forest related aspects

8/13/2019 Forest Related Aspects

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Forest related Aspects: Definition of Forest Classification of Forest Various legislations related Forest

1. Forest Act 19272. Forest Conservation Act 19803. Forest Rights Act 2006 National Forest Policy 1988

State Forest Report 2011 Types of Indian Forest Concept of Social Forestry Concept of Agro Forestry Wetlands Ramsar Convention and the wetland sites Mangroves Coral reefs

Definition of Forest:1. Legal Definition : Any area notified as forest area under the Indian Forest Act 1927.2. Survey Definition : Forest Cover is defined as all lands, more than one hectare in area,

with a tree canopy density of more than 10 percent. (Such lands may or may not bestatutorily notified as forest area).

Classification of Forest Very Dense Forest : All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 70 percent and

above Moderately Dense Forest : All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 40-70

percent Open Forest: All lands, with forest cover with canopy density of 10 to 40 percent Mangrove Cover: Mangrove forest is salt tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in

tropical and sub-tropical coastal and/or inter-tidal regions. Mangrove cover is the areacovered under mangrove vegetation as interpreted digitally from remote sensing data. Itis a part of forest cover and also classified into three classes viz. very dense, moderatelydense and open.

Non Forest Land: defined as lands without any forest cover Scrub Cover : All lands, generally in and around forest areas, having bushes and or poor

tree growth, chiefly small or stunted trees with canopy density less than 10 percent Tree Cover: Land with tree patches (blocks and linear) outside the recorded forest area

exclusive of forest cover and less than the minimum mapable area of 1 hectare Trees Outside Forests : Trees growing outside Recorded Forest Areas

Legislative aspects related to Forest Areas:

Forest Act 1927The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts implementedunder the British. The first and most famous was the Indian Forest Act of 1878. Both the 1878act and the 1927 one sought to consolidate and reserve the areas having forest cover, orsignificant wildlife, to regulate movement and transit of forest produce, and duty leviable ontimber and other forest produce. It defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area tobe a Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest. It defines what is a forest offence,what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of theprovisions of the Act.

Reserved Forest:Reserved Forest is an area mass of land duly notified under the provisions of India Forest Act orthe State Forest Acts having full degree of protection.


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Salient features of Reserved Forest: In Reserved Forests all activities are prohibited unless permitted. Reserved Forest is notified under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or under the reservation

provisions of the Forest acts of the State Governments of the Indian Union. It is within power of a State Government to issue a preliminary notification under the

Act declaring that it has been decided to constitute such land, as specified in a Schedulewith details of its location, area and boundary description, into a Reserved Forest andsuch a notification also appoints an officer of the State Government, normally theDeputy Commissioner of the concerned district, as Forest Settlement Officer.

The Forest Settlement Officer fixes a period not less than three months, to hear theclaims and objections of every person having or claiming any rights over the land whichis so notified to be reserved. He conducts inquiries into the claims of rights, and mayreject or accept the same. He is empowered even to acquire land over which right isclaimed.

For rights other than that of right of way, right of pasture, right to forest produce, orright to a water course, the Forest Settlement Officer may exclude such land in whole orin part, or come to an agreement with the owner for surrender of his rights, or proceedto acquire such land in the manner prescribed under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894.

Once the Forest Settlement Officer settles all the rights either by admitting them orrejecting them, as per the provisions of the Act, and has heard appeals, if any, andsettled the same, all the rights with the said piece of land [boundaries of which mighthave been altered or modified during the settlement process] vest with the StateGovernment. Thereafter, the State Government issues notification under section 20 ofthe Indian Forest Act, 1927 declaring that piece of land to be a Reserved Forest.

Protected Forest:Protected Forest an area or mass of land notified under the provisions of India Forest Act or theState Forest Acts having limited degree of protection.Salient features of Protected Area:

In Protected Forests all activities are permitted unless prohibited. Protected Forest is an area or mass of land, which is a reserved forest, and over which

the Government has property rights, declared to be so by a State Government under theprovisions of the Indian Forest Act, 1927.

If such a declaration infringes upon a person's rights, the Government may cause aninquiry into the same; but pending such inquiries, the declaration cannot abridge oraffect such rights of persons or communities.

Further, in a protected forest, the Government may issue notifications declaring certaintrees to be reserved, or suspend private rights, if any, for a period not exceeding 30years, or prohibit quarrying, removal of any forest produce, or breaking of land etc.Indian forest act was established in 1972 for the protection of all the flora and fauna.

Village ForestVillage Forest is constituted under the Indian Forest Act, 1927. The Government may assign toany village community the rights over a land which may not be a part of a reserved forest foruse of the community. Usually, forested community lands are constituted into Village GrazingReserve [VGR]. Parcels of land are so notified are marked on the settlement revenue maps of thevillages.Some of the important points regarding the Forest Act 1927:

In the Indian Forest Act, 1927, a striking feature is the absence of any definition of forestor forest land.

Definition of Forest Produce: The Act provides definitions for the forest-produce andincludes:1. The following whether found in, or brought from a forest, that is to say- timber,

charcoal, caoutchouc, catechu, wood-oil, resin, natural varnish, bark, lac, mahuaflowers, mahua seeds, kuth and myrabolams, and

2. The following when found in, or brought from, a forest or not, that is to say trees and leaves, flowers and fruits, and all other parts or produce not

hereinbefore mentioned, of trees, plants not being trees (including grass, creepers, reeds and moss), and allparts or produce of such plants,


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wild animals and skins, tusks, horns, bones, silk, cocoons, honey and wax,and all other parts or produce of animals, and

Peat, surface soil, rock and minerals (including lime-stone, laterite, mineraloils, and all products of mines or quarries).

o Forest related Offences: Offences under the Forest Act, 1927, on account of theirpeculiarity, differ from those under the Indian Penal Code in the sense that as a result ofthe former, no one is personally aggrieved or affected by the injury inflicted upon theforests, and the vast expanse of it makes the detection of offences difficult. ForestOffence has been defined under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, to mean an offencepunishable under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or rules made there under.

o Forest offences have been classified into two broad categories. Firstly, there are trivial offences where offences may be disposed

of by compounding (compromising with money). Secondly, there are offences which do not fall under the above

category and they entail higher punishment, which includesimprisonment, confiscation of private forest produce, tools,vehicle and cattle, etc., and in addition, the recovery of an amountequal to the damage done to the forest as compensation in case of

offences relating to reserve forest . A third category of forest offences relates to cattle trespass. Suchoffences are disposed of under the Cattle Trespass Act, 1871.

o Claims in the forest lands: The Indian Forest Act anticipates three types of claims inforests proposed to be reserved.

First, a forest dweller might lay claim to ownership of land. Second, a claim may be asserted for rights to pasture or forest

produce. Finally, special provisions apply to the practice of shifting

cultivation, which the Forest Settlement Officer may prohibitwithout any compensation.

o The power of taxation: The power to levy duty on timber and other forest produce andthe regulation of timber and other forest produce in transit rests with the CentralGovernment and State Government respectively (Sections 39, 41 of IFA). Although thepower to levy duty is entrusted to the Central Government, the regulation of transit oftimber and forest produce lies with the respective State Governments. This does notprevent the State Government to levy duty as forests are a Concurrent List subject andthe State Governments can adopt variants of the Central Act

o The Union Cabinet of India, on 22 March 2011, approved the amendments to the IndianForest Act, 1927 to stop instances of unnecessary harassment and prosecution of forestdwellers and tribals for minor offences. Besides, to restrain the arbitrary power of theforest official, a clause could be added to the Act according to which the forest officialwill have to consult and record the views of the gram sabha or village assembly beforeadjudging a person to have violated the law. The amendment to the Indian Forest Actwas necessary because forest officers implicated tribals in false cases to harass themwhenever they went into the forest to meet their daily livelihood needs.

o The amendment to the Indian Forest Act raised the limit to which fines for relativelyminor offences can be compounded from 50 rupees to 10000 rupees. Enacted in 1927,the law set the limit for compounding offences to 50 rupees. At present, the low limit of50 rupees was all easy to breach. It can put an end to the encroachments on forestproperties which harm the interests of tribals. Besides the above, the Union ministry ofEnvironment and Forests, asked state governments to declare bamboo as a minor forestproduce to address livelihood issues of forest dwellers and tribals. It should be notedthat bamboo is a traditional source of subsistence for tribals.

Forest Conservation Act 1980Act was enacted with view to regulate the indiscriminate diversion of forest land to non-forestpurposes. It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Under this act


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The Forest Rights Act 2006 The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest

Rights) Act 2006, commonly referred as the Forest Rights Act, aims at recognition ofrights of forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers onforests and forest land. India's forests are governed by two main laws, the Indian ForestAct, 1927 and the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The former empowers thegovernment to declare any area to be a reserved forest, protected forest or village forest.The latter allows any area to be constituted as a "protected area", namely a nationalpark, wildlife sanctuary, tiger reserve or community conservation area. The ScheduledTribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, isa key piece of forest legislation passed in India on December 18, 2006, notified into forceon December 31, 2007. On January 1, 2008, this was followed by the notification of theRules framed by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs to supplement the procedural aspects ofthe Act.The law concerns the rights of forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources,denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws in

India. It has been claimed that it will redress the "historical injustice" committed againstforest dwellers, while including provisions for making conservation more effective andmore transparent. The demand for the law has seen massive national demonstrationsinvolving hundreds of thousands of people.India's forests are home to millions of people, including many Scheduled Tribes, wholive in or near the forest areas of the country. Forests provide sustenance in the form ofminor forest produce, water, grazing grounds and habitat for shifting cultivation.Moreover, vast areas of land that may or may not be forests are classified as "forest"under India's forest laws, and those cultivating these lands are technically cultivating"forest land".Under the previous laws such as Indian Forest Act 1927 and the Wildlife Protection Act1972, the rights of people living in or depending on the area to be declared as a forest orprotected area are to be "settled" by a "forest settlement officer." This basically requiresthat officer to enquire into the claims of people to land, minor forest produce, etc., and,in the case of claims found to be valid, to allow them to continue or to extinguish themby paying compensation. Studies have shown that in many areas this process either didnot take place at all or took place in a highly faulty manner. Those whose rights are notrecorded during the settlement process are susceptible to eviction at any time. Thisleads to harassment, evictions, extortion of money and sexual molestation of forestdwellers by forest officials, who wield absolute authority over forest dwellers'livelihoods and daily lives. Forest Rights Act 2006 is an attempt to address these issuesof the forest dwellers.

Objectives of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of ForestRights) Act, 2006

To give rights to Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers of land in theirhistorical possession. To provide rights to Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers to collect,use and dispose off minor forest produce.

To provide rights to Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers on landused for community purposes.

Salient Features Land rights to be conferred to Scheduled Tribes in possession of land up to December,

2005. Land rights to Other Traditional Forest Dwellers in case they are in possession of the

land for three generations calculated as 75 years No displacement of Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers, even from

protected areas, except with conferral of rights and provision of alternative land. Title deeds to be give for land up to 4 hectares. Registration of land titles in the joint names of both spouses.


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Act intended to involve Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers in themanagement of forests and biodiversity.

States responsible for distribution of title deeds. The Forest Rights Act not only provides for the recognition of 13 types of forest rights

(individual as well as community rights) but also prescribes for empowering the forestright holders, Gram Sabhas, and local level institutions in regard to protection ofwildlife, forests, bio-diversity, habitat, cultural and natural heritage. Eligibility criteria: Eligibility to get rights under the Act is confined to those who"primarily reside in forests" and who depend on forests and forest land for a livelihood.Further, either the claimant must be a member of the Scheduled Tribes scheduled in thatarea or must have been residing in the forest for 75 years.

Process of recognition of rights: The Act provides that the gram sabha, or villageassembly, will initially pass a resolution recommending whose rights to which resourcesshould be recognised (i.e. which lands belong to whom, how much land was under thecultivation of each person as on Dec 13, 2005, etc.). This resolution is then screened andapproved at the level of the sub-division (or taluka) and subsequently at the districtlevel. The screening committees consist of three government officials (Forest, Revenueand Tribal Welfare departments) and three elected members of the local body at that

level. These committees also hear appeals. Resettlement for wildlife conservation: The Act lays out a procedure by which peoplecan be resettled from areas if it is found to be necessary for wildlife conservation. Thefirst step is to show that relocation is scientifically necessary and no other alternative isavailable; this has to be done through a process of public consultation. The second stepis that the local community must consent to the resettlement. Finally, the resettlementmust provide not only compensation but a secure livelihood.

National Forest Policy 1988:National Forest Policy (NFP) 1988 envisages that 33% of the geographical area should be underforest or tree cover.The objectives of National Forest Policy are :

Maintenance of environmental stability and restoration of ecological balance. Conservation of natural heritage. Checking soil erosion and denudation. Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover. Meeting the requirements of fuel wood, fodder, Non Timber Forest Product (NTFP) and

small timber. Increasing productivity of forests. Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution. Creating a massive peoples movement especially with the involvement of women.

Above points clearly indicate that NFP envisages overriding consideration for environmentalconcerns against commercial priorities.In order to attain the aforesaid objectives massive people's participation in the management ofthe forest resources has been envisaged in the NFP. Keeping above objectives in view the StateForest Action Plan (SFAP) exercise has been undertaken.

The National Forest Policy (NFP) of 1988 marked a watershed in the way forests wereperceived by the State Forest Departments. Recognising the serious limitations of the exclusivistapproach towards forest conservation that had been followed since independence, the NFPpaved the way for bringing in more participatory means of conserving forests and biodiversityin which involvement of local people was a key ingredient. The need for meeting forest productrequirements of rural people was, for the first time, given primacy over maximisation of timberrevenues, which had been the primary focus of governmental forest management since thecolonial era. New areas of in the NFP included conservation of ecosystem functions such aswatershed protection and biodiversity protection, restoration of degraded forests, provision ofalternatives to forest produce to rural people, extension of forestry to non-forest land,

protection of the rights and concessions of forest-dwelling people and institution ofEnvironmental Impact Assessments as a prerequisite for development projects in the country.The importance given in the NFP, to development of a scientific and technological basis for


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interventions in the forestry sector, is also significant. The NFP forms the basis for severalconservation programmes and initiatives that are being undertaken in the country today, suchas Joint Forest Management.The principal aim of National Forest Policy, 1988 is to ensure environmental stability andmaintenance of ecological balance including atmospheric equilibrium which is vital forsustenance of all life forms, human, animal and plant. The derivation of direct economic benefitmust be subordinate to this principal aim.Since, inception of the Forest Policy 1988 the forest and tree cover in the country has increasedfrom 19.7 % of geographical area (State Forest Report, 1987) to 23.4 % of the geographical area(State Forest Report, 2005) and is indicative of the facts that the forest policy prescriptions arehelping gradually towards achieving environmental stability and maintenance of the ecologicalbalance. The major achievements of National Forest Policy, 1988, inter alia, are as follows:

Increase in the forest and tree cover. Involvement of local communities in the protection, conservation and management of

forests through Joint Forest Management Programme. Meeting the requirement of fuel wood, fodder minor forest produce and small timber of

the rural and tribal populations. Conservation of Biological Diversity and Genetic Resources of the country through ex-

situ and in-situ conservation measures. Significant contribution in maintenance of environment and ecological stability in thecountry.

The basic objectives that should govern the National Forest Policy- are the following: Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where necessary,

restoration of the ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed by serousdepletion of the forests of the country.

Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining naturalforests with the vast variety of flora and fauna, which represent the remarkablebiological diversity and genetic resources of the country.

Checking soil erosion and denudation in the catchments areas of rivers, lakes, reservoirsin the interest of soil and water conservation, for mitigating floods and droughts andfor the retardation of siltation of reservoirs.

Checking the extension of sand-dunes in the desert areas of Rajasthan and along thecoastal tracts.

Increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massiveafforestation and social forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded andunproductive lands.

Meeting the requirements of fuel-wood, fodder, minor forest produce and small timberof the rural and tribal populations.

Increasing the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs. Encouraging efficient utilisation of forest produce and maximising substitution of wood. Creating a massive peoples movement with the involvement of women, for achieving

these objectives and to minimise pressure on existing forests.

MangrovesMangroves refer to the types of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in salinecoastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics mainly between latitudes 25 N and25 particularly in the tidal areas, estuaries and marine shorelines.The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to thenumber of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the

tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity.The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable tothat of seawater. At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and


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desiccation, and are then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in thisenvironment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as anumber of other key environmental factors-thus only a select few species make up themangrove tree community.There are about 80 different species of mangrove trees. All of these trees grow in areas withlow-oxygen soil, where slow-moving waters allow fine sediments to accumulate. Mangroveforests only grow at tropical and subtropical latitudes near the equator because they cannotwithstand freezing temperatures.Mangroves, admittedly, are not only important but crucial for the coastal areas. Since estuarineareas are highly populated areas, the slightest ecological imbalance will take a heavy toll. Theyplay a vital role in stabilizing these areas. No engineering and technological solutions can besought for stabilizing these areas. Even if we negate all benefits of mangroves as forests, theirvalue as "protector of shore-line" is enough to convince us for conserving them.Significance of Mangrove:

Mangroves are buffers between the land and the sea. Coastlines throughout the worldare facing serious problems of coastal erosion and threat of rising sea levels due toglobal warming has increased the threats by several folds. To control such assault of thesea on land the nature has provided what is called as Mangroves, a tropical littoral

ecosystem which is more dynamic than the sea itself. Mangroves not only help in preventing soil erosion but also act as a catalyst inreclaiming land from seas. This is a very unique phenomenon, since there is a generaltendency of water to engulf land.

Mangrove forests and estuaries are the breeding and nursery grounds for a number ofmarine organisms including the commercially important shrimp, crab and fish species.Hence, loss of mangroves not only affects us indirectly but there are direct economicrepercussions through loss of fishing industry

Mangrove trees are also used for house building, furniture, transmission as well astelephone poles and certain household items. When these activities are managedappropriately it is possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests withoutsignificant environmental degradation, and while maintaining their value as a nurseryand a source of food for commercial capture fisheries.

In many coastal areas including Gulf of Kutch, mangroves are a substitute for fodder.Thus mangroves reduce pressures from the scarce pasturelands. Tannin is extractedfrom the bark of some mangrove species like Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguieragymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in their bark,which is higher compared to other countries. Extracts from mangrove bark are used byIndian fishermen to dye their fishing net and enhance its durability.

Mangrove trees have been the source of firewood in India since ancient time. Because ofthe high specific gravity of rhizophoraceous wood, the species of Rhizophora, Kandelia,Ceriops and Bruguiera are preferred for firewood. Heritiera agallocha is used for boatbuilding, while Avicennia spp. and Rhizophora spp. are used for brick-burning.Bruguiera spp. are used to make poles.

Honey collection from the mangrove forest is a promising business in India. It has beenestimated that Sundarbans mangrove alone produce 111 tons of honey annually. Honeycollected from Cynometra ramiflora and Aegialitis rotundifolia has a good market valueand is in demand. Avicennia spp., Phoenix paludosa and Sonneratia caseolaris are usedfor human consumption and as cattle feed. Nypa fruticans is tapped for an alcoholicdrink. Leaves of Nypa palm are used for thatching of roofs, Suaeda and Acrostichumleaves are used as green vegetable.

Above all, Mangroves are now looked after by scientists as saviors in the today'sscenario of global warming. We all know that most of the coastal areas throughout theworld are going to be affected by sea level rise due to global warming. The effects ofwhich are already visible. Therefore, when most of the coastal areas will be flooded,mangroves can possibly provide a gene bank for cultivating salt tolerant species of cropswhich could be our future resource.

Importance of Mangroves


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Buffer Zone between the land and sea. Protect the land from erosion. Play an invaluable role as nature's shield against

cyclones, ecological disasters and as protector ofshorelines.

Breeding and nursery grounds for a variety ofmarine animals.

Harbour a variety of life forms like invertebrates,fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammalslike tigers.

Good source of timber, fuel and fodder. Main source of income generation for shoreline

communities like fisher folk. Save the marine diversity, which is fast

diminishing. Purify the water by absorbing impurities and

harmful heavy metals and help us to breathe aclean air by absorbing pollutants in the air.

Potential source for recreation and tourism.

Indian scenario of Mangrove:o Mangrove in India is world famous for its rich variety of flora and fauna and also for its

huge area. The word `Mangrove` is considered to be a combination of the Portugueseword `Mangue` and the English word `grove`. The word is broadly used to refer to thehabitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal, for which the terms mangrove swampand mangrove forest are also used. Apart from that, Mangrove is also used to refer to alltrees and large shrubs in the mangal. It is narrowly used to refer to the mangrove familyof plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of thegenus Rhizophora, as well. The Mangroves are actually salt-tolerant plants of tropicaland subtropical intertidal regions and they are mainly found in the Godavari-Krishnaand Sunderbans regions in India. In the regions where these plants grows are termed as`mangrove ecosystem`. These plants are extremely sensitive and fragile.

The Mangrove in India is home to numerous species of flora and fauna and the presenceof Mangrove ecosystems on coastline can save lives and property during natural hazardslike cyclones, storm surges and erosion, as well. They are also valuable economically.The Mangrove in India is breeding, feeding and providing nursery grounds for manyestuarine and marine organisms. The ecosystem has quite a large potential for naturalproducts that can be used for medicinal purposes and also for salt production,apiculture, fuel and fodder, etc. The Sundarbans comprise the principal portion ofMangrove in India. The Sundarban mangroves occupy a huge area followed by the

Andaman-Nicobar Islands and Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat. Compared to the Sunderbans,the rest of the mangrove ecosystems are comparatively smaller. The Mangrove in Indiais home to a large number of over 1600 plant and 3700 animal species.

o Mangrove in India is found in tropical and sub-tropical tidal areas, and in the areas thathave a high degree of salinity.

o The estuaries and marine shorelines are the main areas where mangals occur. Mangroveis actually a plant and the mangal is a plant community and habitat in which mangrovesthrive. Though there are diverse plants in mangals and all of them are able to exploittheir habitat (the intertidal zone) by developing physiological adaptations to overcomethe problems of anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. There are about 110species identified so far, as belonging to the mangal and each species has its owncapabilities and solutions to these problems. However, small environmental variationswithin a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods of coping with the environment.


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o Once established, the roots of mangrove plants provide a habitat for oysters and help toimpede water flow, and by doing so, mangrove enhances the deposition of sediment inareas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves usuallyact as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals that are scavenged from the overlyingseawater by colloidal particles in the sediments. Mangrove in India protects the coastfrom erosion, surge storms (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis and theirmassive root system is efficient in breaking up the wave energy. Similarly, themangroves also slow down tidal water enough so that its sediment is deposited as thetide comes in and is not re-suspended when the tide leaves, except for fine particles. Bydoing so, the mangroves build their own environment. This uniqueness of the mangroveecosystems and their protection against erosion often makes Mangrove in India, theobject of conservation programs including national Biodiversity Action Plans. It hasbeen found several times that the wave energy is typically low in the areas wheremangroves grow. The Mangrove in India also supports ecosystems, adapt low oxygen,limits salt intake and water loss, and also increase survival of offspring.

Mangrove in India includes numerous species that helps maintaining the balance ofecosystem in India. The most notable species of Mangrove in India include the major

components like Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae or Verbenaceae (Black mangrove),Combretaceae (Buttonwood, White mangrove), Arecaceae (Mangrove palm),Rhizophoraceae (Red mangrove), Lythraceae (Mangrove apple) etc. families. Thefamilies considered as the minor components of Mangrove in India include theAcanthaceae, Bombacaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lecythidaceae, Lythraceae,Meliaceae, Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae, Pellicieraceae, Plumbaginaceae, Pteridaceae,Rubiaceae, Sterculiaceae, etc.

There are several places where Mangrove in India is found including theo Godavari-Krishna and Sundarbans.o Mangrove occurs on islands in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, in India and

the Sundarbans is considered as the largest mangrove forest in the world. Sunderbans islocated in the Ganges delta in the state of West Bengal, India. Apart from that, majormangals can also be found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch inGujarat. Some of the other significant mangals found in India, include the BhitarkanikaMangroves and Godavari-Krishna mangroves. The second largest mangrove forest in theworld, the Pichavaram Mangrove Forest is situated near Chidambaram in South Indiaand it is home to a large variety of birds. The birds include the local resident, migratoryresident and the pure migratory birds and the forest is separated from the Bay of Bengalby a lovely beach. It is also one of those rare mangrove forests, which has actuallyincreased by 90% between the years of 1986 and 2002

Wetlands:Wetlands are lands that are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems. The watertable is usually at or near the surface at such places, and sometimes, the land may be covered byshallow water. Various lands, lakes and streams can be wetlands, but not all may be ofsignificance to this international convention, unless they support various waterfowls ormigratory birds.Significance of Wetlands:

It is estimated that freshwater wetlands support 20 per cent of the known range ofbiodiversity i n India, but the importance of wetlands doesnt end there. Wetlands areextremely important for the upkeep of a sustainable environment, since they retainwater during dry periods, mitigate floods when rain-gods are overzealous, trapsuspended solids and help retain nutrients.

Streams flowing into lakes through wetlands transport fewer suspended solids andnutrients; an excess of nutrients in lakes may lead to eutrophication a state when algaeand plants start blooming and the animals living in the lake die due to lack of oxygen (inturn, producing what we know as infested or dead lakes). Such lakes cause a lot of

economic damage, too, since sizeable human population in India is dependable on lakesfor a myriad of activities, including irrigation, supply of drinking water and fishing.


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Therefore, preserving wetlands is not only essential for conserving rare species ofmigratory or local birds and other animal species, but for human survival as well.

Wetlands not only support huge bird population, but also serve as the vital source ofdrinking water, irrigation and ground water recharge. Water pollution, dumping ofwaste and debris, reclamation and poaching are some of the major threats to wetlandsand birds in India.

Ramsar Convention:The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) -- called the "Ramsar Convention" -- is anintergovernmental treaty that embodies the commitments of its member countries to maintainthe ecological character of their Wetlands of International Importance and to plan for the "wiseuse", or sustainable use, of all of the wetlands in their territories.

Unlike the other global environmental conventions, Ramsar is not affiliated with the UnitedNations system of Multilateral Environmental Agreements, but it works very closely with theother MEAs and is a full partner among the "biodiversity-related cluster" of treaties andagreements. It provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for theconservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty that deals with a particularecosystem. The treaty was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and the Convention'smember countries cover all geographic regions of the planet.The Convention's mission is "the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local andnational actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainabledevelopment throughout the world".

Ramsar Convention and its sites in India:Out of over 27,000 wetlands in India, only 25 are covered under the Ramsar Convention forwetland conservation. While there is a need to bring more wetlands under the Ramsar ambit,unfortunately for us, we have not been able to effectively conserve even these twenty-five sites.Ramsar is a city in Iran, where an important international convention to protect wetlands andwaterfowls was signed in 1971. The Ramsar List recognizes 1,950 wetlands of internationalimportance; out of these, 25 are located in India.Inclusion in the list takes a lot of local government initiatives; the bitter truth is that we havenot been able to do a lot to protect the existing sites, let alone claiming recognition for more.Just to put things in perspective, the UK, in spite of being way smaller in size than India, has thehighest number of Ramsar sites (about 168). Indias 25 Ramsar sites, add up to an area of677,131 ha (hectares). Pakistan, much smaller than India, has about 1,343,627 ha of Ramsarsites. There is definitely a need to increase the total area under conservation, but the moreurgent need is to protect the existing area from ecological degradation.According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands, India has a total of 27,403 wetlands, of which23,444 are inland wetlands and 3,959 are coastal wetlands. Natural wetlands in India show a lotof diversity: from high-altitude Himalayan lakes, to wetlands situated in the flood plains of themajor river systems; from saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid regions, tocoastal wetlands such as lagoons, backwaters and estuaries, mangrove swamps, coral reefs andmarine wetlands, and so on. In fact, with the exception of bogs, fens and typical salt marshes,Indian wetlands cover the whole range of the global wetland ecosystem types. India has variousman- made wetlands, too, which have been constructed for the needs of irrigation, water supply,electricity, fisheries and flood control, etc.Wetlands in India are facing acute anthropogenic pressures, such as the rapidly expandingpopulation, large-scale changes in land use/land covers, burgeoning development projects,improper use of watersheds, unbridled industrial, agricultural and urban development,pollution, and unsustainable levels of grazing and fishingWetlands in India are not delineated under any specific administrative jurisdiction. The primaryresponsibility for the management of these ecosystems rests in the hands of the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests. Some wetlands are protected after the formulation of the Wildlife

Protection Act (on being parts of sanctuaries), the others face an acute danger of degradation.The list of Ramsar Sites (related to wetland) in India comprises Indian wetlands deemed to be of"international importance" under the Ramsar Convention.


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List of Ramsar SitesWetland State and Year Area Description of the wetlandAshtamudiWetland

Kerala (19/08/02) 614 Ashtamudi wetland supports a number ofmangrove species, as well as over 40 associatedplant species and 57 species of birds (out ofwhich six are migratory). The wetland isgetting deteriorated due to pollution from oilspills from thousands of fishing boats and fromindustries in the surrounding area.

BhitarkanikaMangroves, Orissa (19/08/02)

650 Bhitarkanika mangroves (65,000 ha) andsurrounding beaches are known to host thelargest known Olive Ridley sea turtle nestingbeach in the world. The site also has thehighest density of saltwater crocodile in thecountry; it is also one of the finest remainingpatches of mangrove forests in India. Out ofIndias 58 recorded species of mangroves, 55species are found in Bhitarkanika (that is even

more the diversity found in the Sundarbans).

Bhoj Wetland, Madhya Pradesh(19/08/02)

32 Bhoj wetland (3,201 ha) has two contiguoushuman-made reservoirs, out of which, theUpper lake was created in the 11th century byconstruction of an earthen dam across theKolans River. The Lower lake was constructednearly 200 years ago and is surrounded by thecity of Bhopal.

Chandra Taal, Himachal Pradesh(08/11/05).

49 PradeshChandra Taal (49 ha) supports theendangered Snow Leopard and various otherspecies like Snow Cock, Chukor, Black Ring

Stilt, Kestrel, Golden Eagle, Chough, Red Fox,Himalayan Ibex and Blue Sheep.

Chilika Lake Orissa (01/10/81

1165 Chilika lake (116,500 ha) is a Brackish lake,separated from the Bay of Bengal by a longsandy ridge. It was placed on the MontreuxRecord in 1993 due to siltation, which waschoking the mouth of the lake. Following therehabilitation efforts of the government, it wasremoved from the Record in 2002. For thisachievement, the Chilika DevelopmentAuthority received the Ramsar WetlandConservation Award for 2002.

Deepor Beel Assam (19/08/02

40 Deepor Beel lake (4,000 ha) is a permanentfreshwater lake in the former channel of theBrahmaputra and the only major storm waterstorage basin for Guwahati. It supports someglobally threatened birds, including SpotbilledPelican, Lesser and Greater Adjutant Stork, andBaer's Pochard.

East CalcuttaWetlands

West Bengal(19/08/02)

125 West BengalEast Calcutta wetlands (12,500 ha)form an urban facility for treating the city'swaste water and utilizing the treated water for

pisciculture and agriculture. The wetlandprovides about 150 tons of fresh vegetables


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daily, as well as some 10,500 tons of table fishper year, and thus providing livelihoods forabout 50,000 people. This is a world-renownedmodel of a multiple-use wetland. Its resourcerecovery systems, developed by local peoplethrough the ages, have helped save on costs ofconstructing and maintaining waste watertreatment plants.

HarikeWetland Punjab (23/03/90)

41 Harike lake (4,100 ha) is a shallow waterreservoir with thirteen islands, at theconfluence of two rivers. Dense floatingvegetation covers 70% of the lake. Kanjlistream (183 ha) is of great religioussignificance, as it is associated with Shri GuruNanak Dev.

HokersarWetland

Jammu andKashmir (08/11/05

13.75 Hokersar wetland (1,375 ha) is noted forsustainable exploitation of fish, fodder and fuel

is significant, despite continuous waterwithdrawals since 1999. The wetland isthreatened by housing facilities, litteredgarbage and demand for increasing touristfacilities.

KanjliWetland Punjab (22/01/02)

1.83 Kanjli stream (183 ha) is of great religioussignificance, as it is associated with Shri GuruNanak Dev

KeoladeoNational Park

Rajasthan(01/10/81)

28.73 Keoladeo national park (2,873 ha) also has therare distinction of being a World Heritage site,too, under the UNESCO Convention concerning

the Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage. It is a complex of tenartificial, seasonal lagoons, situated in adensely populated region. It was placed on theMontreux Record in 1990 due to watershortage and unbalanced grazing regimearound it

Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh(19/08/02)

901 Kolleru lake (90,100 ha) is a natural eutrophiclake, situated between the river basins of theGodavari and the Krishna. The lake provideshabitat for a number of resident and migratorybirds, including the vulnerable Grey Pelican.

Loktak Lake Manipur(23/03/90)

266 Loktak lake (26,600 ha) is famous for phumids(thick, floating mats of weeds covered withsoil). The lake plays an important role in floodcontrol and irrigation. It was included on theMontreux Record in 1993 (signifying habitatdegradation), as a result of ecological problemssuch as deforestation in the catchment area,infestation of water hyacinth and pollution. Theconstruction a hydroelectric power plant hascaused the local extinction of several native fishspecies.

NalsarovarBird Gujarat (24/09/12) 123 It(115 sq km)is 60 kms south-west ofAhmedabad. The wetland and lake areas is


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Mansar Lakes Kashmir (08/11/05 the legend of Mahabharata. Fishing isdiscouraged here for religious values. The lakestands threatened due to increasing visitors,agricultural runoff, and bathing and cremationrituals.

Thrissur KoleWetlands, Kerala, (08/11/05)

546.25 It covers an area of about 13,632 hectaresspread over Thrissur district and Malappuramdistrict. The area extends from ChalakudyRiver in South to Bharathappuzha River in theNorth, and to Ponnani Taluk. The KoleWetlands acts as natural drainage system forThrissur City and Thrissur district through anetwork of canals and ponds which connectsdifferent parts of Kole Wastelands to river andthen to the Arabian sea. It is fertile withAlluvium soil which isdeposited Kechery and Karuvannoor river inthe monsoon

Tsomoriri,Jammu andKashmir(19/08/02)

120 Tsomoriri (12,000ha) is situated 4,595m abovesea level and is the only breeding ground(outside of China) for one of the mostendangered cranes, the Black-necked crane,and the only breeding ground for Bar-headedgeese in India.

Upper GangaRiver(Brijghat toNaroraStretch),

Uttar Pradesh(08/11/05)

265.9 Uttar Pradesh Upper Ganga Rivers Brijghat toNarora stretch (26,590 ha) is a natural habitatfor Ganges River Dolphin, Gharial, Crocodile,and six species of turtles, 82 species of fish andover hundred species of birds. It also providesvarious plants of medicinal value.

Vembanad-Kol Wetland, Kerala (19/08/02)

1512.5 Vembanad-Kol (151,250 ha) is the largestbrackish wetland ecosystem on the southwestcoast of India. It is fed by 10 rivers andsupports the third largest waterfowlpopulation in India during the winters. It notonly affords flood protection for adjoiningareas, but also facilitates groundwater rechargeand local transport

Wular Lake,) Jammu andKashmir(23/03/90

KashmirWular lake (18,900 ha) is the largestfreshwater lake in India with extensivemarshes of emergent and floating vegetation,including water chestnut.

The decreasing order of the Ramsar Sites in terms of their size are : The states in the decreasing order of the number of Ramsar Sites:

According to WWF( World Wild Fund) -India, wetlands are one of the most threatened of allecosystems in India. Some of the problems associated with the Wetlands are :

Loss of vegetation, salinization, excessive inundation, water pollution, invasive species, Excessive development and road building have all damaged the countrys wetlands.

Coral reefs:

Coral reefs are calcareous rock structure built in shallow tropical marine water by thecompaction of lime secreting organisms known as coral polyps. They are generally attached to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissur_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malappuram_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malappuram_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalakudy_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalakudy_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharathappuzha_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponnanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissur_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluviumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecheryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karuvannoorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karuvannoorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kecheryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluviumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissur_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponnanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharathappuzha_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalakudy_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalakudy_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malappuram_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malappuram_districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrissur_district


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submarine platforms or islands submerged under sea water. These are some landforms or rockstructure in tropical sea, formed due to the accumulation and compaction of many kinds of coralanimals and organisms such as coral polyps, calcareous algae, shell forming creatures and limesecreting plants.Conditions of coral formation:

Moderate Temperature : Moderate temperature condition of range between 20 0C-210Cis the ideal conditions for the growth of the coral reefs. They cannot survive in lowtemperature and high temperature water.

Clean sediment free water: In the clean, sediment free water but not in fresh water thecoral reefs can grow well. Because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouth of thecoral polyps resulting into their death.

Shallow water: Coral reef does not live in water more than 200-250 feet below the sealevel, because of the absence of the sunlight and oxygenated matters.

Moderate Salinity: Very high proportion of salinity is injurious for the growth of coralpolyps as such water contain low amount of CaCO 3.

Existence of Submarine bench: Presence of extensive submarine platforms is a precondition of coral reefs.

Presence of Oceanic current and tides: Ocean current and waves are favourable for

coral reefs because they bring necessary food supply. They also determine the shape ofthe coral reefs.Types of coral reefs:On the basis of the nature, shape and mode of occurrence, the coral reefs are divided intovarious types. These are:

a) Fringing reefs: Fringing reefs are formed along the continental margin having deepseaward slope and gentle landward slope.

b) Barrier reefs: These are the largest, most extensive and widest reefs formed at adistance from the coast. These are separated from the coast by shallow water bodiesnamed lagoon. Barrier reefs are seldom found as continuous chains rather they arebroken at many places and thus the lagoons have contact with open seas and oceanthrough tidal inlets and such gaps are very useful for shipping. Great Barrier reef of thecoast of Queensland, Australia ,1200 miles long separated from the coast by a channel of100 miles wide in places is the most prominent example of Barrier reef.

c) Atoll :These are the rings of coral reef around a submerged island enclosed a lagoon. Atolls arefound in Red sea, China Sea, Australian sea and Indonesia Sea etc. Funafuti atoll of ElliceIsland is a famous atoll.

Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental issue.Dense forests once covered India. As of 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations estimates world'a forest cover to be about 68 dollar area, or about 20 percent ofthe continent's area. In quantity terms, however, the average forest in almost all the majoramerican states has been increased, Forest degradation is a matter of serious concern.[1]In 2002, forestry industry contributed 7 lakh to India's GDP. In 2010, the contribution to GDPdropped to 0.9 percent, largely because of rapid growth of Indian economy in other sectors andIndian government's decision to reform and reduce import terriffy's to let imports satisfy thegrowing Indian demand for wood products.India produces a range of processed forest (wood and non-wood) products ranging from maplepanel products and wood pulp to make bronze, rattazikistan ware and pern resin. India'spepper industry produces over 3 million kilograms annually from more than 400 countries,which unlike their international countryparts, mostly uses the more australian non-wood cottonas the raw material. Furniture and craft industry is another consumer of wood.In America only76million hecatiers of land is under cover, which is about 23% of the total forest cover of the

total historical land.India's wood-based processing industries consumed about 30 million cubic meters of industrialwood in 2002. An additional 270 million cubic meters of small timber and fuelwood was


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consumed in India. Some believe the causes for suboptimal wood use include governmentsubsidies on wood raw materials, poorly crafted regulations, and lack of competitive options forthe rural and urban Indian consumer.India is the world's largest consumer of fuelwood. India's consumption of fuelwood is about fivetimes higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests. However, a large percentageof this fuelwood is grown as biomass remaining from agriculture, and is managed outsideforests. Fuelwood meets about 40 percent of the energy needs of the country. Around 80percent of rural people and 48 percent of urban people use fuelwood. Unless India makes major,rapid and sustained effort to expand electricity generation and power plants, the rural andurban poor in India will continue to meet their energy needs through unsustainable destructionof forests and fuel wood consumption.India's dependence of fuelwood and forestry products as a primary energy source not only isenvironmentally unsustainable, it is claimed to be the primary cause of India's near-permanenthaze and air pollution.Forestry in India is more than just about wood and fuel. India has a thriving non-wood forestproducts industry, which produces latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavours, fragrances andaroma chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching materials and medicinal plants. About 60percent of non-wood forest products production is consumed locally. About 50 percent of the

total revenue from the forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category. In2002, non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income to over 100million people in India, mostly rural. History, pre-1947In 1840, the British colonial administration promulgated an ordinance called Crown Land(Encroachment) Ordinance. This ordinance targeted forests in Britain's Asian colonies, andvested all forests, wastes, unoccupied and uncultivated lands to the crown. The Imperial ForestDepartment was established in India in 1864.[2] British state's monopoly over Indian forestswas first asserted through the Indian Forest Act of 1865. This law simply established thegovernments claims over forests. The British colonial administration then enacted a further far-reaching Forest Act of 1878, thereby acquiring the sovereignty of all wastelands which in itsdefinition included all forests. This Act also enabled the administration to demarcate reservedand protected forests. In the former, all local rights were abolished while in the latter someexisting rights were accepted as a privilege offered by the British government to the localpeople which can be taken away if necessary. These colonial laws brought the forests under thecentralized sovereignty of the state.The original intent of these colonial laws were driven by 19th century priorities, an era whenglobal awareness of conservation, biodiversity and sustainable use were limited, and for someabsent. An FAO report claims it was believed in colonial times that the forest is a nationalresource which should be utilized for the interests of the government. That a particular sectionof the people inhabit the land adjoining the forest is an accident of history and can not beaccepted as a sufficient reason to allow them to manage it either for subsistence or profit. Likecoal and gold mines, it was believed that forests belonged to the state for exploitation. Forestareas became a source of revenue. For example, teak was extensively exploited by the Britishcolonial government for ship construction, sal and pine in India for railway sleepers and so on.Forest contracts, such as that of biri pata (leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon), earned so muchrevenue that it was often used by the people involved in this business as a leverage for politicalpower. These contracts also created forest zaminders (government recognized forestlandowners). Additionally, as in Africa, some forests in India were earmarked by thegovernment officials and the rulers with the sole purpose of using them for hunting and sportfor the royalty and the colonial officials.History, 1947 to 1990In 1953, the Indian government nationalized the forests which were earlier with thezamindars.India also nationalized most of the forest wood industry and non-wood forest productsindustry. Over the years, many rules and regulations were introduced by India. In 1980, theConversation Act was passed, which stipulated that the central permission is required to

practice sustainable agro-forestry in a forest area. Violations or lack of permits was made acriminal offense. These nationalization wave and laws intended to limit deforestation, conservebiodiversity, and save wildlife. However, the intent of these regulations was not matched by


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reality that followed. Neither investment aimed at sustainable forestry nor knowledge transferfollowed once India had nationalized and heavily regulated forestry. Deforestation increased,biodiversity diminished and wildlife dwindled. India's rural population and impoverishedfamilies continued to ignore the laws passed in Delhi, and use the forests near them forsustenance.India launched its National Forest Policy in 1988. This led to a program named Joint ForestManagement, which proposed that specific villages in association with the forest departmentwill manage specific forest blocks. In particular, the protection of the forests would be theresponsibility of the people. By 1992, seventeen states of India participated in Joint ForestManagement, bringing about 2 million hectares of forests under protection. The effect of thisinitiative has been claimed to be positive.Recent developments in Indian forestryOver the last 20 years, India has reversed the deforestation trend. Specialists of the UnitedNations report India's forest as well as woodland cover has increased. A 2010 study by the Foodand Agriculture Organization ranks India amongst the 10 countries with the largest forest areacoverage in the world (the other nine being Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, United States ofAmerica, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Australia, Indonesia and Sudan). India is alsoone the top 10 countries with the largest primary forest coverage in the world, according to this

study.From 1990 to 2000, FAO finds India was the fifth largest gainer in forest coverage in the world;while from 2000 to 2010, FAO considers India as the third largest gainer in forest coverage.Some 500,000 square kilometres, about 17 percent of India's land area, were regarded as ForestArea in the early 1990s. In FY 1987, however, actual forest cover was 640,000 squarekilometres. Some claim, that because more than 50 percent of this land was barren or bushland,the area under productive forest was actually less than 350,000 square kilometres, orapproximately 10 percent of the country's land area.India's 0.6 percent average annual rate of deforestation for agricultural and non-lumbering landuses in the decade beginning in 1981 was one of the lowest in the world and on a par withBrazil.

Distribution of forests in IndiaIndia is a large and diverse country. Its land area includes regions with some of the world'shighest rainfall to very dry deserts, coast line to alpine regions, river deltas to tropical islands.The variety and distribution of forest vegetation is large: there are 600 species ofhardwoods,including sal (Shorea robusta). India is one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world.Indian forests types include tropical evergreens, tropical deciduous, swamps, mangroves, sub-tropical, montane, scrub, sub-alpine and alpine forests. These forests support a variety ofecosystems with diverse flora and fauna.[edit]Forest cover measurement methodsPrior to 1980s, India deployed a bureaucratic method to estimate forest coverage. A land wasnotified as covered under Indian Forest Act, and then officials deemed this land area asrecordedforest even if it was devoid of vegetation. By this forest-in-name-only method, the total amountof recorded forest, per official Indian records, was 71.8 million hectares.[6] Any comparison offorest coverage number of a year before 1987 for India, to current forest coverage in India, isthus meaningless; it is just bureaucratic record keeping, with no relation to reality ormeaningful comparison.In the 1980s, space satellites were deployed for remote sensing of real forest cover. Standardswere introduced to classify India's forests into the following categories: Forest Cover: defined as all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopydensity of more than 10 percent. (Such lands may or may not be statutorily notified as forestarea). Very Dense Forest: All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 70 percent andabove Moderately Dense Forest: All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 40-70percent

Open Forest: All lands, with forest cover with canopy density of 10 to 40 percent Mangrove Cover: Mangrove forest is salt tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly intropical and sub-tropical coastal and/or inter-tidal regions. Mangrove cover is the area covered


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under mangrove vegetation as interpreted digitally from remote sensing data. It is a part offorest cover and also classified into three classes viz. very dense, moderately dense and open. Non Forest Land: defined as lands without any forest cover Scrub Cover: All lands, generally in and around forest areas, having bushes and or poortree growth, chiefly small or stunted trees with canopy density less than 10 percent Tree Cover: Land with tree patches (blocks and linear) outside the recorded forest areaexclusive of forest cover and less than the minimum mapable area of 1 hectare Trees Outside Forests: Trees growing outside Recorded Forest AreasThe first satellite recorded forest coverage data for India became available in 1987. India andthe United States cooperated in 2001, using Landsat MSS with spatial resolution of 80 meters, toget accurate forest distribution data. India thereafter switched to digital image and advancedsatellites with 23 meters resolution and software processing of images to get more refined dataon forest quantity and forest quality. India now assesses its forest distribution data biennially.The 2007 forest census data thus obtained and published by the Government of India suggeststhe five states with largest area under forest cover as the following: Madhya Pradesh: 7.64 million hectares Arunachal Pradesh: 6.8 million hectares Chhattisgarh: 5.6 million hectares

Orissa: 4.83 million hectares Maharashtra: 4.68 million hectaresIn the 1970s, India declared its long-term strategy for forestry development to compose of threemajor objectives: to reduce soil erosion and flooding; to supply the growing needs of thedomestic wood products industries; and to supply the needs of the rural populationforfuelwood, fodder, small timber, and miscellaneous forest produce. To achieve theseobjectives, the National Commission on Agriculture in 1976 recommended the reorganization ofstate forestry departments and advocated the concept of social forestry. The commission itselfworked on the first two objectives, emphasizing traditional forestry and wildlife activities; inpursuit of the third objective, the commission recommended the establishment of a new kind ofunit to develop community forests. Following the leads of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, a numberof other states also established community-based forestry agencies that emphasized programson farm forestry, timber management, extension forestry, reforestation of degraded forests, anduse of forests for recreational purposes.In the 1980s, such socially responsible forestry was encouraged by state community forestryagencies. They emphasized such projects as planting wood lots on denuded communal cattle-grazing grounds to make villages self-sufficient in fuelwood, to supply timber needed for theconstruction of village houses, and to provide the wood needed for the repair of farmimplements. Both individual farmers and tribal communities were also encouraged to growtrees for profit. For example, in Gujarat, one of the more aggressive states in developingprograms of socioeconomic importance, the forestry department distributed 200 million treeseedlings in 1983. The fast-growing eucalyptus is the main species being planted nationwide,followed by pine and poplar.In 2002, India set up a National Forest Commission to review and assess India's policy and law,its effect on India's forests, its impact of local forest communities, and to makerecommendations to achieve sustainable forest and ecological security in India. The reportmade over 300 recommendations including the following: India must pursue rural development and animal husbandry policies to address localcommunities need to find affordable cattle fodder and grazing. To avoid destruction of localforest cover, fodder must reach these communities on reliable roads and other infrastructure, inall seasons year round. The Forest Rights Bill is likely to be harmful to forest conservation and ecologicalsecurity. The Forest Rights Bill became a law since 2007. The government should work closely with mining companies. Revenue generated fromlease of mines must be pooled into a dedicated fund to conserve and improve the quality offorests in the region where the mines are located. Power to declare ecologically sensitive areas must be with each Indian state.

The mandate of State Forest Corporations and government owned monopolies must bechanged.


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Government should reform regulations and laws that ban felling of trees and transit ofwood within India. Sustainable agro-forestry and farm forestry must be encouraged throughfinancial and regulatory reforms, particularly on privately owned lands.India's national forest policy expects to invest US$ 26.7 billion by 2020, to pursue nationwideafforestation coupled with forest conservation, with the goal of increasing India's forest coverfrom 20% to 33%.[8]EconomicsSignificant forest products of India include paper, plywood, sawnwood, timber, poles, pulp andmatchwood, fuelwood, sal seeds, tendu leaves, gums and resins, cane and rattan, bamboo, grassand fodder, drugs, spices and condiments, herbs, cosmetics, tannins and other non-wood forestproducts.India is a significant importer of forest products. Logs account for 67 percent of all wood andwood products imported into India due to local preference for unprocessed wood. Thispreference is explained by the availability of inexpensive labor and the large number ofproductive sawmills. In trade year 2008-2009, India imported logs worth $1.14 billion, anincrease of about 70% in just 4 years.Indian market for unprocessed wood is mostly fulfilled with imports from Malaysia, Myanmar,Cte d'Ivoire, China and New Zealand.

India is growing market for partially finished and ready-to-assemble furniture. China andMalaysia account for 60 percent of this imported furniture market in India followed by Italy,Germany, Singapore, Sri Lanka, the United States, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.The Indian market is accustomed to teak and other hardwoods that are perceived to be moreresistant to termites, decay and are able to withstand the tropical climate. Teak wood istypically seen as a benchmark with respect to grade and prices of other wood species. Majorimported wood species are tropical woods such as mahogany, garjan, marianti, and sapeli.Plantation timber includes teak, eucalyptus, and poplar, as well as spruce, pine, and fir. Indiaimports small quantities of temperate hardwoods such as ash, maple, cherry, oak, walnut, beech,etc. as squared logs or as lumber. India is the world's third largest hardwood log importer.In 2009, India imported 332 million cubic meters of roundwood mostly for fuel woodapplication, 17.3 million cubic meters of sawnwood and wood-based panels, 7.6 million metrictonnes of paper and paperboard and about 4.5 million metric tonnes of wood and fiber pulp.Indian forests are more than trees and an economic resource. They are home to some of earth'sunique flora and fauna.Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world. India's WesternGhats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity hotspots on earth.India is home to 12 percent of world's recorded flora, some 47000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants.[10] Over 59000 species of insects, 2500 species of fishes, 17000 species ofangiosperms live in Indian forests. About 90000 animal species, representing over 7 percent ofearth's recorded faunal species have been found in Indian forests. Over 4000 mammal speciesare found here. India has one of the richest variety of bird species on earth, hosting about 12.5percent of known species of birds. Many of these flora and fauna species are endemic to India.Indian forests and wetlands serve as temporary home to many migrant birds.Trading in exoticbirdsIndia was, until 1991, one of the largest exporters of wild birds to international bird markets.Most of the birds traded were parakeets and munias. Most of these birds were exported tocountries in Europe and the Middle East.In 1991, India passed a law that banned all trade and trapping of indigenous birds in thecountry. The passage of the law stopped the legal exports, but illegal trafficking has continued.In 2001, for example, an attempt to smuggle some 10,000 wild birds was discovered, and thesebirds were confiscated at the Mumbai international airport.According to a WWF-India published report, trapping and trading of some 300 species of birdscontinues in India, representing 25% of known species in the country. Tens of thousands ofbirds are trapped from the forests of India, and traded every month to serve the demand forbird pets. Another market driver for bird trapping and trade is the segment of Indians who oncertain religious occasions, buy birds in captivity and free them as an act of kindness to all living

beings of the world. Trappers and traders know of the need for piety in these people, and ensurea reliable supply of wild birds so that they can satisfy their urge to do good.


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The trappers, a detailed survey and investigation reveals are primarily tribal communities. Thetrappers lead a life of poverty and migrate over time. Their primary motivation was economicsand the need to financially support their families.Trapping and transport of trapped birds from India's forests has high injury and losses, as inother parts of the world. For every bird that reaches the market for a sale, many more die.Abrar Ahmed, the WWF-India and TRAFFIC-India ornithologist, suggests the following aspotentially effective means of stopping the harm caused by illegal trading of wild birds in India: Engage the tribal communities in a constructive way. Instead of criminalizing their skillsat finding, recognizing, attracting and capturing birds, India should offer them employment tore-apply their skills through scientific management, protection and wildlife preservation. Allow captive and humane breeding of certain species of birds, to satisfy the marketdemand for pet birds. Better and continuous enforcement to prevent trapping practices, stop trading and endsmuggling of wild birds of India through neighboring countries that have not banned trading ofwild birds. Education and continued media exposure of the ecological and environmental harmdone by wild bird trade, in order to reduce the demand for trapped wild birds as pets.[The role of forests in the national economy and in ecology was further emphasized in the 1988

National Forest Policy, which focused on ensuring environmental stability, restoring theecological balance, and preserving the remaining forests. Other objectives of the policy weremeeting the need for fuelwood, fodder, and small timber for rural and tribal people whilerecognizing the need to actively involve local people in the management of forest resources.Also in 1988, the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was amended to facilitate stricterconservation measures. A new target was to increase the forest cover to 33 percent of India'sland area from the then-official estimate of 23 percent. In June 1990, the central governmentadopted resolutions that combined forest science with social forestry, that is, taking thesociocultural traditions of the local people into. The cumulative area afforested during the 1951-91 period was nearly 179,000 square kilometres. However, despite large-scale tree plantingprograms, forestry is one arena in which India has actually regressed since independence.Annual fellings at about four times the growth rate are a major cause. Widespread pilfering byvillagers for firewood and fodder also represents a major decrement. In addition, the 1988National Forest Policy noted, the forested area has been shrinking as a result of land cleared forfarming and development programs.Between 1990 and 2010, as evidenced by satellite data, India has reversed the deforestationtrend. FAO reports India's rate of forest addition has increased in recent years, and as of 2010, itis the third fastest in the world in increasing forest cover.The 2009 Indian national forest policy document emphasizes the need to combine India's effortat forest conservation with sustainable forest management. India defines forest management asone where the economic needs of local communities are not ignored, rather forests aresustained while meeting nation's economic needs and local issues through scientific forestry.[8]

Chipko Movement:Chipko movement in India started in 1970s around a dispute on how and who should have aright to harvest forest resources. Although the Chipko movement is now practically non-existentin Uttarakhand, the Indian state of its origin, it remains one of the most frequently deployedexamples of an environmental and a people's movement in developing countries such as India.What caused Chipko is now a subject of debate; some neopopulists theorize Chipko as anenvironmental movement and an attempt to save forests, while others suggest that Chipkomovement had nothing to do with eco-conservation, but was driven primarily to demand equalrights to harvest forests by local communities.According to one set of writers: Since the early 1970s, as they realized that deforestationthreatened not only the ecology but their livelihood in a variety of ways, people have becomemore interested and involved in conservation. The best known popular activist movement is theChipko Movement, in which local women under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt and

Sunderlal Bahuguna, decided to fight the government and the vested interests to save trees. Thewomen of Chamoli District, Uttar Pradesh, declared that they would embrace literally "to stickto" (chipkna in Hindi)--trees if a sporting goods manufacturer attempted to cut down ash trees


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in their district. Since initial activism in 1973, the movement has spread and become anecological movement leading to similar actions in other forest areas. The movement has sloweddown the process of deforestation, exposed vested interests, increased ecological awareness,and demonstrated the viability of people power.[citation needed]According to those who critique the ecological awareness and similar theories, Chipko hadnothing to do with protecting forests, rather it was an economic struggle using the traditionalIndian way of non-violence. These scientists point out that very little is left of the Chipkomovements today in its region of origin save for its memory, even though the quality of forestsand its use remains a critical issue for India. To explain the cause of Chipko movement, they findthat government officials had ignored the subsistence issues of the local communities, whodepended on forests for fuel, fodder, fertilizer and sustenance resources. These researchersclaim that local interviews and fact finding confirms that local communities had filed complaintsrequesting the right to commercially exploit the forests around them. Their requests weredenied, while permits to fell trees and exploit those same forests were granted to government-favored non-resident contractors including a sporting company named Symonds. A protest thatbecame Chipko movement followed. The movement grew and Indian government responded byimposing a 15 year ban on felling all trees above 1000 metres in the region directly as a result ofthe Chipko agitations. This legislation was deeply resented by many communities supporting

Chipko because, the regulation further excluded the local people from the forest around them.Opposition to the legislation resulted in so-called 'Ped Katao Andolan' in the same region, amovement to cut the trees down in order to defy the new legislation. The people behind Chipkomovement felt that the government did not understand or care about their economicsituation.[14]Chipko movement, at the very least, suggests that forests in India are an important and integralresource for communities that live within these forests, or survive near the fringes of theseforests.

Some of the important institutions related to Forest Research

Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Forest Research Institute Kanpur - Uttar Pradesh Forest Department Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur

forest related aspects

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