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Forest fire prevention

Susanne Kaulfuß

Silvicultural measures to prevent forest fires

The areas in Germany most at risk from forest fires are northeast Germany, the eastern part of

northwest Germany and the Upper Rhine lowlands. In these regions, extensive pine forests are

accompanied by an easily flammable groundcover and a dry internal forest climate. 40 year old

pure pine stands are at particular risk of fire because of their low-set, highly flammable

branches. In extremely dry years the forest fire danger increases.

Most fires are caused by human activities. Various measures can be employed to prevent forest fires.

In the end, a combination of different measures results in the most successful prevention.

To prevent the spread of an existing fire or to transform an aerial fire into an easier to extinguish

ground fire by depriving it of readily flammable material, silvicultural and technical measures need to

be constructed or introduced in areas with high forest fire risks. A number of silvicultural measures can

only achieve their preventative or damage-minimising effect after several years.

Tree species make-up and forest conversion

The risk of forest fire decreases as the proportion of deciduous trees increases and with the

conversion of a pine monoculture into a mixed broadleaved stand. However in areas with low

precipitation and very poor soils it is not possible to reduce the proportion of pines and hence the long

term forest fire risk.

The underplanting and supplementary planting of site specific broadleaved species in suitable pine

forest stands is an important forest fire prevention objective. Most of the deciduous trees which grow in

Germany retain sufficient moisture, even in dry summers, to prevent aerial fires developing in such

stands or shelterbelts. Birch is an exception as the bark and green foliage can burn during extreme

droughts. Furthermore at an early stage Birch develops into a sparse stand which can be colonised by

easily flammable grass and heather.

Red oak has proven to be appropriate for relatively poor sites. If a fire goes through a Red Oak

shelterbelt, the trunks can be coppiced the following winter to resprout lushly the next year. Sessile

Oak can resprout with coppice shoots if it is coppiced after a ground fire.

More fastidious species such as Beech or Sessile Oak can be planted on better sites. Beech is best

introduced by underplanting in existing stands. In this way grass growth is suppressed and the foliage

isolates the burnable material on the ground for that in the canopy layer. Species such as Lime, Maple

or European Hornbeam are suitable for underplanting on better sites.

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Shelterbelts und fire breaks

Along with silvicultural measures, classical preventative

measures such as constructing fire breaks including

vegetated fire breaks, protective strips and fuel breaks

also help.

A vegetated fire break is a strip of land about 100-300

metres wide which is overgrown with fire retarding

(broadleaved) trees (see above), shrubs and fire

resistant groundcover plants. A vegetated fire break

should convert an aerial fire into an easier to control

ground fire or hinder the spread of a ground fire or

draw the energy out of a rolling barrage of fire. To

protect large forest areas, particularly in areas with an

“A” forest fire danger classification, these breaks are

interconnected in a system. In such systems, the main

fire break runs from north to south – as the wind

predominantly blows from the west or east during a

fire. Secondary fire breaks, which run between the

main breaks in an east-west direction, can hinder the

course of a fire or reduce the fire risk.

A protective strip is a 20 to 30 metre wide strip of tree covered land from which easily flammable

material (twigs, shrubs, dry or deadwood) has been removed. Weak and dry trees are removed and

remaining pines are delimbed to a height of 4 metres. A ground fire is prevented from igniting the

canopy layer by the small amount of flammable material and a lack of fire bridges. These protective

strips are made on one or both sides of streets or railway tracks and the fuel breaks described below.

Fuel breaks are strips of land over a metre wide which have been cleared of flammable material and

the upper humus layer. They run along one or both sides of main roads, streets or railway tracks. A

fuel break prevents a ground fire spreading. The fuel break is maintained by repeating harrowing or

ploughing during the fire season. When the forest fire danger is above level 2 in Mecklenburg-West

Pomerania, fire breaks are similarly made by ploughing next to agricultural fallow areas and harvested

fields.

A fuel break of up to 15 metres must be constructed and maintained along railway tracks, motorways

and state highways within forested areas (> 5 ha) in areas classified as forest fire danger “A” in

Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. Along other roads and in areas with a B and C danger classification,

fuel breaks are constructed and maintained as determined by the forest authority (M-V

Waldbrandschutzverordnung § 6 u. 7 Mecklenburg-West Pomerania Forest Fire Protection

Regulation).

Fig. 1: Forest fire break with harrowed

fuel break. (Photo: N. Kessner)

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Technical measures to prevent forest fires

Most forest fires are started through human activity. Avoiding forest fires can be achieved

through various means, but in the end a combination of different measures offers the best

protection. In the next pages technical preventative measures will be introduced.

Fire fighting reservoirs

Water is still the main way to extinguish forest fires. Therefore in large, contiguous and fire

endangered forested areas it is necessary to have, or build and maintain, a fire fighting water supply

system within suitable water courses or to create artificial reservoirs for water extraction. When

creating new reservoirs an agreement is needed between the forest owners, forest authorities and the

fire service. It is important that these extraction points are sufficiently identified and easily accessible

by fire engine.

Along with natural watercourses, deep or shallow

wells, artificial ponds, dams, underground water

tanks (cisterns) or auxiliary water supplies in or

near forests can be used as firefighting

reservoirs. The functionality and accessibility of

these water extraction points must be checked

regularly.

Infrastructure

In order for fire engines to reach a forest stand it

is important that the roads can bear heavy

vehicles. Similarly turning and passing bays and sufficient clearance must be maintained or created.

Also as with the creation of water reservoirs, this forest infrastructure should be agreed with the forest

authorities, owners and fire service.

Machinery and equipment

Nowadays, alongside mobile fire extinguishing equipment, fighting forest fires continues to be hard

manual work for as many people as are available to fight the fire. Therefore maintaining appropriate

fire-fighting tools and machinery is the responsibility of forest enterprises of all ownership type in areas

with a medium to high forest fire risk. These include hand tools such as spades, shovels, fire beaters

and axes as well as transport vehicles or tractors and ploughs suitable for working in forests. Such

tools and machinery are either kept by the forest enterprise themselves or contracted in.

Fig. 2: Fire fighting reservoir. (Photo: N. Kessner)

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Forest Fire Monitoring

Since the introduction of automatic, camera

supported forest fire observation systems, the

number of forest fires has not reduced but their

extent has. The early and exact identification of

forest fires and a fast notification has ensured

that the technical team can be onsite quickly and

can quickly begin to fight the fire. An optical

sensor system used for the early detection and

monitoring of forest fires is described in a

separate article.

Aerial Surveillance

Aerial surveillance flights are a possible means to detect forest fires at an early stage during times of

high fire risk. Along with regulatory authority surveillance flights (e.g. fire service air service in Lower

Saxony), commercial airlines or private amateur pilots can be used to fly pre-determined routes. This

form of collaboration is practiced in Saxony, Bavaria and Brandenburg. In Rhineland-Palatine when

the danger level is above level 4, all airports are contacted and pilots are asked to help with early

detection. Besides the early detection and location of forest fires, this aerial support can also be

helpful in directing the operational forces on the ground.

Mapping

Forest fire fighting maps at a scale of 1:50.000 using the UTM geographic coordinate system are the

basis for all those fighting forest fires. All important elements such as fire fighting water points, towns

etc are shown on these maps. The depiction follows the tactical symbols of the fire service. These

maps are prepared by the authorities and are updated at least every five years. In the case of large

fires, district maps at a scale of 1:25.000 or even 1:10.000 may be used. Besides orientating out of

town operational teams, these maps serve as guides in the central control offices. When using

automated camera monitoring systems, maps and photos of the fire location are digitally produced and

given to the ground forces.

Since 200, the state forest administration, fire service as well as communities and districts in North

Rhine-Westphalia have been equipped with the “Forest Fire Emergency Response Map”. These maps

at a scale of 1:25.000 cover the entire state and show the roads capable of bearing heavy vehicles

and turning places in forests, still and running water courses as well as areas with particular dangers

including the “Kyrill” storm damaged areas.

in Rhineland-Palatine the “Forest Rescue Service“ provides maps to operational teams which contain

information about heavy load bearing capable roads and the location of rescue points, which are also

identified on-site. Additional forest fire relevant information is not identified.

Fig. 3: Fire watchtower. (Photo: D. Spörck)

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Communication equipment

Forest fires can only be quickly and successfully fought with functioning communication between the

fire service and forest authority operational teams. Mobile telephones and radios are required. Up-to-

date telephone lists are also needed.

Annual checks are carried out before the start of the fire season in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania

to test that forest fire fighting maps, telephone, mobile and address lists as well as response plans are

up-to-date.

Emergency and deployment plans, Control of operations

Before the outbreak of a fire, emergency and deployment plans have to be created. In the regions of

Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania at risk from forest fires this is the responsibility of the district working

group “Forest fire protection” (see section on cooperation).

In addition to updating plans, in the run up to a fire, suitable premises for an operational headquarters

can be identified if a command vehicle will not be used as the control centre. Besides technical

equipment (computers, printers), these premises should also be equipped with sufficient

communication means (emergency services radio, mobile telephones, landlines, receivers). A good

road connection and a helicopter landing site is also required. As the press and media representatives

have to also be reckoned with during a fire, a separate room should be made available for them to

work in if the fire will last for some time.

Cooperation and joint exercises

Collaboration between forest owners, the administration and different branches of the fire and

emergency services is of special importance when it comes to forest fires. In the forest fire

endangered areas of the new German states, representatives from the forest authority, forest owners,

fire service, fire and emergency services, operational directors and other professions in the district

work together in district “Forest Fire Protection” work groups. These work groups organise joint

education and training courses as well as exercises, evaluate forest fire events and develop and

update the emergency plans.

Alongside the technical aspects, getting acquainted with each other plays an important role. Sharing

common experiences and getting to know one another during the evaluation, planning and

implementation exercises help guarantee a collegial relationship exists when required. In this way

mistakes are avoided, decisions are made quickly and decisively and the area of burnt land reduced.

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Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania Brandenburg Schleswig-Holstein

• The district forest officer undertakes certain forest fire

protection duties for several forest offices (according

to district boundaries and forest fire danger ranking)

• District forest fire protection representatives

coordinate the collaboration between the forest

authority and the district or city in the forest fire

protection working groups

• Annual readiness, operational and emergency plans

(Forest authority plans involving the federal and non-

state forest authorities and forest owners)

• Annual check of

o forest fire fighting maps

o telephones, mobile phones, address lists

o emergency plans

• Forest fire fighting exercises

o Annual radio and alarm exercises

o In A and B danger classified areas the

education and training is every two years, in

areas in danger class C, every three years

• Forest fire protection representatives in the Forestry

Office are responsible for:

o The annual development of the forest fire

emergency plan

o Coordinating forest fire prevention

o Representing the Forestry Office in district

and city committees

o Acting as the forestry specialist in command

during large scale events or catastrophes

o Coordinating public education about forest

fires for the Forest Office

• Developing a Forest Protection work group in areas

with A and A1 danger classes (Members: district fire

officer, Forest fire protection representative of the

Forestry Office, and representatives from the state

forest, federal forest, communal and private forest)

• Annual updating of the forest fire emergency plan

(responsibility and accessibility, available manpower

and resources

• Annual forest fire protection exercises

• Creating emergency and operational plans at the

district level (considering site specific risks)

• Every 10 years estimating risks at a joint meeting of

representatives of forest owners, the district and local

forest authorities, local regulatory authorities and

communities

• During periods of high risk developing, teaching and

practicing a detailed emergency and operational

plan, otherwise collating operational resources and a

thorough specification of defence structures

• Integration with the Civil Defence’s emergency plan

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Public education to prevent forest fires

More than half of all forest fires are caused by people, often through careless actions.

Therefore continual targeted public education is needed in areas with a high forest fire risk to

prevent forest fires.

Different target groups, for example kindergartens, schools, businesses and tourists, must be spoken

to. It is advisable to regularly analyse forest fire statistics in terms of the cause of the fire. If for

example fires are predominantly caused through agricultural activities, then the focus must be on the

farming group. If instead recreationists are the main triggers, then targeted public education must be

directed there. It is important that hazard awareness is raised again and again with the public and with

staff involved in forest protection.

The topics which are the focus of public relations and education are:

Necessity of forest protection

Danger for forests through fire

Proper behavior after detecting a forest fire

Richtiges Verhalten beim Erkennen von Waldbränden

How to avoid a forest fire (Code of behaviour)

Diverse possibilities are available

Media

The media landscape is diverse and fast moving.

It is important to have a good relationship with

media representatives. Press releases, press site

visits, press conferences to certain events as

well as handing out reports, pictures or giving

interviews allows topics to be controlled from the

forestry side. Informing the public about the

current forest fire risk is achieved by means of

radio, television, the press and on-site notices. In

Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Brandenburg, the

actual forest fire risk level is also published on

the homepages of the state forest enterprise and

the Ministry for Agriculture, Environment and

Consumer Protection.

Fig. 4: Public education

(Photo: FVA/Waldnutzung)

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Kindergartens and schools

Education starts with the very young. Only what people know and value will be of interest to them in

the future. Small children are not enthused by dry speeches. However, approaching the subject in a

playful and enquiring manner benefits everyone. Teachers or educators should be approached directly

and interesting, age group specific programmes should be offered on site in the forest or at school

(e.g. forest games).

Recreationists and Tourists

Notice or information boards at the start of

heavily used forest areas and tracks and in car

parks are used to inform visitors on site. Leaflets

can similarly be used as information sources.

However, here too a direct connection with forest

visitors is important. During specialised

excursions but also during normal forest tours

the subject of forest fires can be taken up and

discussed. A uniform image with forest fire

information helps with the recognition and hence

understanding of the issue. The squirrel with its

bushy, flame-like tail is a well known forest fire

symbol which has been used on notification and

warning signs in the new federal states since the 1960s.

Communities, Businesses, Farmers

Regular, recurring information, courses or exercises keep the subject at the forefront of people’s minds

and keep the participants in contact with each other. If all participants know each other before a fire

event, then they will work more cooperatively during a fire.

Fig. 5: Fire risk sign in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

(Photo: Burts/wikipedia.de)

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Financial provisions and forest fire risks

Besides silviculture and technical precautions, financial precautions

are also important. Damages resulting from fires are not only a

financial loss in terms of destroyed stands, but also a reforestation

and fire fighting cost. Various means are available for forest owners

to manage the financial magnitude of the incident.

Forest Fire Insurance

Forest fire insurance is a way to reduce the financial impact of a forest fire. The fire risk potential is

estimated based on tree species and age and further risk influencing factors such as geographic

position, site conditions, silviculture, maintenance condition and degree of infrastructure. The

insurance covers an agreed insured sum, calculated as compensation for the financial loss of the

stand destroyed by fire. Costs for reforestation and usually not covered by fire insurance. These costs

may be financed by funds as applicable.

Lump sum or comprehensive insurance is also possible. With lump sum insurance, in the event of

damages, an agreed insurance sum is paid out, without deducting any proceeds from selling fire

damaged timber. This type of insurance is recommended by the German Forest insurance office for

older, low yield or multi-aged forest stands.

Higher insurance sums can be contractually agreed in a comprehensive insurance policy. Here, along

with the loss of return on capital spent to establish the stand, silvicultural measures such as stand

maintenance or thinning are also compensated. This type of insurance is appropriate for younger

stands where there is not expected profitable to sell any fire damaged timber.

Furthermore, additional associated risks (firefighting water costs) can be insured. It should be noted

here that in classic forest fire insurance, only one stand layer is insured. The forest layer of greatest

silvicultural and economic importance is insured. This can mean that when underplanting in pine

stands, the understorey has to be specially insured. Forest fire insurance can also be arranged as

group insurance via a forestry association. More favourable conditions can be negotiated than for an

individual policy. Contributions to forest fire insurance costs are made in some federal states.

Funding

In the forest fire endangered states there are various funding options available to forest owners. In

Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania there are special forest fire prevention grants in areas with medium

and high forest fire risks (Forest fire danger class A and B), particularly for:

• establishing and maintaining fire breaks

• establishing and modernising water extraction points and

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• establishing and modernising connecting tracks between main roads and the water extraction

points in the forest.

Funds are not granted for the maintenance of water extraction points and forest tracks.

Support is available for silvicultural or underplanting measures which minimise the risk of forest fire. In

Brandenburg targeted forest fire prevention measures and silvicultural measures are funded. Similarly

to Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania the following investments to prevent forest fires are able to be

funded:

• establishing and extending firefighting water extraction points

• establishing and maintaining fire breaks and protective strips and

• Upgrading and strengthening forestry roads

Forest owners can inform themselves about the

various funding options over the internet or by

contacting their local forest office.

Reserves

Along with insurance, which pays benefits in

certain damage cases, financial reserves are

another way to ensure financial security in the

event of forest fire. Reserves from surpluses are

not tied to a particular damage event and can

help to redress the damage caused by a fire.

Risk acceptance

Consciously accepting the forest fire risk and forgoing financial insurance measures is also an option

of dealing with forest fire dangers. However the forest owner has to make this decision deliberately

and bear the risk and all its consequences him/herself.

Ultimately, each forest owner must consider and decide for him or herself how to deal with the risk of

forest fire and which prevention measures to implement.

Fig. 6: Forest fire in a pine plantation.

(Photo: State forest enterprise Oder-Havel-Spree)

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