryiLng out CL
The counseling-Learning has focused our attention on the
all important human being, on the whole person, on signi.“一
cant affective factors which facilitate or interfere with
the foreign language learning process, and on innovative
method of teaching. The counselSLng-Learning has provided
a positive thrust in language teacbing and a fresh perspective.
It releases us from the slavery of traditional notions of
education and teaching, and helps us to focus on the total
human being.
There are two points, however, at which Curran’s theory
does not fully account for the affective side of many
students’ behavior. The first point arises from,the anxi.ety
of the student who does not feel comfortable to a group.
As Curran hifnself makes much of the negative affect that may
come from having to admit that someone else knows something
that one needs to know and does not know. Certainly the
uncornfortable feeling is commonly observed in our daily
classes. And just as widespread and, in my observation,
much more disturbing for many students, is the anxiety that
comes from feeling that one is not ト
learning as fast as expected, or as fast as one’s classmates.
Anothe:r is the anxiety that, irl t二erms of one’s caree:r needs
or lifetime goals, one一 is wasting one’s time with poor
40
method, inappropri.ate content, and so-on. 1 wish Curran had
integrated .the ways of solving these sources of negative
emotion more clearly into his formulation of five stages.
He only confines himself largely to only one kind of anxi.ety
which students might feel at the beginning of learning in.his
overall schema of developrnent from non-knower to knower.
The second point arises frorn 06servation of people who
have finished a training course and control the language well
enough so that they can carry on their daily routine wi.th
fluency and rather good grammatical accuracy. Many of these
people, resident i.n a country where the language is spoken,
repo:rt an urgent need fo:r continued fo:rmal inst二ruction in
order to maintain or improve their command of the language.
Curran’s own experience with language learners is rlch in
a few settings, but seems to be very limiLted in many areas.
When these few affgc・tive and practical problems are settled,
CLL wouldbe of greater value to the development of the whole
person.
Today, language classes are fundamentally di.fferent from
those of the past. The current trend toward learner-centered,
contextually一一real activities designed to involve the learners
act二ively is paralle]一.to marly of the techniques used in the
CLL class. But one who only notices the surface characteri一一
stics has missed the essence of CLL because its core does
not reside i.n the activities or techniques themselves.
Its focus is not on prescribing specific language teaching
41
activities but on creating an entirely new approach to
education一一〇ne in which the teacher gives up his sense of
power and authority in tly’e classroom in favor of entering
into the wo:rld of the students. The teache:ピs :role is to
faci.litate a feeling of security and self-esteem within his
students which will enable them to rely confidently on him
and each other, without feeling foolish in their ignorance,
as they progress from a state of linguistic dep. endence to
independence. The emphasis is on the iLntensely personal
growth of each individual in the group as he enters i.nto
a creative affi.liation with the teacher. This approach
f.equires a :Eundamental change in..the teache:ピs pe:rspective
as he gives up his role of answer man一一know ・・ all, and adopts
the counseling skills and sensitivities which will allow him
to :relate to the students f:ro皿 thei:亡 perspec.tive and become
an understanding counselor who fully appreciates their
struggles.
The CLL approach is mechanically applicable for ESL
classes composed of students with heterogeneous linguistic
backgrounds. One of the ways that CLL builds security is
by using the students冒 native language in c].ass, at least二 at
the early stages. CLL requires teachers well trained not
only in linguistics, so that they could work comfortably
without a text, but also in translation and counseling skills.
In addition, these teachers would need to be native-like, if
not nati.ve, in the target language as well as highly
profici.ent in the students’ native language. And where would
these teachers receive their training?
Besides there are four problems of the Counseling
Learning model that 1 wish to deal with here:
(1) the host of affective variables operating within any one
learner, thus making it difficult to generalize about what
type of approach is opt二imal for each learne:r
(2) the variety of cognitve styles utilized by learners一一
Curran’s non-defensive learning principle, for example, may
be foreign and ineffective for some L2 learners
(3) the theoretical and practical unsuitability of relying
on inductive, learner-initiated responses in CLL
(4) the difficulty of carrying out CLL within the budgetary
and curricular constraints placed on most inStitutional
fo:reign language prog:rams. 工t should be clea:r at the outset
that the critique which follows i.s based upon my opinion
whiLch does not cover all the possible variations of CLL.
The counselor-client analogy in educati.on in general is
useful and productive. Too much of education is anxiety.
producing and filled with defensi.ve learning. But the
counseling learning model is weakened, actually, i£ only one
definition of the relationship is accepted. With a wider
conceptualization of thb.’)counselo:ピs role we can be free to
apply counseling learning to wider contexts: a teacher can
assert himself,.be a leader and even一 control the material
and pace, and still be an excellent, empathetic, and
42
43
understanding counselor. One might even go so far as to
claim that an adaptation of behavior modification techniques
would not be inconsistent with a broader notion of a counselor’s
role.
CLL tends to stress the eounseling role of the teacher
and the client role of the student, who gradually achieves
independence. But in that process of achieving independence
the client turns i.nto a couns’ ?撃盾秩@of sorts. Somewhere in
between, theoretically, the roles must do a great deal of
switching back and fo:rth. 工n fact is there any :reason to
assume that a foreign language teacher must always, in even’
the early stages of language, adopt a counseling role? It
is true that language teaching iLs not a one-way street:
language teachers and students are, together, facing a mutual
problem of communication. And this problem, as Counseling-
Learning proponents and others recognize, extends far beyond
the mastery of linguistic skills alone. The intricate
wearing of interpersonal, cultural, and linguistic factors
necessary for a successful language class can become all too
simplified in global notions of counselor-client interaction.
WhiLle the counseling Learning model stresses the importance
of the whole affective domain, curiously, the rnodel seems to
de-emphasize variation among learners in favor of viewing all
persons as having somewhat the same needs, drives, and
motivations. lt is important to recognize, and deal with,
the tremendous variation in human behavior. With multiple
44
affective variables operating in different degrees in diff-
erent learners, CLL may not be equally effective for all
learners.
The complexity of affective variation mounts as one
undertakes further examinati.on of such factors as extro-
version, self-esteem, soeial distance, and cogniti.ve style.
The affective grid operating within a particulaLr learner,
and between learner and teacher, i,s impossible to generalize.
工t is the:re:Eore unlikely that orle method will be optimal in
meeting all the affective needs of a grQ. up of learners一一一
especially the learners from cultures which we encounter in
English as a foreign language class.
When all i.s said and done theoretically, we are all left
with the practical, curricular and budgetary constraints of
the institutions in which we operate. Curricular constraints
usually involve commitments to time periods and a particular
set of objectives. Many of the CLL lessons may have succeeded
because the waiver of institutional constraints, coupled with
a healthy Hawt二ho:rne Effect, gave rise to howling success.
工n CL:L the teache:r constrain6d to p:rovide spontarleous
grammatical explanations, not always readily available in a
reference text, a skill which requires very keen linguistic
insights. Few instit二utions have such expe:rt teachers.
We can see that the Counseling Learning model of foreign
language teaching has b:rought二a fresh new pe:rspective to the
language teachi.ng profession一一a perspective which we need to
45
examine carefully. But no model is ever ideal for all
situations, so our task as educators is to discern how we
may fruitfully adapt CLL to our own classes and. curricula.
As we seek to adapt the positive aspects of CLL-and there
are indeed some promising aspects一一to our own situations.
We would do well tQ attend to the possible tempering factors
which have been dutli.ned. The questions are left unanswered
i.n CL. CL has dealt straight forwardly with many of the
cent:ral issues facing us. 工t has questioned the :role which
we play in ouiz. classrooms and has proposed innovati.ve changes
which are well worth consi.dering. It has made us aware once
agai.n of our students as people-those individuals who so
often seem to be forgotten i.n our concern with new techniques
and statisti.cal research findings. It has taken some of the
research S.n learner variables and made i.t operational in the
classroom. Perhaps most importantly, it has forced us to
look at二〇urselves and evaluat:e what we do. We must conside:r
this seriously.
46
CHAPTER V
Conclusion
We cannot teach a foreign language without considering
affective students’ psychological factors. All the teachers
have to understand their students well, and students know
one another.
In chapter 1, 1 deseribed the basic princi.ples of C. R.
Rogers. Especially 1 studied four hypothese$・
(A) indi.vidual drive toward growth
(B) feeling aspects
(C) the immediate situation
(D) re!ationship itself
These hypotheses di.ffer from traditi.onal ones which emphasize
cognitive aspects, in that they make much of affective aspects.
工n chapte:r 工1, Cur:ran apP]一ied counseling to fo:reign
language learning and teaching. Curran held that language
learning process was not merely a cognitive process, but
involved the whole human person. He called his language
learning approach Community Language Learning (CLL). The
!earning process moves through a five-stage process frorn
dependency to independence. 工t is important that Curran
points out language learning process resembles the process
of developing human beings.
In chapter 工工工, I studied fundamental thoughts o:E Paul
G. La Forge. He knows Japanese culture mechanism and age一一
47
hierarchy. La Forge「s prac七ice of CLL fi’ts for Japanese
s七uden七s very well, compared wi七h 七ha七 〇f Curran. There
are sorne reasons for this.
(1) After six years of English study, progress in speaking
English oceurs rapidly if the cognitive reservoir of English
is tapped on the affective level with CLL.
(2) C:LL relies upon reflection, a cul七ural heri七age 七ha七
can be readily found in Japan.
(3) C工、L occurs in grOups. EducatiOrl Of yOu七h in Japan was
carried on in small groups around a teacher. CLIII fits into
七his cul七ural 七radi七ion.
We found a clear similarity among the three. Rogers
says human beings are essentially emotional and affeetive.
And 七he res七 alsO asse:rt 七ha七 ’しhe s七uden七 should acquire
affective language.
In chap七er 工V, 工 considered some problems of carry:ing
out Counseling Learning.
(1) 七he hos七 Qf affec七ive variable昌 opera七ing wi七hin any
one learner, ’しhus making i七 difficul七 七〇 generalize abou七
w’ha’し ’type of approach is op七imal for each learner
(2) 七he sui七abili’ty o:f C:LL considering 七he variety of
eognitive style utilized by learners
(3) the inadequacy of relying on learner-initiated responses
(4) 七he ’budge七ary and curricular difficu:L’しies of carrying
ou’し a CL工・ apProach.
Finally 工 a孤 concユuding.’しhis chap七er by.raising several
problems 七〇 be de七ected in further research. There are:
48
1. The permeability and feasibility in junior or senior
high schools
2. How do we treat the students who are not in favor of
grouping?
3. We cannot teach systematically because of che lack of
s夕Uabus・
4. lt should be evidenced by more strictly conditioned
empirical tests between CLL and norrnal teaching method.
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Yues Begin, S・ J・, Evalua迦.and Emo七ional Fac七〇rs 主旦工幽谷至塾エWWn_E≧, D es c l e e and Cie, 1971.
ABSTRACT
,,@The’@English 1.earning Theory of Behaviorism has man.y.defegts
when we t二hink of affective factors in learning a foreign language.
(1) learning is seen as a merely cognitive process withoutr
consideration o:f the af:Eects and conflicts of t二he learner.
(2) serious defects in t二he pat二te:rh p:ractice hypothesis have
been shown in both the language laborat二〇ry and in the
classroom.
(3) there are important goals in language learning that have
beeh relegat二ed to seconda:ry position in behavio:ristic
尋
methodology. ’ . We cannot teach a foreign.1anguage wit=hout二 considering
students’ psychological affecttve factors. All teachers
should understand thei:r st二udents we11, and st二udents should know
one another.
First二Idesc:ribed the basic principles of Ca:rl R. Roge:rs・
Especially 1 studied his four hyp6theses.
(A) individual drive toward growth
(B) feeling aspects
(C) the immediate situation
(D) the relationship between cguRselor and c!ient
These hypotheses differ from traditional 一日目es which emphasize
cognitive aspects, in t二hat二they make much olf affective aspect二s.
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Next 工 studied Charles A・ Cu:r:ran’s met二hod of Foreign
Language teaching・ He apPlied counseling theory t二〇 foreign
1ξnguage learning and teaching.、、He held t二hat t二he language
learning process was not merely a cognitive Process, but
ipvolved the whole human person. He called his language
learning approach Community Language Learning(CLL). The
learhing process moves through a fiveLstage process from
dependence to independence. It is important that Curran
points out二 t二hat二the language lea:rning p:rocess :resembles the
way in which human bei’“mgs develop.
Also I studied t二he fundament二al t二houghts of Paul G.La
Forge,who shows an understanding of Japanese cultuTe mechanism
and age-hierarchy.
La Forge d.ivides classes i.nto t二h:ree types of group; sma11・
large, and pair groups.
:La Forge蟹s p:ractice of C:LL fit二s Japanese student二s
Very well,compared with Curran’s. There are some reasons
for tthis.
(1) A:Eter six yea:rs of English st二udy, pro9:ress in speaking
English occurs rapi.dly i,f .the cognitive reservoir of English
is tapped on t二he affective level with CLL.
(2) CLL relies upon re:Elect二ion, which is a pa:rt o:E Japan冒s
cultura1’ heritage.
(3) CLL occurs in groups. Education of youth in Japan has
often been carried on i.n small groups around a teacher. CLL
fitvs into this cultural tradi.ti.on.
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We found a clear similarity among t二he three views。
Rogers says human beings are essentially emotional and
affective. And the other two also assert that the ,student
should acquire affective language.
Rogers says learning is ,facilitated when the whole
man learns, in a way that involves his fee!ings and his
viscera as well as his intellect. Curran and La Forge say
that the language learning process is not merely a cognitive
process,but involves the whole human person. We can see some
differences between the three. Rogers says nothing about the
met二hodology of language teaching・ Cu:rran and I・a Forge say
that CLL takds place in groups. La Forge divides the group
intd three types.
Finally 1 considered some problems in carrying out
Counseling Learning.
(1) the host of, af:Eect二ive variables operating within any one
learner, which makes it difficult二t二〇 gene:ralize about what二
t二ype of apProach is opt二imal for each learner・
(2) the suitability of.CLL considering the variety of
cogn’itive style utilized by learners.
(3) the inadequacy of relying on learner-initiated responses.
(4) t二he budgeta:ry and curricular difficulties of ca:r:rying out
a CLL approach.
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